AGRIC 112.

3 - Agricultural Science II

Module 10
Processing and
Utilization of Cereal
Grains

Module Overview
The importance of cereal grains to the world food supply cannot be
underestimated. Wheat and rice remain the primary cereal grains for
worldwide human consumption. Other important food and feed
grains include corn, oat, barley, rye, sorghum, and millet. The
composition and structure of grains is important with respect to the
milling processes applied and their end uses.

In order to improve palatability, appearance, functionality, and shelf

life, milling technologies are often applied to cereals before they are
consumed. Methods of milling include both dry (i.e., abrasive and
roller milling) and wet processes. The malting and brewing process
likewise uses a complex set of methods and technologies.

Module Objectives
Once you have completed Module 10, you should be able to do the
following:

• describe the kernel structure and composition of cereal grains

including wheat, corn, rice, barley, oat, rye, sorghum, and
millet

• outline the five key steps in the roller milling of wheat

• distinguish between hard and soft wheat flours

• distinguish between dry and wet milling of cereals

AGRIC 112.3 - Agricultural Science II 10-2

• describe the nutritional impacts of the dry milling processing

technologies applied to cereal grains, especially wheat and
rice

• outline the principal end-products derived from processing

and the utilization (in a general way) of these end-products

• define the key stages of the malting and brewing process.

Keys Concepts
Following are the key concepts presented in this module:

• general kernel structural and compositional characteristics of

cereal grains

• unique kernel structural and compositional characteristics of

the major cereal grains

• principal steps of the dry milling process

• nutritional impacts of the dry milling of cereal grains

• principal steps of the wet milling process

• abrasive milling processes

• the malting and brewing process.

AGRIC 112.3 - Agricultural Science II 10-3

Introduction
The world's principal cereal grains are wheat, corn, rice, barley, oat,
rye, sorghum and millet; all are members of the grass family
(Gramineae), which includes some 8,000 species, only a few of which
have been domesticated. The average annual production, over a
recent ten-year period, of the major cereal grains is presented in
Table 10-1.

Table 10-1 Average Annual Production of Cereal Grains Over the Period 1984-1993, in millions of
tonnes (Canadian Grains Industry Statistical Handbooks, 1994 and 1995.)

Annual Production of Cereal Grains, Selected Countries, Average 1984-93, Millions of Tonnes

World Canada USA China USSR

Wheat1 530 26 62 93 81

Rice2 475 --- 7 177 ---

Corn3 459 6 192 75 12

Barley 4 170 12 10 4 47

Sorghum 5 59 --- 19 5 ---

Oat 6 59 3 5 --- 15

Rye7 30 0.5 0.4 --- 16

1
France, 31; India, 50; Argentina, 10; Australia, 15. Canada—Spring, 22; Durhum, 3; Winter, 1
2India, 97; Japan, 14; Indonesia, 40; Thailand, 19; Vietnam, 17
3Brazil, 25
4Germany, 13; France, 10; United Kingdom, 9
5India, 11
6Germany, 3; Poland, 2
7Poland, 6; Germany, 4

The importance of cereal grains as components of the world's food

supply cannot be overstated. They supply, directly, 50% of the
calories and 50% of the protein in the human diet and, indirectly
(which includes grain fed to livestock), 75% of the calories and 75% of
the protein consumed by humans. In fact, the domestication
(cultivation) of cereal grains parallels the development and spread of
civilization. Wild varieties of wheat and barley were used as food in
the eastern coastal regions of the Mediterranean as early as 10,000
B.C.. Subsequent cultivation of these grains occurred some time later
in that portion of southwestern Asia lying directly east of the
AGRIC 112.3 - Agricultural Science II 10-4

Mediterranean Sea, the so-called “fertile crescent.” Corn is

indigenous to the Americas, and was domesticated by the Indians of
South and Central America more than 3,000 years ago. Rice is
indigenous to southeastern Asia, but there is some evidence of an
African centre of domestication, as well. Rye was domesticated
relatively recently, some 2,500 years ago, in Germany, and later in
southern Europe.

