1.

Introduction
A road is a thoroughfare , route, or way on land between two places , which has been
paved or otherwise improved to allow travel by some conveyance , including a horse, cart, or
motor vehicle . Roads consist of one, or sometimes two, roadways each with one or more
lanes and also any associated sidewalks (British English: pavement) and road verges. Roads
that are available for use by the public may be referred to as public roads or highways

1.1Definition:

The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) defines a road as "a
line of communication (travelled way) using a stabilized base other than rails or air strips
open to public, traffic ,primarily for the use of road motor vehicles running on their own
wheels," which includes "bridges, tunnels ,supporting structures, junctions, crossings,
interchanges, and toll roads, but not cycle paths." In urban areas roads may diverge through a
city or village and be named as streets, serving a dual function as urban space easement and
route.Modern roads are normally smoothed, paved , or otherwise prepared toallow easy travel
.Historically many roads weresimply recognizable routes without any formal construction or
maintenance.

Figure 1: Roads
1.2 Classification of Roads:-

Many types of road exist around the world, all of which are thoroughfares which can be used
by motorized traffic. Roads are not necessarily available for use by the general public without
permission.

 Classification On Basis Of Road Function :

1) Urban road
2) Non urban (Rural)

 Classification On Basis Of Road Development Plan :

1) Primary system
 Express way
 National highway(NH)
2) Secondary system
 State highway(SH)
 Major district road(MDR)
3) Tertiary or Rural roads
 Other district road(ODR)
 Village road

1.3Road Classification in India:-

Non-Urban Roads: - Roads those are located in non urban areas one connects cities and town
access the country.

i. Expressways
ii. National highway(NH)
iii. State highway(SH)
iv. Major district roads(MDR)
v. Other district roads(ODR)
vi. Village road(VR)

1) Urban Roads: - Roads those are located in the cities, towns etc.
 i. Expressways
ii. Arterial roads
iii. Sub-arterial roads
iv. Collector roads
v. Access or local roads

1.3.1Non-urban Roads:-

Non-urban roads in the country are classified into six categories:

1) Expressways:-The function of expressways is to cater for movement of heavy

volumes of motor traffic at high speeds. They connect major points of traffic
generation and are intended to serve trips of medium and long length between large
residential areas, industrial or commercial concentrations and the central business
district. They are divided highways with high standards of geometrics and full or
partial control of access and provided generally with grade separation at intersections.
Parking, loading and unloading of goods and passengers and pedestrian traffic are not
permitted on these highways.
2) National Highways:-These are main highways running through the length and
breadthof the country connection major ports, highways of neighbouring
countries, Statecapitals, large industrial and tourist centres etc.
3) State Highways:-These are main arterial routes of a state linking district
headquartersand important cities within the state and connecting them with
National Highways ofthe neighbouring states.
4) Major District Roads:-These are important roads within a district serving areas of
production and markets, and connecting these with each other or with the main
highways.
5) Other District Roads:-These are roads serving rural areas of production and
providingthem with outlet to market centres, taluka/tehsil headquarters, block
developmentheadquarters or other main roads.
6) Village Roads:-These are roads connecting villages or group of villages with each
other and to the nearest road of a higher category.

1.3.2 Urban Roads :-

Urban roads are classified into the following five categories:

1) Expressways:-The function of expressways is the same whether the traverse through

urban areas or non-urban areas.
2) Arterial Streets:-This system of streets, along with expressways where they
exist,serves as the principal network for through traffic flows. Significant intra-urban
travel, such as, between central business district and outlying residential areas or
between major suburban 'centres takes place on this system. These streets
maygenerally be spaced at less than 1.5 km in highly developed central business areas
andat 8 km or more in sparsely developed urban fringes. The arterial streets are
generallydivided highways with full or partial access. Parking, loading and unloading
activitiesare usually restricted and regulated.
3) Sub-arterial Streets:-These are functionally similar to arterial streets but
withsomewhat lower level of travel mobility. Their spacing may vary from about 0.5
kmin the central business district to 3 - 5 km in the sub-urban fringes.
4) Collector Streets:- The function of collector streets is to collect traffic from
localstreets and feed it to the arterial and sub-arterial streets or vice versa. These may
belocated in residential neighbourhoods, business areas and industrial areas.
Normally,full access is allowed on these streets from abutting properties. There are
few parkingrestrictions except during the peak hours.
5) Local Streets:These are intended primarily to provide access to abutting properly
andnormally do not carry large volumes of traffic. Majority of trips in urban
areasoriginate from or terminate on these streets. Local streets may be
residential,commercial or industrial, depending on the predominant use of the
adjoining land.They allow unrestricted parking and pedestrian movements

Table No. 1. Terrain Classification

S.No. Terrain Classification Percent cross slope of the

Country

1 Plain 0-10
2 Rolling >10-25

3 Mountainous >25-60

4 Steep >60
 2. Road Consruction
The construction broadly encompasses the issues relevant to the process of road construction
and maintenance, including the design, contracting, implementation, supervision, and
maintenance of roads and related structures, such as bridges and interchanges. For purposes
of the knowledge base presented here, the topic covered includes public works, private
contracting of civil works, and labor-based construction techniques. With respect to the
process of maintenance, this includes road maintenance in general, as well as the private
contracting of maintenance activities. In addition, issues related to the area of construction
and the environment are also included, such as construction and maintenance environmental
impacts and mitigation, and construction site safety.

