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253

REVIEW

Hyperglycaemic crises and lactic acidosis in diabetes


mellitus
P English, G Williams
............................................................................................................................. . .

Postgrad Med J 2004;80:253–261. doi: 10.1136/pgmj.2002.004291

Diabetic ketoacidosis, hyperglycaemic hyperosmolar state, HHS replaces the older terms, ‘‘hyperglycaemic
hyperosmolar non-ketotic coma’’ and ‘‘hypergly-
and lactic acidosis represent three of the most serious acute caemic hyperosmolar non-ketotic state’’, because
complications of diabetes. There have been some advances alterations of sensoria may be present without
in our understanding of the pathogenesis of these coma, and mild to moderate
45
ketosis is commonly
present in this state.
conditions over the last three decades, together with more Definitions vary according to the degree of
uniform agreement on their treatment and innovations in hyperglycaemia and elevation of osmolality
technology. Accordingly their incidence, morbidity, and required. Table 5
1 summarises the definition of
Kitabchi et al.
mortality are decreasing, but at rates that fall short of our
aspirations. Hyperglycaemic crises in particular remain an Epidemiology
important cause of morbidity and mortality in diabetic The annual incidence of DKA among subjects
with type 1 diabetes is between 1% and 5% in
populations around the world. In this article, understanding European and American series6–10 and this
of these conditions and advances in their management, incidence appears to have remained relatively
and the available guidelines for their treatment, are constant over the last decade in Western
countries. Episodes of DKA are more common
reviewed. As far as is possible, the recommendations are in younger than older subjects and are twice as
based on clear published evidence; failing that, what is common in females than males.11 Mortality rates
considered to be a common sense synthesis of consensus are reportedly
5 10 12–15
less than 5% in experienced
guidelines and recommendations is provided. centres, but increase with age, approach-
ing 50% in those over the age of 80.11
........................................................................... The incidence of HHS is more difficult to
determine since there are few population based
yperglycaemic crises are discussed together studies, and the frequent presence of complicat-

H followed by a separate section on lactic


acidosis.
ing illnesses may lead to this diagnosis not being
entered in discharge coding. HHS admission
rates appear to be lower than those for DKA
and account for ,1% of admissions primarily
DIABETIC KETOACIDOSIS ( DKA) AND related to diabetes.16 17 Mortality rates are, how-
HYPERGLYCAEMIC HYPEROSMOLAR STATE ever, much higher at around 15%,14 16–19 perhaps
( HHS) reflecting the severity of the associated illnesses
Definitions and the greater age of many of these patients.
DKA has no universally agreed definition. Alberti
proposed the working definition of ‘‘severe Precipitants
uncontrolled diabetes requiring emergency treat- The commonest identified precipitant of DKA
ment with insulin and intravenous fluids and and HHS is infection (see table 2), though the
with a blood ketone body concentration of fact that DKA per se causes a raised white blood
.5 mmol/l’’.1 Given the limited availability of cell count, vasodilatation, and polyuria may lead
blood ketone body assays, a more pragmatic to over diagnosis of infection as a precipitant (see
definition comprising a metabolic acidosis (pH box 2). The other principal precipitant is insulin
,7.3), plasma bicarbonate ,15 mmol/l, plasma error, whether accidental or due to non-con-
See end of article for
authors’ affiliations glucose .13.9 mmol/l, and urine ketostix reac- cordance, and failure to increase insulin during
....................... tion ++ or plasma ketostix > +2 may be more intercurrent illness. Other factors include myo-
Correspondence to: workable in clinical practice. Classifying the cardial infarction, stroke, new onset of type 1
Dr Patrick English, severity of diabetic ketoacidosis is desirable, diabetes, pancreatitis, pulmonary embolism,
Diabetes and since it may assist in determining the manage- excess alcohol ingestion, and drugs that alter
Endocrinology Research ment and monitoring of the patient. Such a carbohydrate metabolism such as corticosteroids,
Group, 3rd Floor Clinical classification is based on the severity of acidosis sympathomimetic agents, a-adrenergic and b-
Sciences Centre, University
Hospital Aintree, Lower (table 1). A caveat to this approach is that the adrenergic blockers, and diuretics. It is worth
Lane, Liverpool L9 7AL, presence of an intercurrent illness, that may not noting that although DKA is most likely to occur
UK; penglish@liv.ac.uk necessarily affect the level of acidosis, may in individuals with type 1 diabetes, it is also well
markedly affect outcome: a recent study showed described in individuals with type 2 diabetes and
Submitted
12 September 2003 that the two most important factors predicting
Accepted 1 October 2003 mortality in DKA were severe intercurrent illness Abbreviations: DKA, diabetic ketoacidosis; FFA, free
....................... and pH ,7.0.3 fatty acids; HHS, hyperglycaemic hyperosmolar state