Wheat has been described as the most important cereal on the basis
of total production and the wide distribution of its production
throughout most temperate-zone countries. The majority of the
world's wheat crop is consumed as food (bread, pasta, noodles, etc.).
Its use as feed is generally limited to off-grades and the by-products
of processing.

The world annual production of rice very nearly matches that of

wheat, and virtually all of the world's production is consumed as
food. Approximately 90% of the world's rice crop is produced in India,
China and Southeast Asia.

Corn rivals wheat and rice with respect to production. More than
40% of the world's corn crop is produced in the United States, less
than 1% of which is consumed as food. Corn is principally a feed
grain in Europe (most is imported from the U.S.), but it is consumed
mainly as food in South and Central America, Mexico, India and
Africa.

World production of barley is approximately one-third that of any of

the three major cereal grains, but it is a locally important crop in
Europe, Canada and the U.S. Most (approximately 75%) of the
world's barley crop is utilized as livestock feed, with 15% used in the
production of malt and 5% or less consumed directly as food.

Although more than 80% of the world's oat crop is fed to animals,
the structural characteristics of the oat kernel lend it to the
manufacture of whole grain meal and flakes for use in breakfast
cereals, granola bars and baked goods.

Rye is the only cereal grain to have shown a decline in world

production in recent years. This has been attributed to the growing
popularity in Eastern Europe of bread made from wheat flour rather
than from rye flour, and of barley, in lieu of rye, as feed.

Sorghum and millet are important food grains in Africa and India
due to their resistance to drought and heat. Virtually all of the U.S.
sorghum crop, where it is also known as milo, is used as animal feed.
AGRIC 112.3 - Agricultural Science II 10-5

Kernel Structure and Composition

A cereal grain, or kernel, is actually a fruit, not a seed, more akin
structurally to a tomato (seeds, pulp, skin and all) than to a pea seed
or a canola seed. Botanically speaking, the kernel is a dry, non-
dehiscent fruit or caryopsis, meaning the soft tissues of the fruit are
not shed as it dries and matures, but rather become tightly adherent
to, and completely surround, the seed beneath. The wheat kernel is
representative, structurally and compositionally, of most naked
cereal caryopses, where the hull (actually the unfused lemma and
palea, or glumes, modified leaves which encase the kernel during
development) is shed as chaff during threshing of the grain. Other
naked caryopses include those of corn, hulless barley, rye and most
sorghums and millets. Rice, barley and oat grains are, most
commonly, covered caryopses, in that the hull remains more or less
firmly bound to the surface of the caryopsis after harvest. The
presence of a hull in the mature grain complicates its utilization as
food, as an extra processing step, aimed at removing it, is generally
required.

Wheat
The principal tissues in a wheat kernel, and in all cereals, are the
pericarp (fruit coat), testa (seed coat), aleurone, starchy endosperm
and embryo (Figure 10-1; Table 10-2). During the milling of wheat
into flour, the pericarp, testa, aleurone and a portion of the starchy
endosperm (collectively known as bran) and the embryo (or germ) are
separated from the bulk of the starchy endosperm which, in turn, is
ground into flour (or semolina in the case of durum wheat) of
appropriate granularity. Like all cereals, wheat consists primarily of
starch (the principal component of the starchy endosperm and,
therefore, of flour) and lesser amounts of protein (mostly in the
starchy endosperm) and dietary fibre (in the starchy endosperm and
bran), and little fat (that which is present is concentrated in the
germ). Wheats vary substantially in composition as a result of
differences in genetics, environment, agronomic practice, and grade.