Figure 2 : road construction

2.1 Types Of Road Constructio (Highway Construction) :

1) Earth road and gravel roads

 2) Soil stabilization roads
3) Water bound macadam road(WBM)
4) Bituminous or black-top road
5) Cement concrete road

2.1.1Earth Road And Gravel Road:-

An earth road is cheapest type of road prepared from natural soil. The pavement section is
totally made out of the soil available at site and at near-by borrow pits. The camber is
provided to the earth roads is very steep range between 1 in 20 to 1 in 33.

Gravel road are consider superior to earth road as they can carry heavier traffic. The road
consist of a carriageway constructed using the gravel. The camber may be between 1 in 25
and 1in 30.

Figure 3 : earth road and gravel road

2.1.2Bituminous Road:

Bituminous roads are common in use in india and abroad. It is possible to construct relatively
thin bituminous road layered over unexisting road. It is well realized that the excessive binder
content over unoptimum value for a given mix is detrinmental to the good performance of the
black top road.In this country ,the bituminous construction by and large adopted on the
surface coarse. Bituminous constructions are also adopted for base and binder courses of
roads on heavy traffic roads.
 figure 4 : bituminous road figure 5 : cement concrete road

2.1.3Cement Concrete Road:-

The cement concrete road maintains a very high recognition among the engineers and the
road users alike. Due to the excellent riding surface and pleasing appearance, the cement
concrete roads are very much Prefer. In considering the drawbacks of the cement concrete
road type, it may be stated that requires a very high initial investment and the method is not
adopted for the stage construction. The maintenance and repair, if any, required in cement
concrete road are mostly associated with joints. The no of joints provided are also kept to a
minimum as the constructions of joints involve substantial extra work. The cement concrete
roads are constructed with or without sub based course. This decision is made upon the soil
type, design load and economic consideration.

2.1.4Soil Stabilization Road:

The soil stabilization means the improvement of stability or bearing power of the soil by use
of controlled compaction; proportioning and or the addition of suitable admixture or
stabilizers. Soil stabilization deals with physical physic-chemical and chemical methods to
make the stabilized soil serve its purpose as pavement component material.

figure 6 : soil stabilization road

 3.Water Bound Macadam Road
3.1Introduction:-

The water bound macadam(WBM) is the construction known after the name of John
Macadam. Macadam-type pavement layers traditionally refer to a layer of almost single-sized
stone (usually 53mm nominal size for recent projects) in which the voids are filled with a dry,
cohesion less fine aggregate filler. With the growing need for superior performance, a variety
of modifications have been introduced, which include filling the voids with bitumen, slurry,
etc. A macadam layer essentially consists of a stone skeleton of which the voids are filled
with another material. The stone skeleton, because of its single size, has large amounts of
voids but has a high shear strength. If confined properly, a crucial requirement for macadam
base courses, the stone skeleton forms the ‘backbone’ of the macadam and is largely
responsible for the strength of the constructed layer. The material used to fill the voids
provides lateral stability to the stone skeleton but adds little bearing capacity. This structure
also gives water bound macadam its good resistance to water as it drains well and the stone
skeleton is less susceptible to the water present in the layer. A water-bound macadam (WM)
refers to a method of construction whereby water is used to force fine material into the voids
during compaction.

figure 7 : water bound macadam road

3.2History Of Wbm:
The origins of macadam-type pavement construction can be traced back to a period between
1750 and 1830 during which two Scottish engineers, ThomasTelford and John Louden
Macadam were active in developing and promoting their respective road-building techniques
in England. Telford used fairly large stones(75 mm long, 125 mm wide and 325 mm high) to
build a foundation layer on a level roadbed. The heights of these large stones decreased from
the centre-line to the edge of the roadway to create a slight camber. Smaller stones were
driven into the open voids on the surface of this layer and any projecting points were broken
off. A 100 – 200 mm thick layer of small broken stone was then placed on top of the
foundation layer. Macadam simply used layers of broken stones, none of whose dimensions
exceeded 25 mm and these layers were placed directly on the roadbed. The broken stone was
angular and consolidated under traffic. Macadam recommended that the road be raised above
the surrounding ground to improve drainage. A layer of small broken stones, spread on the
surface of the road, was used by both road-builders. These stones were broken down further
and compacted by traffic to produce a solid, smooth riding surface. Figure 1 illustrates the
difference between the approaches used by Telford and Macadam. Neither Telford nor
Macadam used any fine filler in the voids of the stone layer and it is not clear when this
practice originated. Macadam construction was boosted by the invention of the stone crusher
and steamroller in the 1860s but, in essence, the process remained labour intensive.

figure 8 : telford and macadam pavement

Increased motorized- vehicle traffic at the turn of the century created dust and surface
disintegration problems because of higher vehicle speeds and increased friction between tyres
and pavement. This led to the development of tar penetration macadam.

