You are on page 1of 25

Work or Energy or Work/ Energy?

On t he L imit s t o
Capit alis t Ac c umulat ion
Geor ge Caffent z is

Int r oduc t ion: The L imit s t o Gr owt h Pa r a digm


Will c a pita lism e nd in the c o ming de c a de s? Wha t a re the ma te ria l
c o nditio ns fo r its e nd? Wha t, if a nything , c a n slo w the jug g e rna ut
o f c a pita list a c c umula tio n a nd the n sto p it? !e se que stio ns ha ve
pe rturbe d histo ric a l ma te ria lists sinc e Ma rx a nd Eng e ls wro te the
Co mmunist Manife sto . Sinc e the c risis tha t be g a n in e a rne st in 2 008,
the y ha ve le ft the str ic tly Ma r xis t pa r o c hia l po litic a l e nvir o ns,
be c o ming the ve rita ble “ta lk o f the to wn.”
His to r ic a lly the r e ha ve be e n two kinds o f a nswe r s to the s e
que s tio ns. One a ppr o a c h ta ke s the inte r na l c o ntr a dic tio ns o f
c a pita lism — e spe c ia lly the te nde nc y o f the fa lling ra te o f pro fit
bro ug ht a bo ut by the inc re a sing o rg a nic c o mpo sitio n o f c a pita l — to
be the ke y to a n a nswe r. !e o the r a ppro a c h ta ke s the inte nsity o f
c la ss strug g le a s its sta rting po int. It is a c la ss strug g le g e ne ra te d by
the c o mbina tio n o f the ine qua lity o f so c ia l we a lth a nd a pro le ta ria t
inc re a sing ly so phistic a te d a nd tra ine d in c o o pe ra tio n a nd milita nc y
by the de ve lo pme nt o f la rg e -sc a le industry. Histo ric a l ma te ria lism
ha s ta c ke d fro m o ne side to the o the r, so me time s a "e mpting to bring
the m to g e the r. Mic ha e l Ha rdt a nd Anto nio Ne g ri, fo r insta nc e , use
a c o mbina tio n o f bo th e xpla na tio ns. In the ir a c c o unt, “imma te ria l
wo rke rs” bring “c o g nitive c a pita lism” to its c o nc lusio n, whic h is a
histo r ic a lly spe c ific de ve lo pme nt fr o m the pic tur e o f industr ia l
c a pita lism a nd its “ma te ria l wo rke rs” (to c o in a phra se ).1 Of c o urse ,
96 Ma ter ia lis m a nd t he Cr it ique of Ener gy

“ the e nd o f c a pita lis m” do e s no t ne c e s s a r ily e qua te with the


c o ming o f a re vo lutio n tha t will bring a bo ut a ne w, mo ra lly, a nd
e co lo g ica lly supe rio r fo rm o f pro ductio n tha t is no t ba se d o n ca pita list
a c c umula tio n. A#e r a ll, the e nd o f c a pita lism c o uld just a s e a sily le a d
to “the c o mmo n ruin o f the c o nte nding c la sse s” a s Ma rx a nd Eng e ls
no te d lo ng a g o .2
Sinc e the 1960s, lite ra ture ha s de ve lo pe d a rg uing tha t c a pita lism
will e nd ne ithe r be c a use o f its inte rna l c o ntra dic tio ns no r be c a use
o f wo rking -c la ss re vo lt. Ra the r, so me a rg ue tha t its e nd will ha ve a
na tura l twist. Ac c o rding to this vie w, Mo the r Na ture ha s be e n sting y
with ca pita lists. She did no t le a ve the m e no ug h e a sily a cce ssible fo ssil
fue ls in the cupbo a rd o f the pla ne t’s crust. So me pre dict tha t the rising
co st o f pro ductio n will co nstrict o utput to a cra wl whe n the disco ve re d
sto c ks o f fo ssil fue ls ha ve pe a ke d.Othe r the o rists ma ke “pa ra lle l”
c la ims (o n the ba sis o f a so me wha t diffe re nt a nd mo re e la bo ra te
mo de l) whic h a ntic ipa te no t just a pe a king o f fo ssil fue l pro duc tio n
but a to ta l de ple tio n o f a va ila ble fo ssil fue ls.3 !e c o ro lla ry o f the se
vie ws is tha t the physic a l o r mo ne ta ry e xha ustio n o f the se re so urc e s
will de stro y a ccumula te d we a lth a nd the ca pita list mo de o f pro ductio n
with it. The se a llie d so c io -g e o lo g ic a l c la ims a r e o fte n po pula r ly
c a lle d the pe a k o il hypo the sis a nd the Limits to Gro wth hypo the sis
re spe ctive ly. !e y a re ve ry a "ra ctive to ma ny a nti-ca pita lists be ca use
the y se e m to pro vide a n o bje c tive limit to c a pita lism’s e xpa nsio n. Go d
mig ht no t be o n the a nti-c a pita lists’ side , fro m this pe rspe c tive , but
Mo the r Na ture is!
In this e ssa y I a na lyz e the se hypo the se s a nd find the m pro ble ma tic
ba se d upo n a n “e ne rg y fe tishism” tha t a "ribute s va lue c re a tio n to
pro c e sse s o utside the a mbit o f huma n wo rk. In a pre vio us e ssa y, I
o ffe r a c ritique o f the pe a k o il the o ry suppo rte rs.4 So , in this o ne I
will c o nc e ntra te o n the Limits to Gro wth a rg ume nt. !e re ha ve be e n
ma ny pre se nta tio ns o f the limit to g ro wth hypo the sis. In pa rtic ula r,
I ta ke Sa ra l Sa rka r a s the prima r y spo ke spe rso n o f this po sitio n. I
do this be c a use Sa r ka r ha s pr e se nte d a str a ig ht-fo r wa r d Limits
to Gr o wth a r g ume nt ba se d o n the r o le o f inc r e a sing e ntr o py in
Wor k or Ener gy ? 97

limiting no t o nly c a pita lism but a ny industria l so c ie ty. He is to my


mind the mo st lo g ic a lly pre c ise pro po ne nt o f the Limits to Gro wth
vie w. !us my a rg ume nt be g ins with a n e xpo sitio n o f Sa rka r’s c o re
a rg ume nt in Ec o - So c ialism o r Ec o - Capitalism? (1999) a nd !e Cr ise s o f
Capitalism (2 012 ) — two cle a r sig hte d bo o ks tha t re je ct the a po ca lyptic
hype rbo le o f ma ny in the pe a k o il a nd “Limits to Gro wth” c a mps.5
!e n, I turn to a c ritique o f Sa rka r’s a c c o unt o f e ne rg y, la bo r, a nd the
e nds o f c a pita lism.6 His is a wise vo ic e a ddre ssing the a nti-c a pita list
mo ve me nt. Le t us liste n.

Pea k Oil a nd L imit s t o Gr owt h


In his la te st wo rk e spe cia lly, Sa rka r co nclude s tha t we a re in the midst
o f a c risis o f c a pita lism, inste a d o f a no the r c risis in c a pita lism. Fo r
Sa rka r, this c risis is who lly o the r tha n the o ne pla g uing the fina nc ia l
syste m:

A de fe c tive me c ha nism c a n be bo th pa tc he d up a nd re pa ire d (whic h


pr o c e s s ha s a lr e a dy be e n s ta r te d), but a n ine luc ta bly e r o ding
fo unda tio n c a nno t. As lo ng a s the fo unda tio n c a n re ma in stro ng , the
syste m c a n re ma in a live . !e fo unda tio n o f to da y’s c a pita lism is its
ma te ria l re so urc e ba se . And this ba se is e ro ding fa st a nd irre pa ra bly.7

Put simply, in Sa rka r’s a na lysis the ba se a nd supe rstructure o f mo de rn


c a pita lism is no t the e c o no mic a nd the c ultura l, but is ra the r the
ma te ria l wo rld itse lf a nd the e c o no mic syste m tha t de pe nds upo n
it. Sa rka r a rg ue s tha t the funda me nta l so urc e o f la bo r pro duc tivity
in a ll a g e s (fro m the Sto ne Ag e to the Bro nz e Ag e to the Industria l
Re vo lutio n) is e ne rg y. At first it wa s de rive d fro m huma n bo dily a nd
a nima l po we r, the n fro m wind a nd wa te r, the n fro m the burning
o f wo o d, the n c o a l, a nd the n o il a nd g a s c o mbustio n. He c o nc lude s
his c hr o no lo g y with wha t he c a lls o ur c o nte mpo r a r y Industr ia l
Civiliz a tio n: “its e no rmo us la bo r pro duc tivity, a nd its pro spe rity
a re ma inly ba se d o n fo ssil e ne rg y so urc e s.” 8 But tho ug h the y ha ve
suppo rte d this supe rstructure, fo ssiliz e d e ne rg y re so urce s “a re a o nce
98 Ma ter ia lis m a nd t he Cr it ique of Ener gy

o nly g i# o f na ture . !e y a re e xha ustible . !e ir sto c k is c o ntinua lly


