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REVIEW
Diabetic ketoacidosis, hyperglycaemic hyperosmolar state, HHS replaces the older terms, ‘‘hyperglycaemic
hyperosmolar non-ketotic coma’’ and ‘‘hypergly-
and lactic acidosis represent three of the most serious acute caemic hyperosmolar non-ketotic state’’, because
complications of diabetes. There have been some advances alterations of sensoria may be present without
in our understanding of the pathogenesis of these coma, and mild to moderate
45
ketosis is commonly
present in this state.
conditions over the last three decades, together with more Definitions vary according to the degree of
uniform agreement on their treatment and innovations in hyperglycaemia and elevation of osmolality
technology. Accordingly their incidence, morbidity, and required. Table 5
1 summarises the definition of
Kitabchi et al.
mortality are decreasing, but at rates that fall short of our
aspirations. Hyperglycaemic crises in particular remain an Epidemiology
important cause of morbidity and mortality in diabetic The annual incidence of DKA among subjects
with type 1 diabetes is between 1% and 5% in
populations around the world. In this article, understanding European and American series6–10 and this
of these conditions and advances in their management, incidence appears to have remained relatively
and the available guidelines for their treatment, are constant over the last decade in Western
countries. Episodes of DKA are more common
reviewed. As far as is possible, the recommendations are in younger than older subjects and are twice as
based on clear published evidence; failing that, what is common in females than males.11 Mortality rates
considered to be a common sense synthesis of consensus are reportedly
5 10 12–15
less than 5% in experienced
guidelines and recommendations is provided. centres, but increase with age, approach-
ing 50% in those over the age of 80.11
........................................................................... The incidence of HHS is more difficult to
determine since there are few population based
yperglycaemic crises are discussed together studies, and the frequent presence of complicat-
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254 English, Williams
*Formula: 26{[Na+]+[K+]}+[urea]+[glucose].
†Formula: [Na+ ]–([Cl2]+[HCO32]) (mmol/l). Table largely adapted from Kitabchi et al.
5
27
and Lebovitz.
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Hyperglycaemic crises and lactic acidosis in diabetes 255
Figure 1 Pathogenesis of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperglycaemic hyperosmolar state (HHS) (FFA, free fatty acids) .
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256 English, Williams
Infection is a common precipitant of DKA and HHS, and a cultures and chest radiography should be performed as
history of an infective illness may be obtained. An appro- clinically indicated, though the fact that infection is a
priate history should also pick up any of the other common precipitant and difficult to exclude (see box 2),
precipitants for DKA or HHS listed in table 2, with particular particularly in moderate or severe DKA, means that they are
attention paid to cardiac causes and omission of medication. frequently required. Urea, creatinine, electrolytes, and plasma
The extreme metabolic disturbance of DKA can lead to glucose should be repeated two hourly for the first four hours
laboratory and physical findings that may mislead the and 2–4 hourly subsequently, depending on the patient’s
unwary and it is important to be aware of these pitfalls, progress, with particular attention to potassium concentra-
which are summarised in box 2. tions.
There is broad agreement across published guidelines for
Management the management of DKA and HHS covering the above
The aims of DKA management are to correct the acidosis, measures and including suggested rates of intravenous
hyperglycaemia, dehydration and electrolyte disturbance insulin infusion. However, there are some clear differences,
associated with the condition and to identify and treat any notably among the suggested protocols for intravenous fluid
associated comorbid events. This requires appropriate and administration.5 26 27 34 35 We suggest a compromise between
rapid clinical assessment and frequent monitoring of the these positions.