3.3 Conventional Types Of Macadam:

1) Dry-bound macadam (DM) :The voids in a layer of almost single-sized stone (usually
53 mm nominal size for recent projects) are filled with a dry, cohesionless fine
aggregate filler. The voids are filled with filler through the use of compaction
equipment only, and no water is used.

figure 9 : dry & water boundmacadam

2) Water-bound macadam (WM):-Two water-bound processes have been identified in

literature. It seems that the term ‘water-bound’ is generally used to describe a dry-
bound macadam which has been ‘slushed’ after all the voids have been filled with
dry filler. The slushing process consists of saturating the macadam layer (coarse and
fine aggregate) by praying it with water, after which a number of passes are made
with a steel drum roller, forcing the excess fines to the surface of the layer, from
which they are then swept away. A completely wet process has been used in
KwaZulu-Natal in cases where the climate did not allow the fine filler to dry out
sufficiently to flow into the voids of the macadam layer (Roux and Otte,
1993;McCall et al, 1990). The fines were spread using achip spreader and washed
into the coarse aggregate layer with water-jets from a spray-bar.
3) Penetration macadam (PM):-Fine aggregate is not used to fill the voids between the
coarse aggregate of a penetration macadam layer. Hot tar is poured over the coarse
aggregate layer and flows into the voids, coating the large aggregate in the
process.The voids are, however, not filled completely by the tar.
 figure 10 : penetration macadam

3.4 New Generation Macadam:

1) Partially penetrated macadam (PPM):A dry- or water-bound macadam layer is

constructed in the usual way but, instead of the excess fines being swept off the
surface of the layer, some of the filler in the open voids at the top of the layer is also
swept away. A very rough surface, with the coarse aggregate projecting from the
layer, is obtained. Slurry is then applied with a slurry-box to fill these open voids on
the surface of the layer. Slurry penetration is normally relatively shallow for this type
of macadam.

figure 11 : partially penetrated macadam

 figure 12 : slurry bound macadam

2) Composite macadam (CM):- Composite macadam consists of a lower portion of dry-

or water-boundmacadam (usually of a nominal 53 mm stone size)and of a top portion
consisting of a slurry-boundmacadam (usually of a nominal 26 or 37 mm stonesize).

figure 13 : composite macadam

4. Sub-Grade Soil
Sub-grade is that portion of the earth roadbed which after having been constructed to
reasonably close conformance with the lines, grades, and cross-sections indicated on the
plans, receives the base or surface material. In a fill section, the sub-grade is the top of the
embankment or the fill. In a cut section the sub-grade is the bottom of the cut. The sub-grade
supports the subbase and/or the pavement section. To ensure a stable, long-lasting, and
maintenance free roadway, the sub-grade is required to be constructed using certain proven
procedures that provide satisfactory results. After the rough grading is completed, the fine
grade stakes are set and the final processing of the sub-grade may begin. The rough grade is
the top grade of the embankment as built using the information provided on the grade sheets.
The grade is normally within 2 in. at this point. The finish grading operation consists of
trimming the excess material down to the final grade. Filling any low spots with thin lifts of
materials tends to slide these lifts around if not properly worked into the underlying
materials.

figure 14 : typical roadway cross sections

4.1 Construction Requirements : -

Soils containing greater than 3 % by dry weight calcium, magnesium carbonate, or organic
material, or with a maximum dry density of less than 100 lb/ft3, or with liquid limit of greater
than 50, are not allowed within the specified thickness of the sub-grade. Density is
determined in accordance with AASHTO T 99 and loss of ignition is determined in
accordance with AASHTO T 267. Liquid limit is determined in accordance with AASHTO T
89.Coal within the specified thickness of the sub-grade is excavated, if directed, and disposed
of in accordance with Section 202.05. Coal or coal blossoms that are allowed to remain are
mixed thoroughly with sub-grade soils and compacted in accordance with Section
207.04.During sub-grade preparation, adequate drainage is required to be provided at all
times to prevent water from standing on the sub-grade.The final goal is to have a sub-grade
that meets the cross section and finish grade requirements as well as satisfying the density
and proof rolling Specification prior to placing the initial sub-base material. Even though the
proof rolling is the last operation to be conducted, most of the potential soft spots are required
to be detected and treated before the final grading is completed.

4.2 Fine Grading :-

Fine grade is required to be provided for the final trimming and checkingof the cross section
and grade. Stakes are usually set at 50 ft intervals neareach edge of the sub-grade with a
grade mark established at some knowndistance above the actual finish sub-grade elevation. A
stringline isstretched across the grade marks on two adjoining stakes and the sub-grade7-3
elevation is checked by measuring down the known offset distance from the stringline to the
dirt grade. The appropriate corrections for a crown in the typical cross section are used in
calculating the correct offset distance. The tolerance for finishing the earth sub-grade is 1/2
in. from the true grade. Any low areas in the grade requiring less than 3 in. additional fill
material are scarified prior to placing the fill material so the thin layer of fill is tied into the
previous layer when compacted. Fine Grading (Figure 7-2) the sub-grade for aggregate or
asphalt base courses is usually conducted with a motor grader and checked with a string line,
but may be conducted with an automatic grading machine controlled from a string line. The
automatic grading machine is required to be used for preparing the sub-grade for concrete
base and pavement. When under drains are specified, special care is required to betaken to
ensure that there is no damage to the drains and that the aggregate backfill does not become
contaminated with soil.
figure 15 : fine grading
 5.Pavement
The pavement carries the wheel load and transfer the load stresses through a wider area on
the soil sub grade below. Thus the stresses transfer to the the sub grade soil through the
pavementlayers are considerably lower than the contact pressure or compressive stresses
under the wheel load on the pavement surface.

 Pavement means surfacing layers only.

 The pavement is the structure which separates the tyres of vehicles from the
underlying foundation material. The layer is generally the soil but it may be structural
concrete or a steel bridge deck.

 Thus ,the pavements are designed to perform for a certain life span before reaching an
unacceptable degree of failure.