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254 English, Williams

Table 1 Diagnostic criteria for diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperglycaemic


hyperosmolar state (HHS)
DKA

Mild Moderate Severe HHS

Plasma glucose (mmol/l >14 >14 >14 >30


Arterial pH 7.25–7.35 7.0–(7.24 ,7.0 .7.3
Serum bicarbonate (mmol/l) 15–18 10–14 ,10 .15
Urine ketones >++ >++ >++ (+
Plasma ketones >++ >++ >++ (+
Total osmolality (mOsm/kg)* Variable Variable Variable >340
Anion gap† .10 .12 .12 ,12
Level of consciousness Alert Alert/drowsy Stupor/coma Stupor/coma

*Formula: 26{[Na+]+[K+]}+[urea]+[glucose].
†Formula: [Na+ ]–([Cl2]+[HCO32]) (mmol/l). Table largely adapted from Kitabchi et al.
5

severe precipitating illness, who may be able to return to Hyperglycaemia


therapy with oral hypoglycaemic agents once the acute illness Insulin deficiency and raised catecholamines, cortisol, and
and hyperglycaemic crisis have been treated. DKA has also glucagon increase hepatic gluconeogenesis and enhance
been increasingly described in obese African Americans with glycogenolysis. Hypercortisolaemia also increases protein
type 2 diabetes, sometimes at diagnosis and sometimes after breakdown, providing increased amino acid precursors for
relatively minor or undiagnosed precipitants in individuals gluconeogenesis. Glucose production is thus increased, while
with reasonable baseline control.16 20 Characteristically these glucose disposal in peripheral tissues is decreased as a result
individuals return to oral hypoglycaemic therapy or diet of both insulin deficiency and the insulin resistance induced
control after resolution of the acute episode. by the raised levels of plasma catabolic hormones and free
Recurrent episodes of DKA account for 15% of cases and fatty acids (FFA). Blood glucose levels rise, leading to
are more common in those who are female, socially deprived, glycosuria, osmotic diuresis and dehydration, which
and of lower educational status. Psychological problems decreases renal perfusion and renal glucose clearance
complicated by eating disorder are associated with deliberate (especially in HHS), further exacerbating hyperglycaemia.
omission or under-dosing with insulin and may contribute to
20% of these recurrent admissions in young type 1 diabetic Hyperketonaemia and acidosis
patients.2 Hormone sensitive lipase mediates the breakdown of stored
triglycerides in adipose tissue. It is exquisitely sensitive to
Pathogenesis inhibition by insulin, while its activity is increased by the
The primary mechanism for the development of ketoacidosis counter-regulatory hormones (especially catecholamines and
and HHS is a reduction in the effective levels and/or action of cortisol). In DKA, profound insulin deficiency and elevated
circulating insulin with a concomitant elevation of the levels of counter-regulatory hormones activate hormone
counter-regulatory hormones: glucagon, catecholamines, sensitive lipase, increasing lipolysis and releasing large
cortisol, and growth hormone (fig 1), due to insulin amounts of glycerol and FFA into the portal circulation.21–24
deficiency per se and intercurrent illness. Glycerol is a precursor for gluconeogenesis in both liver and
kidneys while the hepatic mitochondria oxidise FFA to the
ketone bodies acetoacetate and 3-hydroxybutyrate. Ketone
Box 1: Useful equations bodies are strong organic acids and their rapid increase
outstrips the bodies buffering capacity (provided by bicarbo-
In DKA the accumulation of anionic ketones and the nate) leading to acidosis.
consumption of bicarbonate as a buffer lead to an ‘‘anion Why ketoacidosis does not occur in HHS is unknown;
gap’’ acidosis. The anion gap can be calculated by current theories draw attention to the lower levels of FFA and
considering the usual major cations (K+ is not used because growth hormone, and the higher portal vein insulin
of its alterations in acid-base disturbances) and major anions concentrations.4 5 25–29
in plasma using the formula:
[Na+]–([Cl2]+[HCO32]), and should be less than 7– Fluid and electrolyte losses
9 mmol/l using current laboratory methods for chloride Hyperglycaemia and ketonaemia cause an osmotic diuresis
concentrations.5 with dehydration and loss of electrolytes, particularly the
Hyperglycaemia is restricted to the extracellular space so cations: sodium, potassium, and magnesium (table 3).
water moves from the intracellular to the extracellular Sodium loss is worsened by insulin deficiency and glucagon
compartment initially, diluting plasma sodium. During the
accompanying osmotic diuresis, water is generally lost in
Table 2 Precipitating factors for DKA
excess of sodium until eventually the loss of water is similar
for both extracellular and intracellular compartments. Precipitating condition Cases (%)
Therefore, in DKA, which is usually of relatively brief
Infections 19–56
duration (,24 hours), plasma sodium concentrations may Cardiovascular disease 3–6
be artificially lowered and can be corrected using the Inadequate insulin/non- 15–41
formula: compliance
Corrected [Na+] mmol/l = [plasma Na+] mmol/l New onset diabetes 10–22
Other medical illness 10–12
+ (1.66{(plasma glucose25.6)/5.6}).5 26 27 Unknown 4–33
Footnote: HCO32, bicarbonate; Cl 2, chloride; Na+,
sodium. 5
Table derived from references Kitabchi et al, Bagg et al,
12