Wheat is unique among cereals in that the proteins of the starchy

endosperm, which are collectively referred to as gluten, exhibit
dough forming and gas retaining properties, which are used to
advantage in the manufacture of bread, pasta, noodles and a variety
of other food products. The various market classes of wheat (durum,
hard wheats, soft wheats, etc.) are loosely defined by the hardness,
protein content, and the dough-forming properties of the starchy
endosperm. As a result, its market class also indicates the principal
end uses of wheat, with durum wheat being used in pasta (macaroni,
spaghetti, etc.), hard wheat in bread and buns, and soft wheats in
cakes, cookies and pastries. The milling of wheat will be considered
further in the section on dry milling.
AGRIC 112.3 - Agricultural Science II 10-6

Figure 10-1: Schematic diagram of a wheat kernel.

Table 10-2 Anatomical and Chemical Composition of the Principal Cereal Grains (Kent, 1975;
unpublished data)

Anatomical Composition

Percent Wheat Corn Rice Barley Oat Rye

(rough) (hulled) (hulled)

Hull ABS ABS 20 13 25 ABS

Bran1 15 8 5 8 9 10

Starchy 82 82 73 76 63 87
Endosperm

Germ 2 3 12 2 3 3 3

Chemical Composition3

Protein 15 11 9 12 12 14
Starch 65 67 65 65 52 71

Crude Fibre 3 2 10 5 10 3

Crude Fat 3 5 2 2 5 2

Ash 2 2 7 3 3 2

1Bran = pericarp, testa, and aleurone

2Germ = embryo and scutellum
3Values expressed on a moisture-free basis.
AGRIC 112.3 - Agricultural Science II 10-7

Corn
The corn kernel (Figure 10-2, Table 10-2) is much larger in size than
those of other cereals, and the embryo, which is rich in oil,
constitutes a much larger proportion of the caryopsis. Corn is
relatively high in oil, and the corn germ is isolated during wet and dry
milling and extracted to recover corn oil, a premium quality edible oil.
The endosperm of corn is not uniform in hardness. The distribution
and proportion of hard and soft endosperm delineates the various
market classes of corn which include dent corn, flint corn, flour corn,
and popcorn. Sweet corn, consumed as a vegetable, is a variant of
dent corn where most of the starch in the starchy endosperm is
replaced by sucrose and other sugars. Most of the corn crop used as
food is either dry milled into grits, meal and flour which are derived
from the starchy endosperm, or wet milled, where the principal end
product is refined starch. Grits, meal and flour have application in
breakfast cereals, corn bread and muffins, tortillas, and a variety of
other products. Corn starch is used as a thickener in food and
confectionery products, in the manufacture of sweeteners (glucose
and fructose), and in the adhesives industry. The protein of the
starchy endosperm in corn does not exhibit the dough forming
properties of wheat gluten. The milling processes applied to corn will
be considered further in the sections on dry milling and wet milling.

Figure 10-2: Schematic diagram of a corn kernel.

Rice
The rice kernel is a covered caryopsis (Figure 10-3). The hull is not
tightly adhering to the pericarp, however, and is easily removed by
impact or rubbing. Removal of the hull from rice increases its
palatability and reduces its fibre content. Once dehulled, the
structure and composition (Table 10-2) of the rice grain is similar to
that of wheat, although it is significantly lower in protein, and flours
from rice do not have good dough-forming properties. The principal
market classes of rice are long grain (Indian) rice and short grain
AGRIC 112.3 - Agricultural Science II 10-8

(Japanese) rice, although the distinction between these two classes

has decreased due to breeding efforts in the U.S. and elsewhere
aimed at combining the seed quality of long grain rice with the
agronomics of short grain rice. Rice is generally consumed as the
milled, intact endosperm (known as white or polished rice), which
has been debranned and degermed by abrasive milling, rather than
as whole grain (brown) rice or as flour or grits. The milling of rice will
be considered further in the section on dry milling.

Figure 10-3: Schematic diagram of a rice kernel.