5.1Types Of Pavement:

There are two types of pavements:

figure 16 : types of pavements

1) Rigid pavement :-
  The rigid pavements are made of Portland cement concrete either plain,
reinforced, or Pre-stressed.
 The rigid pavement has the slab action and is capable of transmitting the
wheel load stresses through a wider area below.
2) Flexible pavement
 flexible pavement are constructed from bituminous or unbound material
and the stress is transmitted to the sub-grade through the lateral
distribution of the applied load with the depth
 6.MATERIALS
6.1 Aggregate :

Aggregate is the collection of the broken stone of particular size which is used for
construction purpose. Aggregate have to bear stresses occurring due to the wheel loads on the
pavement and on the surface coarse they also have to resist wear due to the action of traffic.

6.1.1Types of Aggregate:-
1. Fine aggregate
2. Course aggregate
Mainly coarse aggregate are used in WBM road construction. The course aggregate should be
generally hard, durable , and free from flaky & elongated particles.

Table : 2 property of layers

Property Requirement for pavement layer
Sub-base Base coarse Surfacing coarce
• los angle abrasion value 60 50 40
• aggregate impact value 50 40 30
• flakiness index - 15 15

figure 17 : aggregate

6.1.2Size And Grading Of Coarse Aggregate:-

For the construction of the WBM roads aggregates are used in the sub-base, base and surface
course and so the aggregates are divided into 3 grades according to their size.
Grade 1 - particles of size 90 mm to 40 mm.
Grade 2 - particles of size 63 to 40 mm.
Grade 3 - particles of size 50 to 20 mm.

TABLE:3Particle Size and Grading

Grading No Size Range(Mm) Sieve Size(Mm) % Passing The Sieve by Weight
100 100
80 65-85
90-40
1 63 25-60
40 0-15
20 0-5
80 100
63 90-100
63-40
2 50 30-70
40 0-15
20 0-5
63 100
50 95-100
50-20
3 40 35-70
20 0-10
10 0-5

6.2 Moorum:

The material (moorum) used for filling shall be free from boulders, lumps, tree roots, rubbish
or any organic deleterious matter.
 figure 18 : moorum

Moorum having standard proctor laboratory maximum dry density less than 1.8 gm/cc shall
not be used. The moorum shall have a Plasticity Index of 5-24(medium Plastic) and not more
than 20% Fines i.e., Clay. Care shall be taken to see that unsuitable waste material is disposed
off in such a manner that there is no likelihood of its getting mixed with the materials
proposed to be used for filling. The work shall be so planed and executed such that the best
available material is reserved for the top portion of embankment.
 7.Common Test On Materials
A large number of tests are required to be conducted on materials incorporated and work
performed in a highway project. Outlines of some of the commonly used tests are given in the
following paragraphs. It should, however be understood that these outlines are intended to
draw the attention of the site engineers and not to serve as the procedure for such tests. For
detailed procedure of the individual tests, reference may be made to the relevant standards of
B.I.S. or other authorities as applicable.

7.1Determination of Moisture Content of Soils (IS: 2720 Pt. II) :

1) Where facilities are available, the method consists of drying a sample of the soil in the
oven at 1050 C-1100 C for a period (normally, not more than 24 hours) till the dry
weight of the soil becomes constant.
2) In the field, the alcohol method though less accurate, can be used as a quick test. It
consists of taking the soil specimen in a evaporating dish, pouring over it methylated
spirit at the rate of' about one millilitre for each gram of soil, mixing the two materials
and igniting the spirit. After burning away of the spirit, the dish is cooled and
weighed.

7.2Liquid Limit and Plastic Limit (IS: 2720 Pt. V) :

1) The liquid limit test is conducted on the standard instrument with soil specimens at
various moisture contents. The liquid limit is taken as that moisture content where the
standard groove will close under an impact of 25 blows.
2) The plastic limit is the water content at which the soil will begin to crumble when
rolled into a thread of 3 mm in diameter. The plasticity index is taken as the
difference between liquid limit and plastic limit.
7.3 Moisture-Density Relationship (IS: 2720, parts VII & VIII) :
1) Two degrees of compaction, light compaction (IS: 2720, part VII) and heavy
compaction (IS: 2720, VIII) are usually specified. The former compaction also goes
by the term Proctor compaction and latter by the term modified Proctor.
2) In light compaction, the wet soil is compacted in three equal layers by the rammer
of weight 2.6 kg and free fall 31 cm with 25 evenly distributed blows on each layer.
 In heavy compaction, rammer weights 4.89 kg and the free fall is 45 cm.
Compaction is done in 5 equal layers, each being given 25 blows.
3) The procedure is to compact the soil with different moisture contents and drawing a
moisture density curve to find out the maximum dry density and the corresponding
moisture content (CMC).

7.4Flakiness and Elongation Indices (IS: 2386, part I):