27
and Lebovitz.

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Hyperglycaemic crises and lactic acidosis in diabetes 255

Figure 1 Pathogenesis of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperglycaemic hyperosmolar state (HHS) (FFA, free fatty acids) .

excess. Potassium loss is exacerbated by acidosis, which leads Presentation


to the displacement of this largely intracellular cation into DKA and HHS generally present in different ways, evolving
the extracellular space from where it may be excreted in urine over different time periods. DKA usually develops over a
or lost in vomit. Furthermore, insulinopenia promotes short time frame (,24 hours) in individuals with type 1
intracellular proteolysis and also impairs potassium entry diabetes, although symptoms of poor diabetes control may
into cells, further enhancing the above shifts. Thus plasma have been present for several days. When DKA occurs in
potassium concentrations rise although whole body potas- individuals with type 2 diabetes, then the precipitating illness
sium levels fall, and this can lead to cardiac and skeletal is usually severe, although there are exceptions (see
muscle toxicity. This process is reversed rapidly on institution ‘‘Precipitants’’). The clinical picture commonly includes
of appropriate therapy with insulin and fluid, leading to polyuria, polydipsia, dehydration, weakness, weight loss,
dramatic counter shifts in potassium and rapid falls in and nausea and vomiting. Abdominal pain, potentially
plasma potassium concentrations that are also potentially mimicking an acute abdomen, is a less common feature,
arrhythmogenic and demand close monitoring (see occurring in approximately 46% of patients with DKA30 but
‘‘Management’’). Phosphate and magnesium are also has not been reported in HHS; it is possibly related to
depleted in DKA, the effects of hypomagnesaemia potentially dehydration of muscle tissue, delayed gastric emptying, and
exacerbating the effects of hyper/hypokalaemia. Hyper- ileus resulting from acidosis and electrolyte imbalances. It is
more common in those with more profound acidosis and
ventilation, fever, and increased sweating all contribute to
typically resolves with resolution of DKA. Abdominal pain
further fluid losses and the fluid deficit averages six litres or
that fails to resolve within the first 24 hours should be
more at presentation in adults.4 5 26 27
investigated further.30 Clouding of consciousness, which may
progress to coma is also present in a number of cases, though
loss of consciousness is reported to be present in ,20% of
Table 3 Typical water and electrolyte deficits at those with HHS or DKA.4 14 16 19 Physical examination may
presentation in diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and reveal Kussmaul respirations (rapid and deep respiration),
hyperglycaemic hyperosmolar state (HHS) tachycardia, hypotension, shock, and altered sensorium. The
breath may have the odour of nail varnish remover, the result
DKA* HHS*
of acetone produced by the decarboxylation of acetoacetate in
Water (ml/kg) 100 (7 litres) 100–200 (10.5 litres) the liver.
Sodium (mmol/kg) 7–10 (490–700) 5–13 (350–910) HHS typically presents in overweight subjects with type 2
Potassium (mmol/kg) 3–5 (210–300) 5–15 (350–1050)
Phosphate (mmol/kg) 1–1.5 (70–105) 1–2 (70–140) diabetes and has a more insidious onset with polyuria,
Magnesium (mmol/kg) 1–2 (70–140) 1–2 (70–140) polydipsia, and weight loss of several days or even weeks’
duration. Mental obtundation and coma are more frequent4
*Values in parentheses represent the total body deficit for a 70 kg patient. because of hyperosmolarity, and focal neurological signs
27
Table largely drawn from Lebovitz .
(mimicking stroke) and seizures have also been described.31–33