Barley
Most of the world's barley crop is hulled. Unlike rice, however, the
hull in barley is tightly adherent to the pericarp and can only be
removed by abrasive milling, using technology similar to that
employed in the milling of rice. Abrasive milling is also employed in
the production of pot and pearl barley, which are utilized in soups
and as thickeners when milled into flour. Hulless barley is gaining in
popularity due to its high nutritional value (it is lower in fibre and
higher in energy), efficiencies associated with shipping and storing a
denser, lower fibre product, and the potential for processing hulless
barley into flour using wheat milling technology. Most of the barley
not used as feed is converted to malt, which is utilized principally in
the brewing of beer and the manufacture of distilled beverages. The
cell walls of the starchy endosperm are rich in β-glucan, a
carbohydrate gum which absorbs water and generates highly viscous
solutions. This property is undesirable in monogastric diets,
particularly for poultry, and in fermentative processes. The milling
and malting of barley will be considered further in the sections on dry
milling and malting and brewing.
AGRIC 112.3 - Agricultural Science II 10-9

Oat
The oat kernel is, like that of barley and rice, a covered caryopsis
(Table 10-2). The hull, however, is readily removed by impact, and
abrasive milling is not required. Hulless types are available, and are
grown in some parts of the world. They are not widely popular,
however, as the soft-textured kernel is easily damaged during harvest
and handling. The dehulled kernel is easily rolled into the familiar
flakes we know as rolled oats. Like barley, oat contains β-glucan,
again localized in the cell walls of the starchy endosperm, particularly
the peripheral endosperm. Oat bran, which has become a popular
food ingredient due to its content of soluble fibre, is actually a β-
glucan-enriched flour prepared from the peripheral endosperm. The
oat kernel, like that of corn, is relatively rich in fat. Unlike corn,
however, the fat is not localized in the germ, but rather is distributed
throughout the kernel. The shelf life of ground oat products is,
therefore, relatively short. Most oat products are prepared from
stabilized (heat-treated) oats which are more readily dehulled,
possess a nutty flavour, and are devoid of lipase activity. Lipase is an
enzyme which catalyzes the development of rancidity in fat-
containing products. The milling and stabilization of oats will be
considered further in the section on oat milling.

Rye
Structurally and compositionally, rye bears a strong resemblance to
wheat. Production of flour is more difficult from rye, however, as the
bran is more tightly adherent to the starchy endosperm. The proteins
in the starchy endosperm of rye show little gluten functionality. The
relatively high concentrations of soluble polysaccharides (pentosans)
in the endosperm cell walls of rye, however, do permit the
development of a reasonable dough from rye flour, although the
texture of bread made with rye flour is much wetter and heavier than
that of bread made with wheat flour. The pentosans, like the β-
glucans of barley and oat, generate viscosity in the gastrointestinal
tracts of monogastric animals, and hence reduce the value of rye as
feed. Rye is also subject to a fungal disease known as ergot. Even
relatively low levels of the toxic-alkaloid-containing ergot bodies in
rye can make it unsuitable for use as food or feed.

Sorghum and Millet

The kernels of most, but not all, sorghums and millets are naked
caryopses. The bran layer, however, tends to be thick and fibrous,
often highly coloured, and generally unpalatable, and is traditionally
removed by pounding the grain in wooden mortar-and-pestle type
devices. Modern sorghum and millet milling facilities substitute
abrasive milling systems for hand pounding, after which the
AGRIC 112.3 - Agricultural Science II 10-10

debranned, largely degermed grain is ground into flour. Sorghums

and millets contain a variety of antinutritional factors, principally
tannins and other phenolic compounds, which affect palatability and
nutritive value. Since these factors tend to be concentrated in the
peripheral layers of the kernel, abrasive milling effectively reduces the
levels of these compounds as well.