1) The flakiness of an aggregate is defined as percentage by weight of particles in

itwhose least dimension (thickness) is less than three-fifths of their mean
dimension.The elongation index of an aggregate is defined as the percentage by
weight of particles whose greatest dimension (length) is greater than one and four-
fifths timestheir mean dimension. The flakiness index is first determined and the
elongationindex is then carried out on the remaining non-flaky stone particles.
2) The representative sample of aggregates to be tested is washed dried and weighed
inaccordance with the prescribed method. Each particle is gauged in turn for
thicknesson a metal gauge of specified pattern. The cumulative total of particles
passingthrough slots width-wise for each fraction is determined and flakiness
indexcalculated as sum total expressed as percentage of total weight. The remaining
nonflakystone aggregates are then checked length-wise and elongated particles
separated.
3) The elongation index is the sum total weight of particles retained on slots length-
wisein each fraction divided by the total weight of non-flaky stone aggregates.
Aggregate Impact Value (IS: 2386, part IV) :
The apparatus consists of a metal base and a cylindrical steel cup of internal dia.
10.2cm and depth 5 cm in which the aggregate specimen is placed. Metal
hammer 13.5 –14 kg weight having a free fall from a height of 38 cm is
arranged to drop throughvertical Aggregate sample passing 12.5 mm sieve and retained
on 10 mmsieve is filled in the steel up in three layers by tamping each layer with 25
blows.After subjecting the test specimen to 15 blows, the crushed aggregate is
sievedthrough 2.36 mm sieve.
8. General Guideline For Water Bound Macadam
1) Thickness of a compacted layer should be 100 mm for 90-45 mm, size aggregates
and75 mm for 63-45 mm or 53-22.4 mm size aggregates.
2) Screenings should generally be of the same material as coarse aggregate. However,
ifthe use of screenings is not feasible, some other non-plastic material, such as,
moorumor gravel (other than rounded river borne material) having liquid limit and
plasticityindex below 20 and 6 respectively may be used provided fraction passing 75
micronsieve does not exceed 10 per cent.
3) Binding maternal need not be used if the layer is to serve as base (or is to receiveblack
topping), or where crushable type of screenings, like, moorum is used.
4) It is a good practice to lay a sub-base of granular/stabilised material before
layingWBM. This is particularly important where the sub grade is of clayey type.
5) Where the WBM is to be laid directly over sub grade, a 25 mm thick layer of
stonescreenings (Grading B) - "inverted choke" - should be spread on the prepared
subgrade before the application of aggregate is taken up. In case of fine sand or silty
orclayey sub grade it is advisable to lay 100 mm thick insulating layer of screening
orcoarse sand on the top of fine grained soil. A preferred alternative to inverted choke
isthe use of appropriate geosynthetics mesh.
6) Arrangements for water, rollers in working order and templates/ other tools
andequipment for checking the quality of the materials and work must be available at
sitebefore the work of laying is started.
7) The quantities of coarse aggregates and screenings will vary, depending on the
actualgrading.
8) Arrangements for lateral confinement of aggregates must be provided. This
canconveniently be done by raising the shoulders in stages equal in thickness to
eachlayer of WBM.
9) The coarse aggregate should be spread uniformly and evenly on the prepared
subgrade/sub-base by using templates placed across the road about 6 m apart.
Thethickness of each compacted layer should not be more than 100 mm in grading 1
and75 mm for grading 2 and 3. Wherever possible, mechanical devices should be
used tospread the aggregates uniformly so as to minimise the need for manual
rectificationafterwards.
10) The spreading should be done from stockpiles or directly from vehicles.
Nosegregation of large or fine aggregates should be allowed.
11) The surface should be checked frequently while spreading and rolling so as to
ensurethe specified regularity of slopes and camber.
12) The coarse aggregate should not normally be spread more than three days in
advanceof the subsequent construction operations. Three wheeled power rollers at 80
to 100kN or tandem or vibratory rollers at 80 to 100 kN static weight should be used
forrolling. Except on supper elevated portions, where the rolling should proceed
frominner edge to outer edge, rolling should begin from the edge gradually
progressingtowards centre. Successive passes should uniformly overlap the
proceeding by at leastone half widths.
13) In case screening are to be applied, rolling should be discontinued when the
aggregateare partially compacted with sufficient void space to permit application of
screening.During rolling slight sprinkling of water may be allowed. Complete rolling
isindicated by a loose stone piece getting crushed under the roller without sinking.
14) After the coarse aggregate has been rolled, screening to completely fill the
intersticesshould be applied gradually over the surface. Screening should not be damp
or wet atthe time of application. These should not be dumped in piles but applied at a
uniformrate, in three or more applications, so as ensure filling of all voids. Dry rolling
shouldbe done while the screenings are being spread so that vibrations of the roller
causescreenings to settle into the voids of coarse aggregate. Dry rolling
shouldaccompanied by brooming. These operations should continue until no
morescreenings can be forced into the voids of coarse aggregate.
15) Spreading, rolling and brooming of screens shall be carried out in only such
lengthswhich are likely to be completed within one day's operation.
16) After screenings have been applied, the surface should be copiously sprinkled
withwater, swept with hand brooms and rolled. This operation should be continued
withadditional screenings, applied as necessary, until the coarse aggregates has
beenthoroughly keyed, well broomed, firmly set in its full depth and a grout has
beenformed of screenings.
17) The base or sub grade should not get damaged due to use of excessive quantities
ofwater. In case lime treated soil sub-base, construction of water bound
macadamshould be taken up only after sub-base has picked up enough strength.
18) Apply binding material, wherever required, in a similar fashion as screening.Continue
rolling till full compaction is achieved.
19) After the final compaction of WBM course, the pavement should be allowed to
dryovernight. Next morning hungry spots should be filled with screenings or
bindingmaterial, lightly sprinkled with water, if necessary and rolled.
20) No traffic should be allowed on the road until the macadam has set. The
compactedWBM Course should be allowed completely dry and set before the next
pavementcourse is laid over.
21) WBM work should not be carried out when the atmospheric temperature is less than
0• C in the shade.
22) Apply binding material, wherever required, in a similar fashion as screening.Continue
rolling till full compaction is achieved.
23) After the final compaction of WBM course, the pavement should be allowed to
dryovernight. Next morning hungry spots should be filled with screenings or
bindingmaterial, lightly sprinkled with water, if necessary and rolled.
24) No traffic should be allowed on the road until the macadam has set. The
compactedWBM Course should be allowed completely dry and set before the next
pavementcourse is laid over.
25) WBM work should not be carried out when the atmospheric temperature is less
than00C in the shade.
26) After application of cut-back, the surface should be allowed to cure for at least
24hours.
 9. Wbm Road Construction Procedure
9.1 Site Clearance And Exavation:-