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256 English, Williams

Infection is a common precipitant of DKA and HHS, and a cultures and chest radiography should be performed as
history of an infective illness may be obtained. An appro- clinically indicated, though the fact that infection is a
priate history should also pick up any of the other common precipitant and difficult to exclude (see box 2),
precipitants for DKA or HHS listed in table 2, with particular particularly in moderate or severe DKA, means that they are
attention paid to cardiac causes and omission of medication. frequently required. Urea, creatinine, electrolytes, and plasma
The extreme metabolic disturbance of DKA can lead to glucose should be repeated two hourly for the first four hours
laboratory and physical findings that may mislead the and 2–4 hourly subsequently, depending on the patient’s
unwary and it is important to be aware of these pitfalls, progress, with particular attention to potassium concentra-
which are summarised in box 2. tions.
There is broad agreement across published guidelines for
Management the management of DKA and HHS covering the above
The aims of DKA management are to correct the acidosis, measures and including suggested rates of intravenous
hyperglycaemia, dehydration and electrolyte disturbance insulin infusion. However, there are some clear differences,
associated with the condition and to identify and treat any notably among the suggested protocols for intravenous fluid
associated comorbid events. This requires appropriate and administration.5 26 27 34 35 We suggest a compromise between
rapid clinical assessment and frequent monitoring of the these positions.
patient; this demands regular review by the responsible
doctors as well as other trained personnel. Intravenous fluid therapy
After initial assessment, plasma glucose, urea, creatinine, An average adult patient in DKA will have a deficit of 5–
and electrolytes; urinary ketones; arterial blood gases; and 7 litres of water, 500–700 mmol of sodium, 200–350 mmol of
full blood count should be obtained, and intravenous fluid potassium, 350–500 mmol of phosphate, and 200– 350
and insulin started. An electrocardiogram will be required in mmol of chloride.5 26 Intravenous fluid therapy should aim to
most cases, either to exclude a cardiac precipitant of DKA, if correct these water and electrolyte deficits over the first 24–
appropriate, or because of the potential for cardiac arrhyth- 48 hours, expanding the intravascular and extra- vascular
mias secondary to the large shifts in electrolytes, particularly volume and restoring renal perfusion. The speed of
potassium, with moderate or severe DKA. Blood and urine replacement will depend on the patient’s haemodynamic and
cardiovascular status. This is assessed using clinical evalua-
tion of jugular venous pressure and postural changes in blood
Box 2: Diagnostic pitfalls in DKA pressure and heart rate. These changes, however, are difficult
to interpret in the presence of suspected autonomic neuro-
Sodium: whole body sodium is depleted but may appear: pathy (which is common in poorly controlled diabetes) or
N Raised due to dehydration. when the patient is using cardioactive or vasoactive medica-
N Normal. tion (a common scenario in older diabetic subjects). This
means that in most adults with moderate or severe DKA it is
N Low (see useful equations). appropriate to assume a deficit of approximately five litres
Potassium: whole body potassium depleted but may appear: (three litres in mild DKA) and to be guided by the response to
N Raised due to acidosis. therapy. If the patient has significant cardiac disease, then