diminishing .” 9 !is ke y insig ht o f the Limits to Gro wth Hypo the sis
ha s bro ug ht a bo ut a pa ra dig m-shi# in a nti-ca pita lists’ unde rsta nding
o f c a pita lism.
In Sa rka r’s e ye s, this pa ra dig m shi# c o nde mns a ll so c ia l the o rie s
tha t ig no re it to irre le va nc e . Fo r e xa mple , he c ritic iz e s Ma rx’s la bo r
the o ry o f va lue (LTV) fo r ta king huma n la bo r a s the so le de te rmina nt
o f the va lue o f a c o mmo dity. He re to rts tha t the re a re two va lue
pr o duc ing a r e a s tha t Ma r xists ha ve ig no r e d to the ir pe r il. Fir st,
na tur a l c o nditio ns like the we a the r a ffe c t the so c ia lly ne c e ssa r y
a bstra c t la bo r time re quire d to pro duc e a c o mmo dity. Se c o nd, the
sc ie ntific a nd te c hno lo g ic a l kno wle dg e pro duc e d by pe o ple who do
no t la bo r is c ruc ia l to the pro duc tio n o f a c o mmo dity.10 In fa c t, he
se e ms to find huma n la bo r a ne g lig ible pa rt o f the va lue c re a te d in
c a pita lism. Co nse que ntly, he a rrive s a t the po litic a l c o nc lusio n tha t
the re fusa l o f la bo r do e s no t disrupt the va lue a c c umula ting pro c e ss.
Wo rth no ting up fro nt, ho we ve r, is tha t his unde rsta nding o f
surplus va lue diffe rs fro m a Ma rxist ta ke o n the subje c t. In Sa rka r’s
a cco unt, surplus va lue ha s thre e so urce s: (1) e a sily e xplo ita ble na tura l
re so urc e s; (2 ) the a bility o f na ture to a bso rb huma n-ma de po llutio n
(“sinks”); a nd (3 ) sc ie ntific a nd te c hno lo g ic a l de ve lo pme nts tha t
inc re a se la bo r pro duc tivity a nd inc re a se the qua ntity o f ne w use ful
pro duc ts.11 !e re is no me ntio n o f the la bo r pro c e ss a t a ll in Sa rka r’s
a na lysis o f the so urc e s o f the surplus.
Fo r Sa rka r, sinc e c a pita lism de pe nds o n a n e c o -surplus fo r its
pro fits a nd a c c umula tio n, its thre e so urc e s a lre a dy na me the Limits
to Gro wth: (1) the e xha ustio n o f na tura l so urc e s o f e ne rg y, e spe c ia lly
o il a nd g a s; (2 ) rising to xic ity in the fo rm o f po o r so il, smo g , a nd so
o n whe n na tura l “sinks” be g in to fa il; a nd, fina lly o n the que stio n
o f e ne rg y, (3 ) we ha ve re a c he d a n e ntro pic limit a nd no sc ie ntific
o r te c hno lo g ic a l bre a kthro ug hs c a n o ve rc o me the lo ss o f the fo ssil-
e ne r g y r e s o ur c e ba s e . The o ptimis m a tta c he d to r e ne wa ble s is
the re fo re pre e mpte d in this mo de l. He a rg ue s tha t the re is muc h
fla we d o ptimism a bo ut re ne wa ble te c hno lo g y fro m tho se who c a nno t
Wor k or Ener gy ? 99

disting uish be twe e n te c hnic a l fe a sibility a nd e c o no mic via bility.12 All


thre e limits le a d to c a pita lism’s de struc tio n, in Sa rka r’s the o ry, a nd
the y a re a lre a dy fa r a dva nc e d. Ho we ve r, in Sa rka r’s sc he ma the re is a
pro c e ss tha t se e ms to be irre le va nt to the e nd o f c a pita lism, the la bo r
pro c e ss, fo r the re is a g a in no me ntio n o f the la bo r pro c e ss o r, mo re
pre c ise ly, the re fusa l to la bo r, in Sa rka r’s a c c o unt o f the re duc tio n
o f surplus.
!e first two blo c ka g e s to surplus a re o bvio us e no ug h a nd ha ve
be e n do c ume nte d e xte nsive ly, but the third de pe nds upo n a mo re
e la bo ra te a rg ume nt since it se e ms to be vio la ting Ka rl Po ppe r’s ma xim:
“if the re is such a thing a s g ro wing huma n kno wle dg e, the n we ca nno t
a ntic ipa te to da y wha t we sha ll kno w o nly to mo rro w.” 13 (Tho ug h
Po ppe r wa s, o f c o urse , a n a rc he ne my o f histo ric a l ma te ria lism, his
ma xim do e s ha ve a po int. We sho uld ne ve r be a fra id o f le a rning fro m
o ur e ne mie s wha t c o uld be use d fo r o ur strug g le !) In pa rtic ula r, ho w
c a n we kno w to da y tha t the re will ne ve r be a sc ie ntific bre a kthro ug h
tha t de vise d a n ine xpe nsive a nd e nviro nme nta lly sa fe pro c e ss to
c re a te use ful e ne rg y o n a la rg e sc a le using a re la tive ly c he a p c o mmo n
substa nc e like ta p wa te r? 14
Sa rka r’s vio la tio n o f Po ppe r’s ma xim is ba se d o n Nicho la s Ge o rg e scu-
Ro e g a n’s e ffo rts to a pply the Se c o nd La w o f !e rmo dyna mic s to the
who le e c o no mic pro c e ss. Ge o rg e sc u-Ro e g a n a rg ue s: (1) bo th e ne rg y
a nd ma "e r c o me in two sta te s: a va ila ble a nd una va ila ble ; (2 ) in a n
iso la te d (clo se d) syste m, ava ila ble e ne rg y a nd ma "e r g e ts co ntinuo usly
a nd irre ve rsibly tra nsfo rme d into una va ila ble e ne rg y a nd ma "e r; (3)
the o nly so urc e o f e ne rg y o n the pla ne t tha t is no t fa c ing c o ntinua l
de g ra da tio n is sunlig ht, but the pro ble m with using sunlig ht dire c tly
a s a so urc e o f e ne rg y is tha t, in Sa rka r’s wo rds, “it re a c he s us in a ve ry
hig h e ntro py sta te ... its e ne rg y de nsity is ve ry lo w. It is the re fo re no t
re a dily a va ila ble fo r mo st purpo se s o f industria l pro duc tio n, whic h
re quire hig h te mpe ra ture s o r e le c tric po we r,” a nd, the re fo re , (4 ) the
pro ba bility tha t a n e c o no mic a lly via ble substitute fo r fo ssil fue ls will
be fo und is ne g lig ible .15 A c o ro lla ry to this c o nc lusio n is tha t sinc e
c a pita lism de pe nds upo n the e ne rg y c re a te d by the c o mbustio n o f
100 Ma ter ia lis m a nd t he Cr it ique of Ener gy

c a r bo n fue ls a nd the sto c k o f the se fue ls is r a pidly diminishing ,


industria l c a pita lism will c o me to a n e nd (tho ug h wha t will fo llo w is
a n o pe n que stio n). In o the r wo rds, Sa rka r a ssure s us tha t the re will
be no “e ne rg y tra nsitio n” in the twe nty-first c e ntury o f the so rt tha t
we nt fro m wa te r, wind, a nd a nima l po we r to ca rbo n-ba se d, fo ssil-fue l
po we r in the la te e ig hte e nth a nd e a rly nine te e nth c e nturie s.
Sa rka r pre se nts a wo nde rfully cle a r critique o f Ma rxist the o rie s o f
c a pita list c risis a s we ll a s a we ll-a rg ue d e xpla na tio n o f why this c risis
is a c risis o f c a pita lism. In fa c t, his c ritique o f Ma rxism, e spe c ia lly o f
the LTV, is e sse ntia l to his e xpla na tio n. I a m, ho we ve r, a t o dds with
bo th his c ritique a s we ll a s his e xpla na tio n. In my vie w a s a histo ric a l
ma te ria list, Sa rka r’s Limits to Gro wth misse s a crucia l e le me nt in a ny
a cco unt o f the e nd o f ca pita lism, since his dismissa l o f the impo rta nce
o f la bo r fo r the re pro duc tio n a nd a c c umula tio n o f c a pita l misse s,
to o , the impo r ta nc e o f its r e fusa l fo r the dis-a c c umula tio n a nd
e ve ntua l a bo litio n o f c a pita l. I a ppre c ia te the frustra tio n e vo ke d in
a nti-c a pita list writing whe n a sse ssing the re c o rd o f wo rking c la ss
strug g le with its divisio ns, re tre a ts a nd fre que nt ra c ist, se xist a nd
a nti-e c o lo g ic a l a c c o mmo da tio ns with c a pita l. But wo r king -c la ss
strug g le a g a inst e xplo ita tio n, no t the diminishing sto c ks o f o il a nd
g a s, is the o nly de finitive lo g ic a l limit to c a pita list a c c umula tio n,
“subje c tive” tho ug h it ma y be , a s I a rg ue be lo w.16 First, ho we ve r, I will
de a l with Sa rka r’s re je c tio n o f la bo r a s the prima ry so urc e o f va lue .

A Cr it ique of S a r ka r ’s Ar gument a ga ins t Ma r x


Sa rka r’s critique o f Ma rx’s LTV ha s two e le me nts: (1) na tura l co nditio ns
like ra infa ll, c lima te , a nd we a the r c a n ha ve a visible a nd pro fo und
e ffe ct o n the va lue o f a n a g ricultura l co mmo dity — fo r e xa mple, “[t]he
va lue (i.e . e xc ha ng e va lue ) o f whe a t is, in this c a se , pa rtly de te rmine d
by na ture”; (2 ) sc ie ntific a nd te c hno lo g ic a l kno wle dg e c o ng e a le d in
ma chine s incre a se s the la bo r pro ductivity a nd he nce a ffe cts the va lue
o f c o mmo ditie s tha t a re in the pro duc tio n pro c e ss; but sc ie ntific a nd
te chnica l kno wle dg e is no t pro duce d thro ug h la bo r: “[i]t is no t co rre ct
to subsume the a ctivitie s o f scie ntists, inve nto rs a nd de ve lo pe rs unde r
Wor k or Ener gy ? 101

the g e ne ra l c a te g o ry o f la bo r.” 17 Le t me ta ke e a c h in turn.