The very first step is site clearance which involves removal grass and
vegetation along with any other objections which might be location

 excavation is carried out provided adequate side slope and dressing of

excavation bottom

 The filling is done in layer not exceeding 20cm layer and than compacted

 To layout the propose structure according to prepare plan

 To mark the controlling point of the structure in the manner that is most
useful to construction force.

Figure 19 : site clearance

9.2 Earth Work In Filling :-

Only material considered suitable by the Engineer-In-Charge shall be employed for the
construction and that considered unsuitable shall be disposed off as directed by Engineer-In-
Charge at his own cost and no claim for compensation will be entertained. The contractor
shall give the samples of earth, he proposes to use for filling along with the following
characteristics of the sample to Engineer-In-Charge prior to collection and use, for approval

i. Mechanical analysis or gain size analysis as per IS: 2720 Part IV.

ii. Liquid limit as per IS: 2720 Part V.

iii. Plastic Limit as per IS: 2720 Part V.

iv. Moisture density relationship as per IS: 2720 Part VIII.

The material (moorum) used for filling shall be free from boulders, lumps, tree roots,
rubbish or any organic deleterious matter. Moorum having standard proctor laboratory
maximum dry density less than 1.8 gm/cc shall not be used. The moorum shall have a
Plasticity Index of 5-24(medium Plastic) and not more than 20% Fines i.e., Clay. Care shall
be taken to see that unsuitable waste material is disposed off in such a manner that there is no
likelihood of its getting mixed with the materials proposed to be used for filling. The work
shall be so planed and executed such that the best available material is reserved for the top
portion of embankment.

1) The area where filling is to be placed must be cleared of all loose material and virgin
soil must be exposed. Such exposed surface must be consolidated properly to obtain
90% of maximum laboratory dry density of the soil. All soft patches must be worked
out to remove the soft soil and selected approved earth must be filled back and
compacted.

2) Payment for the removal of loose top soil as described in clause 3.2.1 above shall be
included in the item for earth work in filling. No separate payment for consolidation
of exposed ground surface will be made. The rate quoted for the earth fill shall be
inclusive of the cost of clearing and stripping, consolidation including watering,
testing etc. of the exposed ground.

3) Approved fill material (moorum) shall be spread in uniform layers not exceeding 20
cms in loose depth for embankment filling. Shoulder construction shall be so
 organized as to keeppace with the construction of different layers of the pavement,
which may require fill thickness less than 20cm. All clods, lumps etc. shall be broken
before compaction.

4) In general the moorum shall be spread uniformly over the entire width of
embankment or shoulders as the case may be. For large embankments, the spreading
of soil shall be as directed by the Engineer-In-Charge.

5) Successive layers of filling shall not be placed until the layer under construction has
been thoroughly compacted to satisfy the requirements laid down in this specification.

6) Prior to rolling, the moisture content of material shall be brought to within plus or
minus 2% of the optimum content as described in IS: 2720 –Part-VIII. The moisture
content shall preferably be on the wet side for potentially expensive soils.

7) After adjusting the moisture content as described in Clause 3.2.6, the layers shall be
thoroughly compacted by means of rollers till 95% of modified proctor density is
obtained as per IS:2720 Part VIII.

8) Each layer shall be tested in field for density and accepted by Engineer-In-Charge
subjected to achieving the required density before laying the next layer. A minimum
of one test as per 500 M 2 areas for each layer shall be conducted.

9) All type of rollers that should be employed for compaction shall be as per direction of
Engineer-In-Charge.

10) If the layer fails to meet the required density, it shall be reworked to the material shall
be replaced and method of construction altered as directed by Engineer-In-Charge to
obtain the required density.

11) The filling shall be finished in conformity with alignment, levels, cross-section and
dimensions as shown in the drawings.

12) Extra material shall be removed and disposed off as by Engineer-In-Charge.

13) Tolerance Embankment and shoulders for roads, units etc. shall be carried to within a
tolerance of cm. from final lines but shall be to required roads and slopes.
 14) Payment for filling shall be made on cubic meter of volume calculated on the basis of
cross-section plotted from the level of the ground surface prepared as described inn
clause 3.2 above and from where filling is to be carried out and the levels reached
after filling and due consolidation.

15) Rates of embankment shoulder or fill formation shall include cost of breaking clods,
watering, consolidation, providing testing apparatus and testing the degree of
consolidation, providing and operating, including POL and operator charges of
necessary road rollers and other equipment, dressing and leveling of sides and top
surfaces etc.

9.2 Filling With Moorum:-

1) Sand for filling shall preferably the locally available sand, clean and free from any
chemical or other impurities. Moorum for filling shall be clean and well graded.
Sand/Moorum shall not contain any vegetation, organic, clayey or other material and
shall be obtained from a source approved by Engineer-In-Charge.

2) Moorum/Sand shall be spread in layers not exceeding 20 cm in loose thickness over

the areas. Each layer shall be uniform in density, quality of material and moisture
content as per IS: 2720 Part VIII.