patient; this demands regular review by the responsible
doctors as well as other trained personnel. Intravenous fluid therapy
After initial assessment, plasma glucose, urea, creatinine, An average adult patient in DKA will have a deficit of 5–
and electrolytes; urinary ketones; arterial blood gases; and 7 litres of water, 500–700 mmol of sodium, 200–350 mmol of
full blood count should be obtained, and intravenous fluid potassium, 350–500 mmol of phosphate, and 200– 350
and insulin started. An electrocardiogram will be required in mmol of chloride.5 26 Intravenous fluid therapy should aim to
most cases, either to exclude a cardiac precipitant of DKA, if correct these water and electrolyte deficits over the first 24–
appropriate, or because of the potential for cardiac arrhyth- 48 hours, expanding the intravascular and extra- vascular
mias secondary to the large shifts in electrolytes, particularly volume and restoring renal perfusion. The speed of
potassium, with moderate or severe DKA. Blood and urine replacement will depend on the patient’s haemodynamic and
cardiovascular status. This is assessed using clinical evalua-
tion of jugular venous pressure and postural changes in blood
Box 2: Diagnostic pitfalls in DKA pressure and heart rate. These changes, however, are difficult
to interpret in the presence of suspected autonomic neuro-
Sodium: whole body sodium is depleted but may appear: pathy (which is common in poorly controlled diabetes) or
N Raised due to dehydration. when the patient is using cardioactive or vasoactive medica-
N Normal. tion (a common scenario in older diabetic subjects). This
means that in most adults with moderate or severe DKA it is
N Low (see useful equations). appropriate to assume a deficit of approximately five litres
Potassium: whole body potassium depleted but may appear: (three litres in mild DKA) and to be guided by the response to
N Raised due to acidosis. therapy. If the patient has significant cardiac disease, then
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Hyperglycaemic crises and lactic acidosis in diabetes 257
Although controversy persists over the speed of fluid respiratory function.5 However, there is little clinical evidence
replacement, these suggestions broadly fit those guidelines to support this approach and one study performed on acidotic
that are available,5 34 those protocols used in trials with low patients (due to differing causes) on an intensive care unit
mortality rates,15 and even cover the suggestions for lower demonstrated no haemodynamic improvement, despite
rate infusions put forward.38 39 The key to management increases in blood pH with bicarbonate therapy.43
remains the accurate assessment of circulatory status and Disadvantages include an increased incidence of hypokalae-
fluid losses, and close monitoring. mia,44 45 hypocalcaemia, paradoxical cerebrospinal fluid
acidosis,44 46 47 worsening intracellular acidosis, 11 48 49 and
Potassium hypoxia.44 50 More sinister is an association between bicarbo-
Potassium replacement should commence as soon as nate use and cerebral oedema outlined in a recent study.51
hyperkalaemia is excluded or has disappeared with rehydra- Furthermore, there is evidence that bicarbonate therapy
tion and insulin therapy. If potassium levels are between augments ketone production and can actually delay the
3.3–5.5 mmol/l then give 20 mmol/hour of potassium5 34 improvement in ketosis produced by appropriate insulin and
initially (this will equate to between 20–40 mmol potas- fluid administration. It might therefore be best reserved for
sium/litre of infused fluid in early stages of treatment). Aim those with impending cardiovascular or respiratory collapse,
to keep potassium .4.0 mmol/l by adjusting the infusion rate and prospective randomised trials are long overdue in this
accordingly, and consider that 20–30 mmol potassium are
area. If administered in a patient with pH ,6.9, 100 mmol of
likely to be needed in each litre of intravenous fluid. If
sodium bicarbonate infused with 20 mmol potassium chlor-
potassium levels are ,3.3 mmol/l at presentation then the
patient is at risk of cardiac arrhythmia and respiratory muscle ide over 30 minutes is the recommended dose,5 34 with serial
weakness with institution of insulin therapy. This should be monitoring of calcium and potassium.