Dry Milling of Cereals

Very little of the world's cereal crop is consumed as food in the form
of whole grain. In order to improve palatability, appearance,
functionality and shelf life, one of several dry milling technologies is
first applied, all of which result in least a partial separation of bran,
germ and starchy endosperm. The technology employed is
determined by the end-product desired and the chemical and
physical characteristics of the kernel. Conversely, cereals utilized
directly as livestock feed are generally consumed in the form of whole
grain. Dry milling, in this sense, refers to particle size reduction only,
(i.e. the production of a whole grain meal without separation of the
anatomical components of the kernel).

Roller Milling of Wheat

Roller milling, as applied to wheat, is a gradual, stepwise process in
which the starchy endosperm is ground into flour (or semolina, in the
case of durum wheat) and the bran and germ are simultaneously
collected as separate products. The removal of bran and germ from
flour improves its appearance, functionality and shelf life, but has an
adverse nutritional impact (Table 10-3) in that much of the fibre and
vitamin content of wheat, and a portion of the protein, are lost to the
bran and germ fractions. To counteract the negative nutritional
aspects of wheat milling, the flour is generally enriched with B
vitamins and iron, and much of the bran may be added back to the
flour. The germ fraction is seldom added back, despite its content of
protein and Vitamin E, in particular, as its content of oil greatly
reduces the shelf life of flour and has a marked depressing effect on
the loaf volume of bread.
AGRIC 112.3 - Agricultural Science II 10-11

Table 10-3 Nutritional Impact of Wheat Milling - Whole Wheat Versus 70%
Extraction Flour. (Ziegler & Greer, 1971, pp. 115-199)

Change in Composition from Wheat to Flour

70% Extraction
Wheat Flour

Ash % 1.55 0.4

Fibre % 2.17 Trace

Protein % 13.9 12.9

Oil % 2.52 1.17

Starch % 63.7 70.9

Thiamin µg/g 3.73 0.70

Riboflavin µg/g 1.70 0.70

Niacin µg/g 55.6 8.50

Iron µg/g 3.08 1.42

Potassium mg/g 316 83

Calcium mg/g 27.9 12.9

Total Phosphorus mg/g 350 98

Phytate phosphorous mg/g 345 30.4

The roller milling of wheat consists of five discrete steps (Figures 10-4
and 10-5), namely cleaning, conditioning, break roll milling and
sifting, purification, and reduction roll milling and sifting. The
cleaning step involves the removal from wheat of foreign material
which would otherwise damage milling equipment or reduce the
quality of the flour. Conditioning is basically a tempering (moisture
adjustment) and holding step, where an appropriate amount of water
is added to wheat in order to raise its moisture content, thereby
reducing the energy required to mill it into flour, and improving the
separation of bran and germ from starchy endosperm. The amount of
water added is directly proportional to the hardness of the wheat
being milled.

After tempering, the wheat is passed through the first of 4 or 5 pairs

of counter rotating, corrugated (spirally fluted), closely spaced milling
rolls. This first set of rolls breaks open the kernel and begins the
process of chopping starchy endosperm away from the bran. Material
from the first break rolls is transferred to a sifting system, where
bran fragments, large and small flour particles from the central
portion of the starchy endosperm, and aggregates of endosperm with
adhering bran are separated on the basis of particle size. The larger
AGRIC 112.3 - Agricultural Science II 10-12

bran fragments are sent directly to bran storage, whereas the other
particles are sent to one of several purifiers where bran particles,
flour particles and aggregates of flour and bran are further separated
on the basis of particle size and density. The aggregates of starchy
endosperm and bran are returned to the break roll system for further
milling. The particle size distribution of the stream determines the
appropriate set of break rolls to which it is returned. Each successive
set of break rolls is set closer together and is more finely fluted than
the previous set. This enables the milling of smaller and smaller
particles. Material from each set of break rolls is sifted and the
fractions sent to the appropriate part of the mill, as with the first
break.