First, I sho uld po int o ut tha t Ma rx re c o g niz e s the impo rta nc e o f
na ture in in the pro duc tio n o f c o mmo ditie s fro m the first c ha pte r o f
Capital I:

Whe n ma n e ng a g e s in pro duc tio n, he c a n o nly pro c e e d a s na ture do e s


he rse lf, i.e., he ca n o nly cha ng e the fo rm o f the ma te ria ls. Furthe rmo re,
e ve n in this wo rk o f mo dific a tio n he is c o nsta ntly he lpe d by na tura l
fo rc e s. La bo ur is the re fo re no t the o nly so urc e o f ma te ria l we a lth, i.e .,
o f the use -va lue s it pro duc e s... As Willia m Pe "y sa ys, la bo ur is the
fa the r o f ma te ria l we a lth, the e a rth is its mo the r.18

But ma te ria l we a lth is no t va lue . Va lue is no t a ma te ria l thing , no r


e ve n a re la tio n a mo ng ma te ria l thing s. Ra the r, it is a so c ia l fo rm tha t
c a n be re pre se nte d — unlike so me thing like na tura l we a lth, whic h
is mo re like a n e nviro nme nta l c o nditio n o f po ssibility ra the r tha n a n
e xc ha ng e a ble qua ntity — a nd ne e ds a so c ia lly de te rmine d e quiva le nt
o f time to c irc ula te a s va lue . !us, tho ug h mo re ra infa ll mig ht a ffe c t
the a mo unt o f so c ia lly ne c e ssa ry la bo r time fo r the pro duc tio n o f a
po und o f whe a t, the ra infa ll do e s no t c re a te the va lue o f tha t po und o f
whe a t. In o the r wo rds, c a pita lism in its a ppe a ra nc e a s a c o mmo dity-
e xc ha ng ing so c ie ty is e xtre me ly “huma nistic ” in the se nse tha t its
ma jo r co nce rn is to e xpa nd its co ntro l o f huma n life a s much a s po ssible
in o rde r to cha nne l tha t life into e xplo ita ble la bo r. Ca pita lism re quire s
a va lue -c re a tio n pro c e ss tha t must be re pro duc ible a nd who se re sults
c a n be a c c umula te d. !e ide a tha t yo u c o uld a c c umula te the na tura l
we a lth o f ra infa ll, a nd tha t yo u c o uld in turn to ss the a c c umula te d
we a lth o f ra infa ll into a ma rke t whe re it c o uld ma g ic a lly yie ld mo re
o f itse lf witho ut furthe r a c c umula te d ra infa ll, ma ke s no se nse . And
the re a so n it ma ke s no se nse is be c a use the ve rsio n o f va lue we a re
spe a king a bo ut with na tura l we a lth is use va lue , a nd no t e xc ha ng e
va lue, since it is use ful fo r the huma n la bo r tha t is e mplo ye d by ca pita l,
but co uld ne ve r itse lf circula te a s e xcha ng e va lue, le t a lo ne be g e t mo re
o f itse lf in the style o f M-C-M'. One must be c a re ful, in o the r wo rds,
102 Ma ter ia lis m a nd t he Cr it ique of Ener gy

no t to c o mmit a “na tura listic fa lla c y” in c o nside ring va lue to be o n


pa r with the na tura l, fo r tho ug h a use va lue (a fo o d tha t ta ste s swe e t)
mig ht be a na lyz e d c he mic a lly, va lue c a nno t be a na lyz e d c he mic a lly.
I fe a r, ho we ve r, tha t Sa rka r do e s c o mmit tha t fa lla c y. Fo r it is no t tha t
na ture isn’t use ful, in Ma rx’s e stima tio n; it is just tha t it do e sn’t cre a te
va lue s. Ca pita l lite ra lly ha s a “lust fo r la bo r” (whic h c a n a lso be c a lle d
a “lust fo r va lue”).19 We c a n se e tha t lust a nima te d re c e ntly in the
mo biliz a tio n o f ne a rly a billio n Chine se a nd India n wo rke rs to be co me
pa rt o f the g lo ba l wo rking c la ss in a pe rio d whe re ma ny we re a rg uing
we we re o n the ve rg e o f a “po st-industria l e ra ,” whe n wo rke rs a re
suppo se d to be supe rfluo us fo r c a pita lism!
Sa rka r’s se c o nd o bje c tio n to Ma rx’s LTV is tha t sc ie ntists a nd
te c hno lo g ic a l inve nto rs a re “no t wo rke rs in the Ma rxia n se nse ,” but
the y a re c ruc ia l to the inc re a se o f la bo r pro duc tivity. Ma rx de finite ly
wa s a wa r e o f the impo r ta nc e o f sc ie nc e a nd te c hno lo g y fo r the
inc re a sing pro duc tivity o f la bo r, a nd he de finite ly a ppre c ia te d the
diffe re nc e in the pro duc tivity o f a n ho ur o f la bo r in a mo de rn sho e
fa c to ry ve rsus the pro duc tivity o f a n ho ur o f la bo r in a n e a rly mo de rn
sho e wo r ksho p.2 0 Be tha t a s it ma y, sc ie ntists a nd te c hno lo g ic a l
inno va to rs hire d by co rpo ra tio ns to da y a re skille d wo rke rs who a pply
the ir kno wle dg e a nd c a pa c itie s to sa tisfy the re quire me nts o f the
co mpa ny (fo r e xa mple, Cla ude Sha nno n, the inno va to r o f Info rma tio n
!e o ry, wo rke d fo r Be ll La bs, a nd his the o re tic a l la bo rs we re pa rt o f
his jo b).
We no w ha ve a la rg e c a te g o r y o f wo rke rs who a re invo lve d in
“kno wle dg e pro duc tio n a nd c o mmunic a tio n” fro m sc ho o lte a c he rs to
co mpute r pro g ra mme rs to mo vie a cto rs to sho e de sig ne rs. !e y mig ht
be “imma te ria l wo rke rs,” in the te rmino lo g y o f the o rists o f “c o g nitive
c a pita lism,” but the y o pe ra te a s wo rke rs in the pa st did. !e y must
ne g o tia te la bo r c o ntra c ts, me e t de a dline s, a nd c o nfro nt re a l bo sse s
a nd a re unde r the sa me pre ssure to incre a se pro ductivity a s industria l
wo rke rs in ma nufa c turing e c o no mie s. Almo st a ny c o nte mpo ra r y
pro duc tio n pro c e ss is a c o mple x o ne , with ma ny diffe re nt c o nc re te
fo rms o f la bo r o f a va rie ty o f skill le ve ls, but e ve r y le ve l re quire s
Wor k or Ener gy ? 103

huma n inte lle c tua l a nd disc iplina r y c a pa c itie s in a bunda nc e a nd


the re sult o f the wo rk o f the sho e de sig ne r is fa c to re d into the so c ia l
ne c e ssa r y la bo r time re quire d to pro duc e the sho e . Sa rka r se e ms
to think tha t a de c isive a rg ume nt fo r his vie w is tha t the wo rk o f
imma te ria l wo rke rs g e ts pa id e ve n “fo r the ir fruitle ss a c tivitie s” a nd
the ir pa yme nt “c o me s fro m the re sults o f the la bo r o f the re st o f the
wo rk o f the c o rpo ra tio n.” 2 1 But this situa tio n is no t unique fo r so -
c a lle d “imma te ria l wo rke rs.” (Fo r a c ritique o f this te rm se e my bo o k,
In Le "e r s o f Blo o d and Fir e .2 2 ) A#e r a ll, e ve n o n a n a sse mbly line a
wo rke r is pa id whe n the qua lity c o ntro l c he c k a t the e nd o f the line
re je cts a ce rta in pe rce nta g e o f the pro ducts s/he wo rke d o n. Who pa ys
fo r the “fruitle ss a c tivity”? In mo st c a se s the pa yme nt c o me s fro m
the re sults o f the la bo r o f the re st o f the wo rk o f the c o rpo ra tio n.
!is is e spe c ia lly true in pro duc t lia bility la w whe re the c o rpo ra tio n
is re spo nsible fo r da ma g e s c a use d by de fe c tive pro duc ts it se lls, no t
the wo rke rs who pro duc e d the m.
!e funda me nta l po int I wa nt to ma ke he re is tha t the LTV ha s
po litic a l impo r ta nc e , but a lso e xpla ins lo g ic a l inc o nsiste nc ie s in
the physio c ra tic a nd c la ssic a l va lue the o rie s Sa rka r ina dve rte ntly
re pro duc e s fo r the c o nte mpo ra r y e ra . If la bo r wa s no t c e ntra l in
the c re a tio n o f the surplus va lue , the n c a pita l wo uld be a nxio us to
shrink bo th the qua ntity a nd qua lity o f the c la ss o f wo rke rs, but tha t
is no t ha ppe ning in the twe nty-first c e ntury. On the c o ntra ry, billio ns
a re be ing a dde d to the wo rking c la ss a nd o n a ll le ve ls o f skills (fro m
a g ric ultura l wo rke rs to nuc le a r sc ie ntists). !e c a pita lists se e m e ve n
mo re c o nc e rne d a bo ut lo c a ting re se rve s o f “lo w e ntro pic ” wo rke rs
(to mix c a te g o rie s!) tha n in finding o il a nd g a s de po sits. Fo r e xa mple ,
be twe e n 1990 a nd 2 014 the la bo r fo rce pa rticipa tio n in BRICS co untrie s
— Bra z il, Russia , India , China , a nd So uth Afric a — inc re a se d fro m
1115 millio n to 1510 millio n, ro ug hly a 35 pe rc e nt inc re a se .2 3 Mo re o ve r,
the po we rs o f sc ie nc e a nd te c hno lo g ic a l inno va to rs ha ve be e n la rg e ly
inc o rpo ra te d into the c a pita list a sse mbly line .
104 Ma ter ia lis m a nd t he Cr it ique of Ener gy