withheld until plasma potassium has been corrected by
infusion of potassium at 40 mmol/hour.5 If potassium is Phosphate
.5.5 mmol/l then potassium should be omitted until plasma Enhanced urinary phosphate excretion in DKA commonly
concentrations are within the target range.34 Continuous leads to hypophosphataemia. Complications related to
electrocardiographic monitoring should be instituted with hypophosphataemia are rare unless the condition is severe
therapy. (phosphate ,0.35 mmol/l) but include respiratory and
skeletal muscle weakness, haemolytic anaemia, and reduced
Insulin therapy cardiac systolic function. Routine phosphate replacement has
Insulin therapy should be started as a continuous intrave- not been shown to be clinically beneficial52–54 and so
nous infusion of six units per hour of fast acting insulin as replacement should only be considered in those with
soon as the diagnosis is made (see fig 2). If there is to be any anaemia, cardiac dysfunction or respiratory depression and
significant delay in instituting this infusion and potassium hypophosphataemia, or those with severe hypophosphatae-
levels are .3.3 mmol/l, then 10 units (or less if hyperglycae- mia. If phosphate is administered, replacement with
mia is not marked) of fast acting insulin, injected intrave- 20 mmol phosphate added to one litre of replacement fluid
nously or intramuscularly, is appropriate initial therapy. The is appropriate, while care is taken to avoid hypocalcaemia.
aim is to bring plasma glucose concentrations down by 3–
5 mmol/l/hour. If plasma glucose does not fall by 3 mmol/l in
the first hour, then infusion lines and hydration status should General measures
be checked. If the lines are patent and the hydration status General measures to be taken are:
appropriately treated, then the dose of insulin may be
doubled. When plasma glucose levels are (14 mmol/l the N Passage of a nasogastric tube if the patient is unconscious
or drowsy and vomiting.
rate of insulin infusion may be decreased (we suggest to
three units an hour) and intravenous dextrose started as N Passing a urinary catheter if the patient has not passed
outlined above. Insulin and glucose infusions should be urine for more than three hours or is obtunded.
adjusted to maintain plasma glucose between 8–12 mmol/l
until the acidosis has resolved when regular insulin therapy
N Heparinisation for those who are hyperosmolar or coma-
tose,34 although there is a lack of formal studies on this
may start if the patient is able to eat and drink. Intravenous issue.
insulin should continue for 30 minutes after the administra-
tion of the first dose of subcutaneous insulin. There are no randomised studies assessing the impact of
If working in a location where continuous intravenous the location of care (intensive care unit, high dependency
insulin infusion cannot be administered the American unit, emergency medical unit, diabetes specialty ward, or
Diabetes Association position statement suggests that 0.4 general medical ward) on the outcome of DKA or HHS.
units of fast acting insulin/kg body weight be given, half as Accordingly this choice must be based on the available
an intravenous bolus, half subcutaneously or intramuscu- hospital resources and known prognostic indicators. Patients
larly, and then that 0.1 units/kg are given intramuscularly with DKA need intensive monitoring, and therapy with
each hour until plasma glucose is less than 14 mmol/l. At this prompt access to diagnostic and laboratory services and these
stage 5–10 units of fast acting insulin are administered every must be available whichever management site is chosen.
two hours, with concomitant dextrose infusion, until normal Interestingly, the use of standardised written guidelines
insulin can be started.35 It should be stressed, however, that appear to be more important in determining outcome than
the studies with the lower mortality rates have all been the type of hospital or the specialty of the attending
conducted in centres using intravenous insulin infusion. physician,9 14 18 55–58 though implementation of the guidelines
may not always be as straightforward as it sounds.59 In these
Bicarbonate
studies,9 14 18 55–58 and in a UK study 13 mortality rates for DKA
Bicarbonate remains a controversial treatment in DKA. Those
studies of bicarbonate therapy performed in individuals with were ,5% and those for HHS <15%; most deaths occurred in
pH .6.9 have failed to demonstrate any benefit.40–42 No patients over 50 years of age and were secondary to severe
prospective randomised studies of patients with pH (6.9 concomitant illnesses. Increasing age, severity of concomitant
have been performed and some still advocate its use in this illness, severity of acidosis, or the presence of HHS are
situation because of theoretical benefits on cardiac and persuasive factors in arguing for management on an
intensive care or high dependency unit.
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258 English, Williams
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Hyperglycaemic crises and lactic acidosis in diabetes 259
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260 English, Williams
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Hyperglycaemic crises and lactic acidosis in diabetes 261
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Notes