N Normal. central venous pressure monitoring is required in moderate/


severe DKA.
N Occasionally low. Calculating plasma osmolality (2{[Na+]+[K+]}+[glucose]+
[urea]) can also be useful: plasma sodium .140 mmol/l and
Creatinine: ketone bodies interfere with some assays osmolality .340 mOsm/kg are associated with large fluid
White cell count deficits, and plasma osmolality can be correlated with mental
status. As stupor and coma are unusual with a plasma
N Raised with DKA per se and thus not necessarily an osmolality of ,340 mOsm/kg,5 36 another cause for altered
indicator of infection. conscious level should be sought if osmolality is below this
level.
Temperature Infusion of 1–1.5 litres of 0.9% saline in the first hour is
N Vasodilated (feel warm). appropriate in most cases, though colloid should be
N Reduced core temperature. considered if the systolic blood pressure is ,100 mm Hg.
N Cannot interpret temperature as marker of infection (or Rates can be adjusted according to requirements subse-
quently (hydration status, electrolytes, urinary output) but
lack of infection).
will usually be in the region of 250–1000 ml/hour for the next
Amylase four hours (4–14 ml/kg/hour). If corrected sodium concen-
Pancreatitis can precipitate DKA but amylase is raised in the trations are high (.155 mmol/l) after the initial 1–2 litres of
absence of pancreatitis in DKA (?salivary origin). 0.9% saline, then 0.45% saline should be considered with
close monitoring of electrolytes. 5 37 European guidelines34 are
Triglycerides more circumspect about the use of hypo-osmolar solutions
Grossly raised triglycerides can cause pancreatitis and thus than the new American Position Statement and Technical
DKA but triglycerides are raised in DKA (FFA not taken up by Review5 35 and recommend that, if used at all, no more than
liver ¡ adipose breakdown). one litre of 0.45% saline should be given over eight hours.34
Once plasma glucose falls to ,14 mmol/l then 5% dextrose
Urinary ketones (10% dextrose if less fluid/more insulin required) should be
3-hydroxybutyrate concentrations in plasma are 2–3 times started at 100–125 ml/hour and 0.9% saline continued at a
those of acetoacetate but in acidotic states this ratio is slower rate to complete rehydration and electrolyte replace-
increased further.5 26 81 As therapy improves acidosis, levels ment. The recommendations of the American Diabetes
of acetoacetate rise and methods that measure only Association2 suggest that effective serum osmolality should
acetoacetate concentration is urine may therefore suggest not change by .3 mOsm/kg/hour and, although this may be
that ketonaemia is worsening. hard to ensure, osmolality should be monitored regularly.

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Hyperglycaemic crises and lactic acidosis in diabetes 257