Cr it ique of t he Not ion of t he Na t ura l L imit s of Ca pit a lis m


The po we r o f Sa r ka r ’s Limits to Gr o wth de duc tio n o f the e nd o f
c a pita lism is tha t it c la ims to find na tura l limits to c a pita lism in the
ma te ria l re so urc e ba se o f industria l c a pita lism. Ac c o rding to Sa rka r,
a s the sto c k o f e a sily a va ila ble pe tro le um a nd na tura l g a s be c o me s
e xha uste d, the who le supe rstruc ture o f pro duc tio n, c irc ula tio n, a nd
co nsumptio n ca lle d ca pita lism is mo rta lly thre a te ne d, since co lle ctive
c a pita lists do no t ha ve a ny a lte rna tive but to burn its ma te ria l ba se
up in smo ke . !is pro c e ss will le a d to a c o ntinuo us c o ntra c tio n o f
c a pita lism until it fa c e s its do o m. Inde e d, Sa rka r a rg ue s tha t the
pre se nt c risis is a n a ntic ipa tio n o f the fina l shrinka g e o f the re so urc e
ba se .2 4
Tho ug h e le g a nt, I find Sa r ka r ’s e xpla na tio n o f the c r is is
pro ble ma tic fo r a numbe r o f re a so ns. First, his the o re tic a l dismissa l
(a nd c o nse que nt e mpiric a l ne g le c t) o f wha t is c e ntra l to c a pita lism
a nd its o ppo ne nts: la bo r a nd its re fusa l. Sa rka r is no t a lo ne with this
a "itude to la bo r, o f c o urse . Mo st Limits to Gro wth pro po ne nts shi#
the po litic a l fo c us fro m c la ss re la tio ns to the limits o f na ture . !us,
in a pe rio d o f inte nse wo rke rs’ re sista nc e to c a pita lism in Fra nc e ,
the Unite d Sta te s a s we ll a s in the c o lo niz e d wo rld in the e a rly 197 0s,
the re wa s a n inc re a se d study o f the Limits to Gro wth a nd the thre a ts
to a fflue nce a rising lite ra lly fro m na ture . !e ma the ma tica l mo de ls o f
Ja y Fo rre ste r a nd the Club o f Ro me ha d the re so urce -hung ry e co no my
ma c hine driving stra ig ht into the bric k wa ll o f No t Eno ug h (e xa c tly
the o ppo site o f the Za pa tista s’ “Ya Ba sta !”) tha t ha d no thing to do
with cla ss strug g le.2 5 Acco rding to the m, the re wa s simply no t e no ug h
o il, no t e no ug h na tura l g a s, no t e no ug h ura nium, no t e no ug h c o a l,
a nd e ve n no t e no ug h a ir to ke e p up the pa c e o f po st-WWII c a pita list
g ro wth, so the y sug g e ste d a ste a dy-sta te fo rm o f c a pita lism. Sa rka r,
o f c o urse , ha s no inte re st in re fo rming c a pita lism, ste a dy-sta te o r no t
(a s wa s the po litic a l inte nt o f the me mbe rs o f the Club o f Ro me ) sinc e
he c o nc lude s tha t a n e c o -so c ia list g o ve rnme nt wo uld be a wa y to a t
le a st a me lio ra te the ha rsh c o nditio ns tha t will fo llo w the c o lla pse o f
Wor k or Ener gy ? 105

c a pita lism due to the e xha ustio n o f the e ne rg y re so urc e s tha t is no w


be c o ming e vide nt. All o f this so unds mo re o r le ss pa la ta ble fro m the
sta ndpo int o f e nviro nme nta l po litic s, e xc e pt fo r a ke y fe a ture o f the
e ntire e c o no mic struc ture Sa rka r is inte re ste d in the o riz ing the e nds
to : the so cia l a nd e ne rg ic co nte nt o f surplus va lue upo n which g ro wth
is c a te g o ric a lly, lo g ic a lly, a nd histo ric a lly built upo n.
My first re to rt is tha t c a pita lism in its histo ry ha s ha d a numbe r
o f e ne rg e tic re so urc e ba se s a nd, in fa c t, it be g a n in the sixte e nth a nd
se ve nte e nth ce nturie s with a “so la r” ba se (wind, wa te r, wo o d, a nima l,
a nd huma n po we r). !e c o nque st o f the Ame ric a s, the fo rma tio n o f
the g lo ba l ma rke t, the c re a tio n o f the ba nking syste m, the e xpa nsio n
o f the sla ve tra de , a nd the e nc lo sure s o f the Euro pe a n c o mmo ns we re
a ll re a liz e d witho ut he a t e ng ine s a nd the ir ma te ria l fue l ba sis (c o a l,
o il, a nd g a s). !is o rig ina l pe rio d o f a c c umula tio n wa s fo llo we d by a
ca pita lism with o the r e ne rg y re so urce ba se s. Ro ug hly we ca ll the m by
the ir substa nc e na me s: fro m c o a l to pe tro le um a nd na tura l g a s to , in
so me pla ce s like Fra nce , nucle a r po we r. Two thing s sho uld be po inte d
o ut a bo ut the se ba se s: (1) muc h mo re tha n e ne rg y wa s re quire d fo r
pro duc tio n, fo r it re quire d quite diffe re nt kinds o f pro le ta ria ns to
be c o me c re a to rs o f surplus va lue ; a nd (2 ) the ba sic c o mpo ne nts o f
ca pita lism we re no t cha ng e d in g o ing fro m o ne e ne rg y ba se to a no the r.
I will e la bo ra te o n bo th po ints.

A. Pr olet a r ia ns a nd Energy: Wor k/ Energy


A pro le ta ria n o n a ship drive n by o a rsme n, by sa ils, by c o a l, by o il, o r
by a nuc le a r re a c to r is no t the sa me pro le ta ria n a s the o ne ro wing ,
rig g ing , firing , sto king , o r mo nito ring . A diffe re nt se t o f rule s a pply to
e xplo it the ir la bo r a nd a diffe re nt lo g ic o f re fusa l a pplie s to diffe re nt
fo rms o f mo tive po we r. So , fo r e xa mple , a n e nsla ve d pro le ta ria n is
ha rdly a c re wma n tha t wo uld be a ppro pria te to a nuc le a r subma rine
o r to a spa c e c o lo ny (fo r the la "e r, se e “Mo rmo ns in Spa c e ,” a n e ssa y
c o a utho re d by Silvia Fe de ric i a nd myse lf).2 6 Simila rly, a n a sse mbly
line sta ffe d by a rtisa ns wo uld be pro ble ma tic a s we ll. !is c o nne c tio n
be twe e n wo r ke r s a nd the te c hno lo g ic a l me a ns o f pr o duc tio n
106 Ma ter ia lis m a nd t he Cr it ique of Ener gy

wa s unde rsto o d by the po litic a l e c o no mists o f the e ig hte e nth a nd


nine te e nth c e ntur y like Ada m Smith a nd Jo hn Stua rt Mill who se
c ritique o f sla ve r y wa s ba se d o n its ine ffic ie nc y, fo r no re a so na ble
c a pita list wo uld wa nt to ha ve sla ve s te nding ma c hine s tha t c o st ma ny
time s the sla ve s’ va lue . In o the r wo rds, sla ve pro duc tio n c o uld o nly
be c o mpa tible with the lo we st te c hno lo g ic a l le ve l be c a use the sla ve
c o uld be e xpe c te d to “la bo r a s li"le a s po ssible” a nd be “ine ffic ie nt
a nd unpro duc tive” re spe c tive ly.2 7 So whe ne ve r the re is a c ha ng e in
the e ne rg y re so urc e ba se o f c a pita lism, the re is a ne c e ssa ry c ha ng e
in the so c ia l c ha ra c te r o f the pro le ta ria t tha t will ma ke the ne w ba se
pro duc tive o f surplus-va lue . Wha t is c ruc ia l fo r c a pita lism, the n, is
ne ithe r wo rk no r e ne rg y a lo ne , but wo rk/e ne rg y, tha t is, the ra tio
be twe e n the a mo unt o f wo r k tha t c r e a te s sur plus-va lue a nd the
qua ntity o f e ne g y pro duc e d by the re so urc e ba se .2 8
!e c ha in o f c a usa tio n a lso g o e s the o the r wa y. Fo r c ha ng e s in
the wo rk/e ne rg y ra tio a re c a use d by pro le ta ria n a c tio n. As Timo thy
Mitc he ll ha s po we rfully a rg ue d a nd do c ume nte d, the re a so n why
the re wa s a shi# fro m c o a l to o il wa s no t due to the supe rio rity o f the
la "e r substa nc e fo r industria l pro duc tio n, but it wa s be c a use mine rs
a nd the ir strike s be g a n to po se a se rio us c ha lle ng e no t o nly to the ir
imme dia te bo sse s, but to the e ntire c a pita list syste m by c re a ting a
ne w le ve l o f c la ss po we r:

Wo rke rs we re g ra dua lly c o nne c te d to g e the r no t so muc h by the we a k


tie s o f a c la ss c ulture , c o lle c tive ide o lo g y o r po litic a l o rg a nisa tio n,
but by the inc re a sing a nd hig hly c o nc e ntra te d qua ntitie s o f c a rbo n
e ne rg y the y mine d, lo a de d, c a rrie d, sto ke d a nd put to wo rk…. Mo re
tha n a me re so c ia l mo ve me nt, this so c io -te c hnic a l a g e nc y wa s put to
wo rk fo r a se rie s o f de mo c ra tic c la ims who se g ra dua l imple me nta tio n
ra dic a lly re duc e d the pre c a rio usne ss o f life in industria l so c ie tie s.2 9

!e mo ve to o il wa s a n a "e mpt by c a pita l to find a n e ne rg y re so urc e


ba se tha t wa s a ble to unde rmine this po we r o f the wo rking c la ss in
the co a l circuit. Ma ny fe a ture s o f o il pro vide d much mo re co ntro l o ve r
Wor k or Ener gy ? 107

the e ne rg y re so urc e ba se :

!e a bility to we a ke n the la bo ur fo rc e by dividing it into se pa ra te


ra c ia l g ro ups, with ma na g e rs, skille d wo rke rs a nd unskille d wo rke rs
ho use d a nd tre a te d se pa ra te ly, re fle c te d the diffe re nt distributio n o f
o il pro ductio n a cro ss the wo rld co mpa re d to co a l, a nd its de ve lo pme nt
a #e r ra the r tha n be fo re the rise o f mo de n industry.30

!is a na lysis is a n e xa mple o f why it is impo rta nt to unde rsta nd


the c la ss dyna mic s tha t mo tiva te ma ny o f the e ne rg y re so urc e ba se
tra nsitio ns, fo r the y a re no t de te rmine d by que stio ns o f sc a rc ity
a nd e ne rg y de nsity, a s the Limits to Gro wth the o rists wo uld ha ve us
be lie ve to da y.