3) Compaction of each layer shall be by mechanical means as per directions of Engineer-

IN-Charge. Only in accessible reaches shall be worked manually. Each layer shall be
uniformly.

4) compacted obtain 95% of modified proctor density of the material. If the material fails
to achieve the required density, the layer shall be reworked with necessary alteration
in compaction, so that the required compaction is obtained. A minimum of one test as
per 500 M 2 areas for each layer shall be conducted.

5) The finished surfaces must be dressed to required grade and slope. Excess material
must be removed from compaction site, as directed by Engineer-In-Charge. 4.6
Payment Payment for moorum filling shall he made on the basis of volume of fill,
after placement and compaction. The rate quoted shall include cost of moorum,
 royalties, transportation, handling, compacting, watering, testing at various stages,
dressing removal of surplus material and any other incidental to this.

9.3 Prepration of Sub Base/Base Course:-

The sub-base course shall consist of one or more layers, each or 100 mm compacted
thickness. The base course shall consist of one or more layers, each of 75 mm compacted
thickness.

9.3.1Stone Aggregate for WBM:

The coarse aggregate shall be hard, crushed or broken stone metal from quarries approved by
Engineer-In-Charge, it shall be hard durable and free from flat elongated, Soft and
disintegrated particles. It shall not have excess of dirt and other objectionable matter. The
quality, size, and grading of the coarse aggregate shall be conforming to IRC 19: STD Spec
and code of practice for WBM.

figure : 20 coarse aggreagte

Table: 4 Grading Of The Coarse Aggregate For Sub-Base Coarse

 Size Range Sieve Designation(IS: 460) % by weight Passing
the sieve

125 MM 100

90MM 90-100

90mm to 45mm Grade- 63MM 25-60

1
45MM 0-15

22.4MM 0-5

Table: 5 Grading Of The Coarse Aggregate For Base Coarse

Size Range Sieve Designation(IS: 460) % by weight Passing

the sieve

90 MM 100

63MM 90-100

63mm to 45mm Grade- 53MM 25-75

1
45MM 0-15

22.4MM 0-5

9.3.2Spreading Coarse Aggregates:-

1) The sub grade or sub-base to receive WBM coarse shall be prepared to the required
grade and camber. Before starting with WBM construction, side shoulders shall be
 constructed in advance to a thickness corresponding to the compacted layer of the
WBM coarse for lateral confinement of aggregate. After shoulders are ready, their
inside edge shall be trimmed vertical to receive the aggregate. The practice of
constructing WBM in a trench section excavated on the embankment/formation must
be avoided.

2) The coarse aggregate shall be spread uniformly and evenly on the prepared base in
required quantities from the stacks. The aggregate shall be spread to proper profiles
by using templates across the road about 6m apart.

3) The surface of the aggregate spread shall be carefully, trued up and all high or low
sports remedied by removing or adding aggregate as may be required. The surface
shall be checked from time to time, during the spreading and rolling of the coarse
aggregate to ensure a finished surface without variation greater than 12 mm, when a 3
meter long straight edge is laid parallel to centre line of the road.

4) The WBM layer shall be tested by depth blocks. No segregation on large or fine
particle shall be allowed and the coarse aggregate as spread shall be of uniform
gradation with no pocket of fine materials.

5) The coarse aggregate shall not be spread in lengths more than 3 days average work in
advance of the rolling, spreading moorum and bonding o f the preceding section.

9.4Rolling:-

1) Immediately following the spreading of the coarse aggregate, it shall be compacted to

full width by rolling with either three wheeled power roller of 8 to 10 tone weight or
equivalent vibratory roller true to the line and camber as shown inn the drawing. The
course shall not be rolled when the sub-grade is soft or yielding or the rolling causes a
wave like motion in the base course or sub-grade. When rolling develops irregularities
that exceed 12mm when tested with a 3 meter straight edge, the irregular, surface
shall be loosened and then aggregate added to or remove from it as required and the
area rolled until it gives uniform surface conforming to the desired cross-section and
grade. The surface shall also be checked transversely by template and any regulates
corrected as above. The use of moorum to make up depression shall not be permitted.
 2) The rolling shall begin from edges with roller running forward and backward until the
edges have been firmly compacted. The rolling shall then progress gradually from
edges to the centre parallel to the centre line of the road lapping uniformly each
proceeding rear wheel track by one half widths and shall continue until the entire area
of the course has been rolled by the rear wheel. On the super elevated portion of road,
the rolling shall commence from the lower edge and progress gradually towards the
upper edge of the road.

3) Rolling shall be discontinued when aggregate are thoroughly keyed and creating of
stone wheel of roller is no longer visible partially compacted with sufficient void
space in them to permit application of screenings. Slight sprinkling of water may be
done if required.

figure 21 : roller

9.5 Screening :-

Screening to fill the voids in the coarse aggregate shall, as far as possible be the same
material as the coarse aggregate. Where it is decided by the Engineer-In-Charge to use other
materials, the same shall be predominantly non plastic materials such as Kankar nodules,
gravel (other than river born rounded aggregate) or moorum, provided that the liquid limit
and plasticity index of such material is below 20 and 6 respectively, and the fraction passing
75 micron siever does not exceed 10 percent.

figure 22 : screning material

Application of Screenings:-

a) After the coarse aggregate has been rolled as described in Clause 5.3, screenings shall
be applied uniformly and gradually over the surface to completely fill the interstices.
Dry rolling shall be continued while the screenings are being spread so that the jarring
effect of the roll will cause them to settle into the voids of the coarse aggregates.