The flour particles generated during break roller milling and the
sifting and purification steps are sent either to flour storage or to the
reduction milling portion of the mill, where flour is gradually reduced
to the appropriate particle size by a series of 5 to 10 pairs of counter
rotating, smooth surfaced rolls. Each successive set of rolls is set
closer together, enabling it to handle progressively smaller particles of
flour. Between each set of reduction rolls is a sifting or flour dressing
system, which separates flour particles into discrete particle size
fractions, which are either directed to flour storage or sent to the
appropriate set of reduction rolls for further milling.

In both the break roll milling and reduction roll milling systems, it is
essential that particles are never milled by a set of rolls which is too
closely spaced, as this would result in flaking and the loss of the
flaked material to the bran fraction. Most of the bran will exit the
process at the end of the break roll system, whereas the flattened
germ is normally collected early in the reduction roll system.

Figure 10-4: The principal steps in the roller milling of wheat.

AGRIC 112.3 - Agricultural Science II 10-13

Figure 10-5: Schematic diagram of a simple mill flow.

The roller milling system does not result in a perfect separation of

bran, germ and starchy endosperm. Flour yields from hard wheat are
generally in the order of 75% of the weight of clean wheat milled.
Flour in the region of the deep, ventral crease of the wheat kernel is
normally lost to the bran fraction, as it is difficult to recover flour
from this region that is not badly contaminated with bran. A
substantial portion (50% or more) of the germ usually ends up in the
bran fraction, as well. Millers are able to derive a variety of flours
from a single batch of wheat by collecting separately flours
originating from different locations within the starchy endosperm.
The starchy endosperm is not uniform in composition, but becomes
higher in starch and lower in protein and ash as one moves from the
periphery to the centre. Hence, flours generated from the outer layers
are higher in protein and ash and exhibit stronger gluten properties
than flours generated from more central locations in the starchy
endosperm. Since the starchy endosperm also becomes softer in
texture as one moves from the periphery to the centre, flours from
more central locations are generated more easily and, therefore,
AGRIC 112.3 - Agricultural Science II 10-14

earlier in the roller milling process, and are easily separated from
flours originating from the outer, harder starchy endosperm.

The principal product derived from the roller milling of hard and soft
wheats is flour. Hard wheat flours, with their relatively high protein
contents and strong gluten properties, are best utilized in breads and
buns and other yeast-leavened products. Soft wheat flours, with
their lower protein contents and weaker glutens, are better suited to
the production of cakes, pastries, cookies and crackers. Wheats of
intermediate quality are used for both purposes, and in the
manufacture of noodles where a blend of flours varying in protein
content and gluten strength is generally used. A coarse, granular
product called semolina is prepared from durum wheat, specifically
for use in the manufacture of pasta (spaghetti, macaroni, etc.).
Protein content is an important quality factor in bread wheats and
durum, as higher levels of protein result in higher loaf volumes and
superior texture, respectively. Consequently, protein premiums are
generally paid for higher protein wheats intended for these uses. Both
environment and agronomic practice can have a significant impact on
the protein content of wheat. In contrast, premiums are often paid for
soft wheat which is lower in protein, as the relatively delicate textures
of cakes, pastries, etc. are best derived from flour which is lower in
protein and gluten.

Roller Milling of Corn

The roller milling process applied to corn (Figure 10-6) resembles that
described for the roller milling of wheat in that the objectives are to
separate bran, germ and starchy endosperm, and to reduce the
starchy endosperm to the appropriate particle size. The large germ in
corn requires some modifications to the process, and the most
desirable products from the starchy endosperm are grits and meal,
rather than flour. The principal modification is the addition of a
degermination step, which involves tempering the kernel to
approximately 20% moisture, tearing open the kernel to expose the
germ using a cone mill or some similar attrition (tearing) milling
device, and separation (by screening) of a substantial portion of the
germ (and bran) from the starchy endosperm prior to roller milling.
Subsequent to degermination, the roller milling process is much like
that applied to wheat, in that it is gradual, sequential, and yields
bran, germ and starchy endosperm (grits, meal and flour) as discrete
fractions.