B. Ca pit a l’s His t or ic a l Cons is t enc y


Thr o ug ho ut the s e ma ny wo r k/ e ne r g y tr a ns itio ns s inc e the
sixte e nth c e ntury, c a pita list a c c umula tio n c o ntinue d una ba te d. !is
de mo nstra te s tha t the ba sic ca te g o rie s ne e de d to co nstitute a ca pita list
so c ie ty a re no t de te rmine d by the e ne rg y re so urc e ba se s o f the da y.
Pro fit, wa g e , re nt, inte re st, va lue , surplus va lue , c o nsta nt c a pita l, a nd
so o n do no t re quire a pa rtic ula r te c hno lo g y with a n a c c o mpa nying
e ne rg y re so urc e ba se . !is is no t to sa y tha t “a nything g o e s,” o r tha t,
fo r e xa mple , c a pita lism c a n po int-fo r-po int “re turn to a so la r pa st,”
since ca pita lism a t its da wn co nfro nte d a wo rld po pula tio n the fra ctio n
o f the pre se nt siz e a nd a c irc ula tio n pro c e ss o pe ra ting a t a fra c tio n
o f the pre se nt spe e d. But the se diffe re nc e s do no t a ffe c t the fa c t tha t
c a pita lism is a ve ry o ld so c ia l syste m tha t ha s be e n a ble to la unc h a nd
survive ma ny e ne rg y re so urce tra nsitio ns due, in pa rt, to the ina bility
o f its o ppo sitio ns to g e ne ra te the so cia l po we r ne ce ssa ry to o ve rthro w
it. !o ug h the e ne rg y re so urc e ba se s c a n c ha ng e , wha t is c ruc ia l is
tha t the re will a lwa ys be wo rke rs who ha ve no dire c t a c c e ss to the
me a ns o f subsiste nc e a nd pro duc tio n who se wo rk c a n be e xplo ite d
a nd turne d into the ma ny fo rms o f re ve nue : pro fit, inte re st, a nd re nt.
As lo ng a s the se wo rke rs a re willing to a c c e pt a muc h lo we r e ne rg y
108 Ma ter ia lis m a nd t he Cr it ique of Ener gy

de nsity in the me a ns o f pro duc tio n (tha t is, a re turn to a n a rc ha ic


te c hno lo g ic a l le ve l), the n it is po ssible fo r c a pita lism to c o ntinue
the a c c umula tio n pro c e ss, fo r wha t is a c c umula te d is no t e ne rg y,
but wo rk. Will the y? !is is no t c le a r, but the re a re indic a tio ns o f
the te rra in o f strug g le to c o me is the re fusa l o f “e xtra c tivism” — the
do c trine tha t ro o ts e c o no mie s o n the e xtra c tio n a nd e xpo rt o f na tura l
re so urc e s — e spe c ia lly by Indig e no us pe o ple in La tin Ame ric a .31
To g o furthe r into my c ritique o f Sa rka r’s vie w o f the de te rmining
c ha ra c te r o f the e ne rg y re so urc e ba se , it is wo rthwhile a sking the
na ïve que stio n: fo r wha t purpo se is this e ne rg y re so urc e ba se be ing
use d? In mo st c a se s e ne rg y’s ma jo r purpo se is to po we r ma c hine s
(fro m truc ks a nd tra c to rs to e le c tric po we r pla nts). So this bring s us
to the ma c hine a nd to a no the r na ïve que stio n: fo r wha t purpo se is the
ma c hine to be use d in c a pita list so c ie ty? Ma c hine s a re c e rta inly no t
intro duce d in o rde r to re duce the pa in a nd da ng e r o f the la bo r pro ce ss.
On the c o ntra ry, the y a re intro duc e d to inc re a se the pro fita bility o f
the c a pita lists who o wn the m via the pro duc tivity o f the wo rke rs
the y e xplo it. Mo re to the po int, ma c hine s a re the mse lve s no t simply
a c c umula te d e ne rg y fro m fo ssil fue ls, but a re ra the r the pro duc ts o f
pa st la bo r — de a d la bo r, in the histo ric a l ma te ria list idio m — full
o f a n a c c re te d fo rm o f huma n la bo r wa iting to be e mplo ye d by ne w
living la bo r. Ma c hine s, Ma rx re minds us, do n’t wa ke up a nd de c ide
to g o to wo rk o f the ir o wn a c c o rd. !e ke y issue fo r the individua l
c a pita list is tha t s/he purc ha se s a ma c hine to use in the pro duc tio n o f
a c o mmo dity in o rde r to ke e p up with the c o mpe titio n. But tha t do e s
no t a nswe r the que stio n; it simply de fe rs it to the initia l a do pte rs o f
the ma c hine in que stio n who did no t ha ve c o mpe titive pre ssure s to
mo tiva te the c ha ng e . !e ke y vie w tha t o pe ns up the po ssibility o f a n
a nswe r is tha t ma c hine s a re instrume nts in c la ss strug g le , sinc e the
bo ss ca n thre a te n to re pla ce wo rke rs who a re succe ssful in incre a sing
wa g e s, re duc ing the wo rkda y a nd ma king c la ims o n the pro duc tive
a ppa ra tus. Of c o urse , the substitutio n is a lso ma the ma tic a l. Fo r the
c o st o f the ma c hine (with its e ne rg y c o sts a nd its de pre c ia tio n) must
be le ss tha n the “sa ving s” in the wa g e s a nd o the r co sts co nne cte d with
Wor k or Ener gy ? 109

wo rke rs’ strug g le s (e .g ., sa bo ta g e ).


!e re a re a dditio na l a "ribute s o f ma c hine s tha t a re use ful in the
c la ss strug g le , a s Re nfre w Christie po inte d o ut ma ny ye a rs a g o :

De a d la bo r in the sha pe o f ma c hine r y ha s a no the r a dva nta g e o ve r


living la bo r. It do e s no t ta lk ba c k. It do e s no t g o o n strike . It do e s
no t ste a l. It do e s no t re sist the de sig ns o f c a pita lists…. Ca pita lists,
the re fo re , use the disc ipline s a nd skills o f ma c hine s a s substitute s
fo r the withdra wa ble skills a nd c a lc ula te d indisc ipline s o f the ir c la ss
e ne mie s, the wo rke rs.32

!is c o nne c tio n be twe e n wo rk a nd e ne rg y wa s we ll kno wn to Ma rx


a nd it he lpe d struc ture Capital Vo l I. Fo r it is no a c c ide nt tha t Pa rt
4 , “!e Pro duc tio n o f Re la tive Surplus-Va lue ,” whic h is c o mprise d
la rg e ly o f a discussio n o f the ro le o f ma chine s in ca pita lism is fo llo we d
by Cha pte r 11 o n the succe ssful strug g le to re duce the wo rking da y. Fo r
the mo re e ffe c tive the c la ss strug g le is a t the po int o f pro duc tio n, the
g re a te r is the te nde ncy o f ca pita l to incre a se me cha niz a tio n a nd he nce
the re is a n inc re a se d ne e d fo r po we r g e ne ra te d by e ne rg y re so urc e s.
And he re we c a n se e tha t this e ne rg y re so urc e ba se is c ruc ia l in
re pla c ing la bo r po we r (if it is full o f strug g le ) a nd inte nsifying its
e xplo ita tio n.
Le t us e xa mine the r e la tio n be twe e n e ne r g y ne e ds a nd c la ss
strug g le in a sc he ma tic wa y by a ssuming tha t the sum va lue o f the
to ta lity o f co mmo ditie s (T) is co nstitute d by co nsta nt ca pita l (C), va lue
o f la bo r po we r (V) a nd the surplus-va lue (S) (T=C+V+S) a nd the ra te o f
pro fit o f the who le syste m is S/V+C. A suc c e ssful c la ss strug g le is o ne
tha t inc re a se s the va lue o f la bo r po we r a nd re duc e s the ra te o f pro fit.
Ho w ca n the ca pita lists re a ct to incre a se the ra te o f pro fit? One a nswe r
is: to inc re a se C in o rde r to re duc e the re quire d numbe r o f wo rke rs
a nd the ir wa g e s (the wa g e bill, a s it wa s kno wn in nine te e nth-ce ntury
po litic a l e c o no my) V, a nd a lso inc re a sing S. In g e ne ra l, the re fo re a
re spo nse to inc re a se d a nd suc c e ssful c la ss strug g le is via a n inc re a se
in me c ha niz a tio n a nd he nc e po we r re quire me nts. Inde e d, o ne mig ht
110 Ma ter ia lis m a nd t he Cr it ique of Ener gy