Although controversy persists over the speed of fluid respiratory function.5 However, there is little clinical evidence
replacement, these suggestions broadly fit those guidelines to support this approach and one study performed on acidotic
that are available,5 34 those protocols used in trials with low patients (due to differing causes) on an intensive care unit
mortality rates,15 and even cover the suggestions for lower demonstrated no haemodynamic improvement, despite
rate infusions put forward.38 39 The key to management increases in blood pH with bicarbonate therapy.43
remains the accurate assessment of circulatory status and Disadvantages include an increased incidence of hypokalae-
fluid losses, and close monitoring. mia,44 45 hypocalcaemia, paradoxical cerebrospinal fluid
acidosis,44 46 47 worsening intracellular acidosis, 11 48 49 and
Potassium hypoxia.44 50 More sinister is an association between bicarbo-
Potassium replacement should commence as soon as nate use and cerebral oedema outlined in a recent study.51
hyperkalaemia is excluded or has disappeared with rehydra- Furthermore, there is evidence that bicarbonate therapy
tion and insulin therapy. If potassium levels are between augments ketone production and can actually delay the
3.3–5.5 mmol/l then give 20 mmol/hour of potassium5 34 improvement in ketosis produced by appropriate insulin and
initially (this will equate to between 20–40 mmol potas- fluid administration. It might therefore be best reserved for
sium/litre of infused fluid in early stages of treatment). Aim those with impending cardiovascular or respiratory collapse,
to keep potassium .4.0 mmol/l by adjusting the infusion rate and prospective randomised trials are long overdue in this
accordingly, and consider that 20–30 mmol potassium are
area. If administered in a patient with pH ,6.9, 100 mmol of
likely to be needed in each litre of intravenous fluid. If
sodium bicarbonate infused with 20 mmol potassium chlor-
potassium levels are ,3.3 mmol/l at presentation then the
patient is at risk of cardiac arrhythmia and respiratory muscle ide over 30 minutes is the recommended dose,5 34 with serial
weakness with institution of insulin therapy. This should be monitoring of calcium and potassium.
withheld until plasma potassium has been corrected by
infusion of potassium at 40 mmol/hour.5 If potassium is Phosphate
.5.5 mmol/l then potassium should be omitted until plasma Enhanced urinary phosphate excretion in DKA commonly
concentrations are within the target range.34 Continuous leads to hypophosphataemia. Complications related to
electrocardiographic monitoring should be instituted with hypophosphataemia are rare unless the condition is severe
therapy. (phosphate ,0.35 mmol/l) but include respiratory and
skeletal muscle weakness, haemolytic anaemia, and reduced
Insulin therapy cardiac systolic function. Routine phosphate replacement has
Insulin therapy should be started as a continuous intrave- not been shown to be clinically beneficial52–54 and so
nous infusion of six units per hour of fast acting insulin as replacement should only be considered in those with
soon as the diagnosis is made (see fig 2). If there is to be any anaemia, cardiac dysfunction or respiratory depression and
significant delay in instituting this infusion and potassium hypophosphataemia, or those with severe hypophosphatae-
levels are .3.3 mmol/l, then 10 units (or less if hyperglycae- mia. If phosphate is administered, replacement with
mia is not marked) of fast acting insulin, injected intrave- 20 mmol phosphate added to one litre of replacement fluid
nously or intramuscularly, is appropriate initial therapy. The is appropriate, while care is taken to avoid hypocalcaemia.
aim is to bring plasma glucose concentrations down by 3–
5 mmol/l/hour. If plasma glucose does not fall by 3 mmol/l in
the first hour, then infusion lines and hydration status should General measures
be checked. If the lines are patent and the hydration status General measures to be taken are:
appropriately treated, then the dose of insulin may be
doubled. When plasma glucose levels are (14 mmol/l the N Passage of a nasogastric tube if the patient is unconscious
or drowsy and vomiting.
rate of insulin infusion may be decreased (we suggest to
three units an hour) and intravenous dextrose started as N Passing a urinary catheter if the patient has not passed
outlined above. Insulin and glucose infusions should be urine for more than three hours or is obtunded.
adjusted to maintain plasma glucose between 8–12 mmol/l
until the acidosis has resolved when regular insulin therapy
N Heparinisation for those who are hyperosmolar or coma-
tose,34 although there is a lack of formal studies on this
may start if the patient is able to eat and drink. Intravenous issue.
insulin should continue for 30 minutes after the administra-
tion of the first dose of subcutaneous insulin. There are no randomised studies assessing the impact of
If working in a location where continuous intravenous the location of care (intensive care unit, high dependency
insulin infusion cannot be administered the American unit, emergency medical unit, diabetes specialty ward, or
Diabetes Association position statement suggests that 0.4 general medical ward) on the outcome of DKA or HHS.
units of fast acting insulin/kg body weight be given, half as Accordingly this choice must be based on the available
an intravenous bolus, half subcutaneously or intramuscu- hospital resources and known prognostic indicators. Patients
larly, and then that 0.1 units/kg are given intramuscularly with DKA need intensive monitoring, and therapy with
each hour until plasma glucose is less than 14 mmol/l. At this prompt access to diagnostic and laboratory services and these
stage 5–10 units of fast acting insulin are administered every must be available whichever management site is chosen.
two hours, with concomitant dextrose infusion, until normal Interestingly, the use of standardised written guidelines
insulin can be started.35 It should be stressed, however, that appear to be more important in determining outcome than
the studies with the lower mortality rates have all been the type of hospital or the specialty of the attending
conducted in centres using intravenous insulin infusion. physician,9 14 18 55–58 though implementation of the guidelines
may not always be as straightforward as it sounds.59 In these
Bicarbonate
studies,9 14 18 55–58 and in a UK study 13 mortality rates for DKA
Bicarbonate remains a controversial treatment in DKA. Those
studies of bicarbonate therapy performed in individuals with were ,5% and those for HHS <15%; most deaths occurred in
pH .6.9 have failed to demonstrate any benefit.40–42 No patients over 50 years of age and were secondary to severe
prospective randomised studies of patients with pH (6.9 concomitant illnesses. Increasing age, severity of concomitant
have been performed and some still advocate its use in this illness, severity of acidosis, or the presence of HHS are
situation because of theoretical benefits on cardiac and persuasive factors in arguing for management on an
intensive care or high dependency unit.