b) The screening shall not be dumped in piles on coarse aggregate but shall be spread
uniformly in successive thin layers either by the spreading motion of hand shovels or
by mechanic spreaders.

c) The screenings shall be applied at a uniform and slow rate (in three or more
applications so as to ensure filling of all voids. Rolling and brooming shall continue
with the spreading of the screenings. Either mechanical brooms or both may be used.
In no case shall the screenings be applied so fast and thick as to form cakes or ridges
on the surface making the filling of voids difficult or preventing the direct bearings of
the roller on the coarse aggregates. The spreading, rolling and brooming of screenings
 shall be performed on sections which can be completed within one day’s operation
and shall continue until no more screening can be forced into the voids of the coarse
aggregates. Damp and wet screening shall not be used under any circumstances.

d) The quantity of screenings used shall be such as to fill all voids in the water bound
macadam courses.

9.6Sprinkling and Grouting:-

After spreading the screenings, the surface shall be copiously sprinkled with water, swept and
rolled. Hand brooms shall be used to sweep the wet screening into voids and to distribute
them evenly. The sprinkling, sweeping and rolling shall be continued and additional
screenings applied where necessary until the coarse aggregate are well compacted and grout
of screenings and water form a wave ahead of wheels of the roller. Care shall be taken to see
that the base of sub-grade does not get damaged due to the addition of the excessive quantity
of water during the construction.

9.7Binding Material:

 Binding material to prevent reveling of WBM shall consist of fine grained

material possessing P.I. Value upto 6.

 Application of binding material shall not be necessary where moorum or gravel is

used as screenings.

 Binding material shall be obtained from quarries/sources approved by the

Engineer-Ion-Charge.

Application of Binding Material : After the application of screenings as described above the
binding material shall be applied at a uniform and slow rate (in two or more successive thin
layers) so as to ensure filling of all voids.After each application of binding material, the
surface shall be copiously sprinkled with water and the resulting slurry swept in with hand
brooms/mechanical brooms or both so as to fill the voids properly. This shall be followed by
rolling with 1 6-10 tonne roller during which water shall be applied to the wheels to wash
down the binding material that may get stuck to them. The spreading, rolling and brooming
of binding material shall be performed on section which can be completed within one day’s
operation and shall continue until no more binding material can be forced into the voids of
the coarse aggregates until the slurry of binding material and water forms a wave ahead of the
wheels of moving roller. Damp and wet binding material shall not be used under any
circumstances. The quantity of binding used shall be such as to fill all voids in the water
bound macadam.

9.7 Setting And Drying:-

After final compaction, the WBM course is allowed to set over-night. On the next day the
‘hungry’spots are located and are filled with screening or binding material, lightly spring with
water if necessary and rolled. No traffic is allowed till the WBM layer set and dries out. In
the case of WBM base course the layer is allowed to dry completely without permitting
traffic to ply and then the bituminous surfacing is laid.

figure 23 : setting and drying

 10. Main difference between WBM&WMM
WBM (Water Bound Macadam) and WMM (Wet Mix Macadam) are used for Road
construction in Base course layer. WMM is a new technology. difference between
WBM and WMM can be summarized as below.

 Stone aggregate used in WBM is larger in size compared to WMM. In case of WBM its
size varies between 45 mm to 90 mm depending upon the grade while in case of WMM
aggregate size varies between 4.75 mm to 20 mm.

 In case of WBM stone aggregate, screening material and binders are overlaid one after
another respectively at the time of construction. But in case of WMM, aggregate and
binding materials are premixed in a batching plant or concrete mixing machine and then
brought to site for overlaying and rolling.

 Materials used in WBM are stone aggregate, screening material (Kankar or murrum or
smaller stone aggregate for filling up the voids) and/or binding material (stone dust or
Quary dust of PI not less than 6). materials used in WMM are Stone aggregate and binders
(Stone dust or Quary dust of PI not less than 6).

 Quantity of WBM is generally measured in Cubic Meter while quantity of WMM is

measured in Square Meter.

11.Conclusion
Technical education means the education regarding the techniques are nothing but the
practical approach of doing something. So, in the curriculum of technical studies it becomes
necessary to have the practical knowledge along with the theoretical one.

In case of civil engineering where almost whole of the work is carried out by the persons who
generally don’t have the theoretical knowledge as labor, it becomes more important to be
practical rather than being purely theoretical as in future we are to deal with these very
persons, for this the practical training provides a platform to develop the skills to
communicate with these people.

The theory is not just applied in the field in the same way as it appears in the book but it is
applied in the most optimum but the feasible way. So, the training also enables us to get the
practical problems which generally occur in the field and are to be dealt by the engineering
decisions.

So, in a nut shell it can be said that the practical training is very important part of our
curriculum which connects us with the actual scenario of our field and lets us develop the
practical approach of thinking, analyzing and implementing any problem so it should be
taken very sincerely.
 12.References

 https://wiki.waze.com/wiki/Road_Types/India
 http://www.google.co.in/civil-online2010.blogspot.com.es/2013/06/wbm-road-
construction.html?m=1
 http://www.google.co.in/en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road
 http://www.google.co.in/www.cdeep.iitb.ac.in/nptel/Civil%20Engineering/Transport
ation%20Engg%20I/19-Ltexhtml/p4/p.html
 http://www.google.co.in/search?q=test+on+aggregate&btnG=