sa y tha t in a c a pita list so c ie ty inc re a se d c la ss strug g le wo uld te nd


to a c c e le ra te the use o f e ne rg y re so urc e ba se . Co nse que ntly, a s lo ng
a s the strug g le is ke pt unde r c o ntro l, the drive to inc re a se the pa c e
o f me c ha niz a tio n is re duc e d a nd he nc e the ne e d fo r mo re e ne rg y
is re duc e d. !is is the c a pita lists’ ve rsio n o f c o nse r va tio n! But the
strug g le tha t e sc a pe s c o ntro l (inc re a sing V a nd de c re a sing S) a nd
succe ssfully re sists the substitutio n by ma chine s (ke e ps C le ve l) is the
wo rke rs’ e c o lo g ic a l pa th a wa y fro m c a pita lism. No wo nde r why the re
ha s be e n “a strug g le be twe e n wo rke r a nd ma c hine”! As the Luddite s
ta ug ht Ma rx, “!e instrume nt o f la bo r strike s do wn the wo rke rs.” 33
!is strug g le no t o nly puts a bra ke o n the a c c umula tio n pro c e ss but,
in the tra ditio n o f histo ric a l ma te ria lism, is the o nly fo rma l pa th to
a nti-c a pita list tra nsitio n.
Wha t do e s this e xc ur s us into c a pita lis t ma the ma tic s me a n
fo r the Limits to Gro wth? It de mo nstra te s tha t c la ss strug g le ha s
a pro fo und e ffe c t o n the use o f e ne rg y in c a pita lism. It is o nly the
“subje c tive” a spe c t o f the wo rk pro c e ss tha t is a limit to c a pita lism,
no t the “na tura l” a spe c t (whic h a t first g la nc e to the Limits to Gro wth
suppo rte rs a ppe a rs to be the de c isive fa c to r). !e pro ble m with this
subje c tivity is tha t it do e s no t ha ve c le a r limits! Ho w muc h wo rking
cla ss “pa tie nce” ca n ca pita lists co unt o n? !is is a qua ntity (like future
kno wle dg e ) tha t c a nno t be kno wn in the sa me wa y tha t the a mo unt
o f pe tro le um in a g ive n vo lume o f subso il. !us, a dra ma is pro po se d
by this wa y o f fo rmula ting the que stio n o f the e nd o f c a pita lism.
Fo r it is pe rfe c tly po ssible fo r the wa g e a nd wo rking c o nditio ns o f
wo rke rs to shrink to unpre c e de nte d le ve ls witho ut bring ing a bo ut a
re vo lutio na ry re spo nse . Inde e d, we a re se e ing suc h a de ve lo pme nt in
Gre e ce rig ht no w whe re mo re tha n a ce ntury o f strug g le s to g ua ra nte e
a le ss pre c a rio us life to the wo rking c la ss ha s e va po ra te d witho ut a
funda me nta l bre a k with the syste m (ye t). Co nse que ntly, the Limits to
Gro wth re spo nse to the e nd o f c a pita lism se e ms to a vo id de a ling with
the de c isive que stio n: whe n (if e ve r) will c la ss strug g le re a c h a po int
o f re fusa l in the fa c e o f de te rio ra ting na tura l c o nditio ns?
One wa y to a nswe r this que stio n is to e xa mine it histo rica lly. In this
Wor k or Ener gy ? 111

a rtic le I will e xa mine o nly o ne c a se — tha t o f Na z i Ge rma ny — but it


e mbo die d a n e xtre me c a se o f e c o lo g ic a l bre a kdo wn. It fa c e d a c la ssic
“e ne rg y c risis,” its c itie s be c a me e c o lo g ic a l he lls, a nd it ha d re vive d
the sla ve mo de o f pro duc tio n. !e Ge rma n wo rking c la ss in 194 5 wa s
de finite ly a prime ca ndida te o f o ne tha t ha d be e n pushe d to the limits.

Ca s e S t udy of t he L imit t o t he L imit s t o Growt h: Na z i


Ger ma ny

Be r lin... ha s g r e a t ho pe s fo r the se se c r e t we a po ns a s we ll a s the


pro duc tive c a pa c ity o f Do ra . Uppe r Na z i c irc le s think the ro c ke ts c a n
a nd sho uld le a d to a re dre ssing o f the milita ry situa tio n. In a se nse ,
the n, the sla ve s o f Do ra ha ve be c o me the po te ntia l sa vio rs o f Hitle r’s
!ird Re ic h! — Yve s Be o n, a sla ve o n Pla ne t Do ra 34

In o rde r to be st unde rsta nd my c ritique o f Sa rka r’s e xpla na tio n a nd


my insiste nc e o n the subje c tive limit o f c a pita lism it is wo rthwhile
to lo o k a t the e xpe rie nc e o f Na z i-rule d Ge rma ny during Wo rld Wa r
II a s a n “e xtre me c a se” tha t pro ve s the no rm. Whe n we e xa mine this
e xpe rie nc e we se e tha t the so -c a lle d na tura l, e c o lo g ic a l, a nd re so urc e
limits tha t the Na z i re g ime fa c e d we re no t fina l de te rmina nts o f its
e nd. Ra the r we se e the subje c tive limits pre se nte d by wo rke rs a re the
prima ry o ne s.
Fo r e xa mple , e c o lo g ic a l limits a re no t g ive n. !e que stio n, “ho w
muc h e c o lo g ic a l de g ra da tio n wo uld the wo rking c la ss o f the pla ne t
a c c e pt be fo r e r e vo lting a g a ins t the a g e nt o f this de g r a da tio n?”
c a nno t be a nswe re d with a ny de finitive c e rta inty. Using the sta nda rd
pa ra me te rs like a ir qua lity, Ge rma n c itie s like Dre sde n in Wo rld Wa r
II e xpe rie nc e d a le ve l o f e c o lo g ic a l de g ra da tio n a t a n unpre c e de nte d
pa c e unde r the British a nd U.S. bo mbing c a mpa ig ns; ho we ve r this
de g ra da tio n did no t le a d to the ma ss e xo dus o f the Ge rma n c itiz e nry
fro m the Na z i re g ime . Le t us re me mbe r tha t the le ve l a nd pa c e o f the
e c o lo g ic a l de g ra da tio n in Dre sde n during Wo rld Wa r II wa s muc h
mo re se ve re tha n the c lima te c ha ng e s tha t a re be ing pre dic te d by the
112 Ma ter ia lis m a nd t he Cr it ique of Ener gy

pro je c to rs o f c lima te c ha ng e fo r Dre sde n in the ne a r future . A#e r a ll,


the fire bo mbing o f Dre sde n (a nd the ma jo r c itie s o f Ja pa n) inc re a se d
the a ve ra g e te mpe ra ture s in the c ity into a re a lm fa r be yo nd the he a t
pro je c tio ns fo r c itie s o f the no rth o f the Tro pic o f Ca nc e r.
!e re co rd o f the po pula tio n o f Na z i Ge rma ny unde r bo mba rdme nt
puts the issue o f limits into fo c us. The a ssumptio n o f the Allie d
milita r y pla nne rs wa s tha t the ma ssive bo mbing c a mpa ig n wo uld
le a d to a n e qua lly ma ssive de fe c tio n fr o m the r e g ime . Ho we ve r,
bo th the British a nd the U.S. Bo mbing Sur ve ys no te d tha t tho ug h
the c a mpa ig n c le a rly ha d a n e ffe c t o n mo ra le , it did no t le a d to the
insur r e c tio na r y c o nse que nc e s the y wa nte d to instig a te with the
fire bo mbing o f Dre sde n a nd o the r citie s to “de ho use a nd de mo ra liz e”!
It sho ws us tha t the re is no ine vita bility tha t c a n be de duc e d fro m
e c o lo g ic a l c o nditio ns, e spe c ia lly e xtre me a nd ra pid c ha ng e s. A#e r
a ll, a s me ntio ne d a bo ve , mo de rn wa r is a n e c o lo g ic a l c a ta stro phe .
On the o ne side , in the midst o f llie d bo mbing , Ge rma n industria l
pr o duc tio n (de fine d bo th in te r ms o f milita r y ha r dwa r e a nd the
pro fits o f co mpa nie s like Da imle r-Be nz ) incre a se d. On the o the r ha nd,
Ge rma ny fa c e d a dra ma tic a lly re duc e d ma te ria l ba se , e spe c ia lly with
the de fe a t a t Sta ling ra d (whic h wa s the ma in o bsta c le to the Na z i
ma rc h o n the Ba ku o il fie lds). In e ffe c t, Na z i Ge rma ny wa s suffe ring
a c la ssic a l “e ne rg y c risis.”
Pa ra do xic a lly, the Na z is ma de up fo r this la c k o f a ma te ria l e ne rg y
ba se in two wa ys. One by lo o king to the pa st a nd the o the r by lo o king
to the future :

As fo r the pa st, the Na z is intro duc e d sla ve la bo r inste a d o f bring ing


Ge r ma n wo me n into the fa c to r ie s. Fo r a s Be r na r d Be llo n no te s,
“ke e ping wo me n in the ho me wa s a lso inte nde d to pre ve nt the kind
o f so c ia l unre st whic h le d to the re vo lutio n o f No ve mbe r 9, 1918, a nd
the ‘sta b in the ba c k’ o f c o nse rva tive a nd Na z i le g e nds.” 35