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258 English, Williams

Figure 2 Treatment algorithm for patients admitted


2
with diabetic+ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperglycaemic hyperosmolar state (HHS) (ECG,
electrocardiogram; FBC, full blood count; HCO3 , bicarbonate; K , potassium; IM, intramuscular; IV, intravenous).

Complications incontinence, and behavioural changes followed by abrupt


Cerebral oedema is an uncommon but devastating complication neurological deterioration and coma. The aetiology is still
of DKA, which primarily occurs in children and adolescents. unclear though recent hypotheses suggest that, as extra-
It occurs in approximately 1% of childhood DKA episodes and cellular fluid hyperosmolarity and dehydration increase, the
has a mortality of 20%–90%.51 60–64 It usually presents in the brain accumulates intracellular, osmotically active molecules
2–24 hours after the start of therapy with headache, (including glucose and unidentified molecules collectively

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Hyperglycaemic crises and lactic acidosis in diabetes 259

termed ‘‘idiogenic osmoles’’) that maintain cellular


volume.65–67 In addition intracellular acidosis (possibly exa- Box 3: Useful websites
cerbated by the passage of ketone bodies into cells as well as
hypoxia) leads to intracellular sodium accumulation as
hydrogen is extruded from the cells by the sodium/hydrogen
N http://www.diabetes.org—American Diabetes Asso-
ciation (detailed guidelines for management of hyper-
membrane pump. If extracellular osmolarity falls at a rate glycaemic crises available on this site).
exceeding that at which the brain can excrete its accumu-
lated idiogenic osmoles, then oedema occurs.65–67 N http://www.diabetes.org.uk—Diabetes UK.
The idea that the treatment of DKA itself might be the N http://www.joslin.harvard.edu/—Joslin diabetes
centre.
cause of cerebral oedema has gained support over the years,
but no single aspect of therapy has been implicated in studies N http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/philip.home/guidelines—
to date and cerebral oedema has been shown to be present Transnational diabetes guidelines from the Interna-
before treatment even begins.51 68 Low partial pressures of tional Diabetes Federation (European Region) on
arterial carbon dioxide, high serum urea, and bicarbonate behalf of the St Vincent Declaration Initiative of IDF
therapy are the risk factors most predictive of cerebral (Europe)/WHO (Regional Office for Europe),
oedema,51 though these may merely reflect the severity and including guidelines for management of diabetic
duration of DKA in those who subsequently develop this ketoacidosis.
complication.66 Management is by prompt recognition and
the use of intravenous mannitol, though the available data
suggest that this treatment fails to reverse neurological
dysfunction before the development of coning and subse- Pathogenesis
Anaerobic glycolysis results in the production of lactate and
quent respiratory arrest in 50% of patients and is nearly 100%
hydrogen ions, which are extracted by the liver, kidneys, and
unsuccessful after respiratory arrest.62
heart under normal aerobic conditions, and either oxidised
Hypoxaemia attributed to a reduction in colloid osmotic
completely to carbon dioxide and water, or entered into the
pressure and a subsequent increase in lung water content and
gluconeogenic pathway. Lactic acidosis may be classified
decrease in lung compliance may complicate therapy of DKA
according to the presence or absence of hypoxia (see table 4).
and may precede pulmonary oedema or the development of
Type A lactic acidosis (anaerobic/hypoxic) occurs in states of
adult respiratory distress syndrome.
profound tissue hypoxia such as myocardial infarction,
The most common complications, however, remain hypo-
cardiogenic shock, or profound sepsis. In this situation,
glycaemia and hypokalaemia as a result of therapy, though
anaerobic metabolism produces excess lactate that swamps
these should be only temporary if appropriate monitoring is
the body’s capability to clear it and clearance of lactate may
in place.
also be decreased. This situation is not peculiar to diabetes
but people with diabetes (particularly type 2 diabetes) are at
Prevention