The Na z is a lso e xpe r ime nte d with vio la ting the a dvic e o f Ada m
Smith a nd Jo hn Stua rt Mill in the ir de sire to te st the e xtre me limits
Wor k or Ener gy ? 113

o f c a pita lism whe n the Na z i re g ime put sla ve wo rke rs to the jo b o f


a sse mbling hig h-te c h V-2 ro c ke ts be twe e n 194 3 a nd e a rly 194 5 in
mine tunne ls ne a r No rdha use n. Fo r tho ug h the c e iling o f the c a ve rn
whe re the ro cke ts we re pro duce d wa s line d with the ha ng ing bo die s o f
re c a litra nt sla ve s, still, a s Smith a nd Mill pre dic te d, the missile s we re
sa bo ta g e d, ma ny o f the m la nding ha rmle ssly in fie lds a nd se a s mile s
a wa y fro m the ir ta rg e ts. Appro xima te ly 6,000 pe o ple we re kille d by
the V-2 s, while mo re tha n 12 ,000 sla ve la bo re rs die d in the pro ductio n
o f 3 ,000 V-2 missle s. !us the V-2 wa s o ne o f the first we a po ns in
histo ry whe re mo re pe o ple we re kille d in its pro duc tio n tha n by its
use . !o usa nds o f the se sla ve s die d o f e xha ustio n a nd dise a se , but
350 we re hung (inc luding 2 00 who we re e xplic itly e xe c ute d fo r a c ts
o f sa bo ta g e ). As Mic ha e l Ne ufe ld write s in his Intro duc tio n to Yve s
Be o n’s Plane t Do r a:

Sa bo ta g e na tura lly re ma ine d a ce nte ra l co nce rn, the usua l punishme nt


wa s a g rue so me ly slo w ha ng ing o n the ro ll c a ll squa re .... [S]a bo ta g e ...
ha d so me inde te rmina te but sig nific a nt e ffe c t o n missile qua lity.36

!is situa tio n co nfro nte d the Na z is with the pro ble ma tic pro duce d by
mixing a sla ve mo de o f pro duc tio n with a hig h o rg a nic c o mpo sitio n
industry. In the inte re st o f ke e ping pro duc tio n g o ing :

[T]he pre se rva tio n o f the priso ne r wo rkfo rce be ca me a hig he r prio rity,
a s ma ny no w po sse sse d se miskille d tra ining in va rio us a sse mbly line
jo bs. !e Mi"e lwe rk co mpa ny ma de limite d e ffo rts to impro ve clo thing
a nd g o o d ra tio ns, a nd [c hie f e ng ine e r] Rudo lph wa s invo lve d in the
c re a tio n o f a pre mium wa g e syste m tha t a llo we d so me priso ne rs to
e a rn priso n sc rip tha t c o uld be use d to buy a fe w e xtra s a t a c a nte e n.37

!e co rre la tio ns be twe e n o rg a nic co mpo sitio n o f a bra nch o f industry


a nd the c o mpo sitio n o f the wo rking c la ss invo lve d in tha t industry,
ho we ve r, is no t fixe d.
As fo r the future , the Na z is de plo ye d a n e xte nsive use o f c o a l
114 Ma ter ia lis m a nd t he Cr it ique of Ener gy

liquifica tio n tha t wo uld turn co a l (mine d in a mo re tra ditio na l ma nne r


by the use o f sla ve la bo r) into liquid fue l fo r inte rna l c o mbustio n
e ng ine s. !is is a te chno lo g y tha t is still be ing e xplo re d in o ur da y. And
ma ny like Sa rka r wo uld po int to its the rmo dyna mic ine fficie ncy, since
it ta ke s a n e no rmo us a mo unt o f e ne rg y to tra nsfo rm hydro c a rbo ns in
so lid fo rm into c a rbo hydra te s in liquid fo rm. But fo r the Na z i re g ime ,
it wa s e ffic ie nt o n a no the r dime nsio n, the po le mo dyna mic (lite ra lly,
“the wa r fo rc e”) dime nsio n. Fo r in the “blitz ” stra te g y, spe e d wa s
e sse ntia l, with ta nks a nd fig hte r-bo mbe rs be ing its prime mo ve rs
(a nd bo th de ma nde d liquid fue l).
In bo th the se c a se s, the limits o f the pro c e ss o f a c c umula tio n the
Na z i re g ime institute d (whic h inc lude d the re viva l o f sla ve la bo r
in Euro pe a nd the de plo yme nt o f the mo st a dva nc e d te c hno lo g ic a l
me a ns to pro duc e fue l fo r its wa r ma c hine s) we re no t de te rmine d
by the na tura l e nviro nme nt, but ra the r by subje c tive limits (to use a
sho rt-ha nd te rm). Of co urse, the Na z i re g ime did no t la st fo r its much-
trumpe te d mille nnium-lo ng e xiste nc e ; it o nly e xiste d fo r twe lve
ye a rs. But did it ine vita bly ha ve to fa il? !a t is no t c le a r to me no w,
a nd it wa s c e rta inly no t c le a r to mo st pe o ple the n. !e re we re limits
to bo th the “pa tie nc e” o f the Ge rma n c itiz e nry a nd the divisio ns o f
the sla ve s a mo ng the m, but wha t the y we re is a myste ry since, tho ug h
c o ura g e o us, the numbe r a nd e ffe c tive ne ss o f c o lle c tive sla ve a nd
c itiz e n re vo lts in Ge rma ny a g a inst the re g ime we re no t suffic ie nt to
o ve rturn it. !a t re quire d the c o mbine d milita ry fo rc e s o f the Unite d
Sta te s, the So vie t Unio n, a nd the Unite d King do m to lite ra lly o c c upy
the c o untry (unlike the de no ue me nt o f Wo rld Wa r I).
De fe nde rs o f the limit to g ro wth hypo the sis like Sa rka r mig ht
o bje c t tha t the Na z i re g ime wa s no t a “no rma l” c a pita list re g ime a nd
the wa r ma de e xtre me its a lre a dy de via nt no n-c a pita list te nde nc ie s.
But the Na z is we re inte nt to pre se rve a nd e xpa nd the re a c h o f the
funda me nta l struc ture s o f mo de rn c a pita lism a ro und the wo rld, just
a s lo ng a s it wa s Ge rma n ca pita l tha t to o k the be st plums. Fo r e xa mple,
Da imle r-Be nz built a g o o d po rtio n o f the V-2 ro c ke t fo r the Ge rma n
milita ry fo r a pro fit. Mo re o ve r, if a la rg e milita ry industry disqua lifie d
Wor k or Ener gy ? 115

a c o untry fro m jo ining the ra nks o f c a pita list sta te s, the n the Unite d
Sta te s wo uld be the first to be o uste d. !e who le po int o f this sho rt
re minisc e nc e o f Na z i Ge rma ny, ho we ve r, is to sho w tha t e ne rg y a nd
e c o lo g ic a l c rise s o f the mo st de va sta ting so rt a lo ne will no t dire c tly
le a d to the a ba ndo ning o f a so c io e c o no mic syste m like c a pita lism
unle ss the re is a n a lte rna tive a va ila ble a nd a po litic a l fo rc e unite d
e no ug h a nd ma ssive e no ug h to a c hie ve it.

Conc lus ion: Refus ing t he Ba r ga in of Gr een Ca pit a l


In c o nc lusio n, I find Sa ra l Sa rka r’s de fe nse o f the Limits to Gro wth
pa ra dig m e xpla na tio n a ma jo r c ha lle ng e to Ma rxist c o nc e ptio ns o f
the limit to c a pita lism, but ultima te ly it is pro ble ma tic . Le t us re vie w
a numbe r o f re a so ns fo r suc h a c o nc lusio n.
First, the o nly limit o f c a pita lism a rise s fro m a subje c tive fo rm
o f e ne rg y — wo rk — tha t intrinsic a lly is o pe n to re fusa l a nd, via
its ne g a tive c a pa c ity, c r e a te s va lue .3 8 It is va lue tha t c a pita lists
a c c umula te ; no t ma te ria l use va lue s.
Se c o nd, the re ha ve be e n ma ny c ha ng e s in the e ne rg y ba se s o f the
c a pita list mo de o f pro duc tio n witho ut a c ha ng e to the funda me nta l,
c a te g o ric a l struc ture o f c a pita lism. The re is no re a so n to se e the
pr e se nt e ne r g y a nd e c o lo g ic a l sta te a s mo r e thr e a te ning to the
c o ntinua tio n o f c a pita lism tha n pre vio us tra nsitio ns, fo r the re is still
a n e no rmo us po o l o f la bo r po we r a va ila ble fo r e xplo ita tio n, c e rta inly
mo re tha n in a ll the histo ry o f c a pita lism.
!ird, c a pita lists a re willing to unle a sh e no rmo us de struc tio n to
pre se rve the ir syste m o f a c c umula tio n a nd c la ss po we r a s ha s be e n
de mo nstra te d time a nd a g a in in the la st c e ntury. But the y spe a k in
shro ude d wo rds. !ink o f the me ssa g e s se nt in the la ng ua g e o f the
nucle a r bo mbs e xplo de d in Hiro shima a nd Na g a sa ki a nd the hundre ds
o f “te sts” o f nuc le a r bo mbs, bo th a tmo sphe ric a nd subte rra ne a n, tha t
we re me a nt to re mind the wo rld po pula tio n o f c a pita l’s po we r.
!e c a pita list c la ss a ppe a rs to ho ld the wo rld ho sta g e . Unc le a r,
ho we ve r, is whe the r the a ve ra g e ra te o f pro fit will be inc re a se d by
inve sting in re ve rsing c lima te c ha ng e a nd pre ve nting the c o mple te
116 Ma ter ia lis m a nd t he Cr it ique of Ener gy

de ple tio n o f c a rbo n-ba se d na tura l re so urc e s o r by susta ining e ne rg y


inte nsive g ro wth tha t ha s de fine d c a pita lism sinc e the industria l
r e vo lutio n. In “c lima te summits” the Gr e e n fa c tio n o f c a pita l, a t
le a st, lo o ks to the wo rld wo rking c la ss a nd a sks o f it whe the r a de a l
is po ssible : “Are yo u willing to buy o ur ‘stra nde d a sse t,’ o il in the so il,
to the tune o f te ns o f trillio ns o f do lla rs a nd so fa c e a lo ng pe rio d o f
a so rt o f inde nture d se rvitude -with-inc re a se d wo rk a nd de c re a se d
wa g e s? In o the r wo rds, do yo u a g re e to sa tisfy o ur ne e d fo r surplus
va lue in e xc ha ng e fo r us do ing wha t is ne c e ssa ry to ‘sa ve the pla ne t’?”
A re vo lutio na r y re to rt to this “de a l” will no t be pro vide d by tho se
who de pe nd upo n na ture’s limits, but by tho se who o rg a niz e to re fuse
c a pita l’s bla c kma il.