increased risk of hypoxic cardiovascular complications.
Improved education and effective communication with those
Type B lactic acidosis (aerobic) is rarer and is associated with a
with diabetes is essential in preventing admissions with
number of systemic diseases (including diabetes), drugs,
DKA/HHS. Individuals should be taught about sick day
toxins, and inborn errors of metabolism. The biguanides
management with information provided as to:
metformin and phenformin, used in the treatment of type 2
(1) When to contact a health care provider. diabetes, have both been associated with the development of
type B lactic acidosis. Phenformin was withdrawn from the
(2) Blood glucose goals and use of supplemental insulin
market because of this complication; the incidence of lactic
during intercurrent illness. Everyone should be told that
acidosis is much lower with metformin, with an estimated
they should never discontinue their insulin and that they
incidence of 0.03 episodes per 1000 patient years.69
should contact a health professional early in the course of
Metformin associated lactic acidosis may be either type A lactic
an illness. Insulin requirements may be increased in ill
acidosis, where the acidosis is the result of concurrent
people with diabetes, even if they are not eating very
complicating illness without the accumulation of metformin;
much.
type B arising from marked metformin accumulation without
(3) Initiation of an easily digestible liquid diet containing concurrent hypoxic factors; or mixed, resulting from a
carbohydrates and salt when usual intake is not possible. combination of the above factors. Ninety percent of absorbed
(4) When to increase the frequency of blood glucose
monitoring (monitoring up to seven times a day is
recommended in acute illness). Table 4 Causes of lactic acidosis
Type A
Caregivers will also need education on these matters in (anaerobic/hypoxic) Type B (aerobic)
many instances.
As mortality rates from DKA are declining with increasing Shock: Systemic disease:
Cardiogenic Diabetes
availability of high quality healthcare, incidence rates remain
Endotoxic Neoplasia
at 4.6–8 episodes per 1000 patients with diabetes per year17; Hypovolaemic Liver disease
improved preventative measures will hopefully reduce the Cardiac failure Drugs/toxins:
impact of this serious and life threatening complication. Biguanides
Asphyxia Ethanol
Methanol
LACTIC ACIDOSIS Carbon monoxide Salicylates
poisoning
Definition
Inborn errors of metabolism:
Severe lactic acidosis is defined as a high anion gap metabolic Type 1 glycogen storage
acidosis (anion gap >10, as calculated using equation in box disease
1) with a blood lactate concentration .5.0 mmol/l (normal Fructose 1,6-diphosphatase
0.4–1.2 mmol/l). The pathological elevation of lactate and deficiency
hydrogen ions may result from overproduction or delayed 80
Adapted from Stacpoole et al.
clearance of lactate, or a combination of both.

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260 English, Williams

causes is poor with only between 12%–17% of patients


Box 4: Top five articles in last five years surviving to discharge in one well conducted study.80
In summary, general management of the underlying
1. Kitabchi AE, Umpierrez GE, Murphy MB, et al. condition, appropriate supportive care, bicarbonate therapy
Management of hyperglycemic crises in patients with and haemodialysis are the key approaches to the manage-
diabetes. Diabetes Care 2001;24:131–53. ment of severe lactic acidosis but further trials are needed
2. Chiasson JL, Aris-Jilwan N, Belanger R, et al. Diagnosis before we can be clear as to what represents optimum care.
and treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis and the hyper-
.....................
glycemic hyperosmolar state. CMAJ 2003;168:859–
66. Authors’ affiliations
P English, Diabetes and Endocrinology Research Group, Clinical
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acidemic states. Am J Kidney Dis 2001;38:703–27. G Williams, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Bristol,
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Hyperglycaemic crises and lactic acidosis in


diabetes mellitus
P English and G Williams

Postgrad Med J 2004 80: 253-261


doi: 10.1136/pgmj.2002.004291

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