Not es
1. Mic ha e l Ha rdt a nd Anto nio Ne g ri, Co mmo nwe alth (Ca mbridg e , MA:
Ha rva rd UP, 2 009).
2. Ka r l Ma r x a nd Fr ie dr ic h Eng e ls , The Co mmunis t Manife s t o
(Ha rmo ndswo rth: Pe ng uin Bo o ks, 1967 ).
3. Ug o Ba rdi, “Pe a k Oil a nd ‘!e Limits to Gro wth’: Two Pa ra lle l sto rie s,”
!e Oil Dr um, www.the o ildrum.c o m/no de /3550
4. Ge o rg e Ca ffe ntz is, “!e Pe a k Oil Co mple x, Co mmo dity Fe tishism a nd
Cla ss Strug g le ,” Re think ing Mar x ism 2 0 (2 008) 313– 32 0.
5. Sa sha Lille y, e t a l. Catastr o phism: !e Apo c aly ptic Po litic s o f Co llapse and
Re b ir th (Oa kla nd, CA: PM Pre ss, 2 012 ).
6. Sa ra l Sa rka r, !e Cr ise s o f Capitalism: A Diffe r e nt study o f Po litic al Ec o no my
(Be rke le y, CA: Co unte rpo int, 2 012 ), a nd Sa ra l Sa rka r, Ec o - So c ialism o r
Ec o - Capitalis m? : A Cr itic al Analy s is o f Humanity ’s Fundame ntal Cho ic e s
(Lo ndo n: Ze d Bo o ks, 1999).
7. Sa rka r, !e Cr ise s o f Capitalism 352 .
8. !e Cr ise s o f Capitalism 2 7 8.
Wor k or Ener gy ? 117

9. !e Cr ise s o f Capitalism 2 7 8.
10. !e Cr ise s o f Capitalism 2 80.
11. !e Cr ise s o f Capitalism 2 82 .
12 . !e Cr ise s o f Capitalism 2 84 .
13. Ka rl Po ppe r, “Pre fa c e ,” !e Po v e r ty o f His to r ic is m (Lo ndo n: Ro utle dg e
a nd Ka g a n Pa ul, 1957 ).
14 . Fra nkly, we c a nno t kno w fo r sure a t this time whe re the sc ie nc e o f the
future will le a d a ny mo re tha n we ca n kno w the sta tus o f a n a #e rlife. But
g iving Sa rka r the be ne fit o f the do ubt, we c a n re c ko n by the re lia bility
a nd dura bility o f a limit la w like the Se c o nd La w o f !e rmo dyna mic s
— a “la w” tha t puts c le a r limits o n the e ffic ie nc y o f he a t e ng ine s a nd
“de cre e s” tha t pe rpe tuum mo bile s a re impo ssible — tha t the suspe nsio n
o f Po ppe r’s ma xim is justifie d in this c a se . Inde e d, a ha lf-c e ntury be fo re
the first fo rmula tio n o f the Se c o nd La w the Fre nc h Ac a de my de c ide d
(a na c hr o nis tic a lly) to vio la te Po ppe r ’s ma xim whe n it r e fus e d to
c o nside r a ny c o rre spo nde nc e with pe o ple c la iming to ha ve inve nte d
pe rpe tuum mo bile s in 17 7 5!
15. !e Cr ise s o f Capitalism 2 89.
16. “Subje c tive” in this c o nte xt is no t a n a nto nym o f “o bje c tive ,” but it is
its dia le c tic a l c o mple me nt. He re I fo llo w a He g e lia n usa g e : “...the te rm
subje c tivity is no t to be c o nfine d me re ly to the ba d a nd finite kind o f
it whic h is c o ntra ste d with the thing (fa c t). In its truth subje c tivity is
imma ne nt in the fa ct, a nd a s a subje ctivity thus infinite is the ve ry truth
o f the fa ct.” Willia m Wa lla ce, !e Lo g ic o f He g e l (Oxfo rd: Oxfo rd UP, 1892 )
270
17. !e Cr ise s o f Capitalism 2 7 8, 2 80.
18. Ka rl Ma rx, Capital Vo l. I, tra ns. Be n Fo wke s (Lo ndo n: Pe ng uin Bo o ks,
197 6 [1867 ]) 134 .
19. Silvia Fe de ric i, Calib an and the Witc h: Wo me n, the Bo dy and Pr imitiv e
Ac c umulatio n (Ne w Yo rk: Auto no me dia , 2 004 ).
2 0. Ma rx, Capital Vo l. I 4 32 .
2 1. !e Cr ise s o f Capitalism 2 80.
22. Ge o rg e Ca ffe ntz is, “A Critique o f Co g nitive Ca pita lism,” in Le "e r s o f Blo o d
and Fir e : Wo r k , Mac hine s, and the Cr isis o f Capitalism (Oa kla nd, CA: PM P/
118 Ma ter ia lis m a nd t he Cr it ique of Ener gy

Co mmo n No tio ns, 2 013) 95– 12 6.


2 3. !e da ta o n “La bo r fo rc e , to ta l” wa s a c c e sse d o n Ma rc h 2 0, 2 016 a t da ta .
wo rldba nk.o rg /indic a to r/SL.TLF.TOTL.IN?pa g e =5.
24. !e Cr ise s o f Capitalism 34 1.
2 5. Do ne lla H. Me a do ws e t a l.,!e Limits to Gr o wth: A Re po r t o f !e Club o f
Ro me’s Pr o je c t o n the Pr e dic ame nt o f Mank ind (Wa shing to n D.C.: Po to ma c
Asso c ia te s, 197 2 ).
2 6. Ca ffe ntz is, In Le "e r s o f Blo o d and Fir e 58– 65.
2 7. Ada m Smith, An Inq uir y Into the Nature and Cause s o f the We alth o f Natio ns
(Wa shing to n, DC: Re g ne ry Publishing , Inc ., 1998) 4 38, a nd Jo hn Stua rt
Mill, Pr inc iple s o f Po litic al Ec o no my with So me o f !e ir Applic atio ns to So c ial
Philo so phy (Ne w Yo rk: Aug ustus M. Ke lly, 1961) 2 51.
2 8. Fo r a disc ussio n o f the Wo rk/Ene rg y ra tio se e Ge o rg e Ca ffe ntz is, “!e
Wo rk/Ene rg y Crisis a nd the Apo ca lypse,” Midnig ht Oil: Wo r k Ene rg y , War,
197 3 - 1992 , e ds. Midnig ht No te s Co lle ctive (Bro o klyn: Auto no me dia , 1992 )
a nd Ge o rg e Ca ffe ntz is, “Intro duc tio n a nd Glo ssa r y,” No Blo o d Fo r Oil!
Essay s o n Ene r g y , Class Str ug g le , and War (Bro o klyn, NY: Auto no me dia ,
2 017 ) 4 1– 4 3.
2 9. Timo thy Mitc he ll, Car b o n De mo c r ac y : Po litic al Po we r in the Ag e o f Oil
(Lo ndo n: Ve rso , 2 011) 2 7.
30. Mitc he ll, Car b o n De mo c r ac y 36.
31. Ra ul Zibe c hi, “Extr a c tivism Sta g g e r s,” a c c e sse d a t c o mpa ma nue l.
c o m/2 015/06/04 z ive c hi-e xtra c tivism-sta g g e rs; Pa tric ia I. Va sque z , Oil
Spar k s in the Amaz o n: Lo c al Co nflic ts, Indig e no us Po pulatio ns, and Natur al
Re s o ur c e s (Athe ns GA: The U o f Ge o rg ia P, 2 014 ); Ge o rg e Ca ffe ntz is,
“!e Pe tro le um Co mmo ns: Lo c a l, Isla mic a nd Glo ba l,” Co unte r punc h
De c e mbe r 15, 2 004 . ww4 re po rt/105/pla ne twa tc h/pe tro le umc o mmo ns.
32 . Re nfre w Christie , “Why Do e s Ca pita l Ne e d Ene rg y?” in Oil and Clas s
Str ug g le , e ds. Pe "e r No re a nd Te risa Turne r (Lo ndo n: Ze d Bo o ks, 1980)
14 .
33. Capital Vo l. I 559.
34 . Yve s Be o n, Plane t Do ra: A Me mo ir o f the Ho lo c aust and the Bir th o f the Spac e
Ag e (Bo ulde r, CO: We stvie w P, 1997 ) 2 5.
35. Be rna rd P Be llo n. Me rc e de s in Pe ac e and War : Ge r man Auto mo b ile Wo r k e r s,
Wor k or Ener gy ? 119

1903 - 1945 . (Ne w Yo rk: Co lumbia UP, 1990).


36. Mic ha e l Ne ufe ld, “Intro duc tio n,” in Plane t Do r a xix.
37. Ne ufe ld, “Intro duc tio n” xvii.
38. Le "e r s o f Blo o d and Fir e 161– 163.

You might also like