The germ is extracted in order to recover oil, with a high quality

protein meal as by-product. Corn bran is utilized as food fibre or
feed. The grits are used in the manufacture of corn flakes and other
breakfast cereals and snack foods, corn meal in corn bread, muffins,
brewing and fuel alcohol production, and flour in tortillas and similar
products and in the formulation of low cost binders and adhesives.
AGRIC 112.3 - Agricultural Science II 10-15

The value of the products derived from the starchy endosperm

declines as they become smaller in particle size. Most corn milled
today is of the dent corn market class. Flint corns are much harder
and, therefore, more expensive to grind. Flour corns are easily
ground, but lack disease and insect resistance.

Figure 10-6: Steps in the dry milling of corn.

Abrasive Milling of Barley and Rice

Because of the strong adherence of the hull to the pericarp in hulled
barley, the most suitable technology for barley milling is abrasive
milling or pearling technology (Figure 10-7), where the hull and the
underlying tissue layers are literally ground away by carborundum
stones mounted on rotating vertical or horizontal shafts. The
principal products derived are pot barley, used in soups and stews to
provide substance and to increase the thickness of the broth, and
pearled barley, a more refined product which may be ground into
flour for use as a thickener in cream soups, sauces and baby foods,
and in pancake flours. Flours derived from pearled barley are poor in
appearance due to the inclusion of specks derived from the bran
which is not easily removed from the deep, ventral crease of the
barley kernel. The fines by-product of barley milling, which generally
contains bran, germ and a significant portion of the starchy
endosperm, is utilized as feed. Hulless or dehulled regular barley, can
be roller milled, like wheat. However, the milling process is not as
efficient since the bran is brittle in barley, the germ is small, and
flour generated from the starchy endosperm is soft and slow sifting,
much like soft wheat flour. Flour yields suffer as a result, with large
losses of starchy endosperm in the bran and no segregation of bran
AGRIC 112.3 - Agricultural Science II 10-16

and germ. In addition, roller-milled barley flours are not much

different, in the functional sense, than flours prepared at lower cost
by grinding pearled barley.

Figure 10-7: Schematic flow diagram of the barley pearling (abrasive milling)
process.

Rice is harvested with the hull intact, as paddy or rough rice. The
hull is readily removed by impact or rubbing, yielding brown rice.
Most of the brown rice is then milled and polished (Figure 10-8),
using abrasion milling technology, yielding white or polished rice. The
intact, polished, starchy endosperm, with the bran and germ
removed, is the desired end product of rice milling. The rice kernel
lends itself well to abrasive milling, much better than barley, in fact,
due to the very hard texture of its starchy endosperm and to the
absence of a ventral crease. The negative nutritional impacts of rice
polishing (Table 10-4) may be partially offset by conversion, or
parboiling; this is a steaming or boiling process applied to paddy rice
which drives the water soluble nutrients from the hull, bran and
germ into the starchy endosperm, where they are largely retained
after polishing. Conversion also hardens the surface of the starchy
endosperm, improving milling yields, but imparts a yellowish hue to
the polished product, which is considered undesirable.
AGRIC 112.3 - Agricultural Science II 10-17

Figure 10-8: The rice milling process.

Table 10-4 Nutritional Impact of Wheat Milling - whole wheat versus 70% extraction flour. Nutritional
Impact of Rice Milling - paddy (rough) rice versus brown (milled), polished and converted
(parboiled) rice.

Nutritional Impact of Rice Milling

Paddy Brown Polished Converted

Protein % 9.1 11.0 9.8 --
Fat % 2.2 2.7 0.5 --
Carbohydrate % 71.2 83.2 88.9 --
Fibre % 10.2 1.2 0.3 --
Ash % 7.2 1.8 0.6 --
Thiamin g/g 3.6 5.3 0.7 2.5
Riboflavin g/g 1.0 1.1 0.4 0.7
Niacin g/g 50 52 21 40
AGRIC 112.3 - Agricultural Science II 10-18

Oat Milling
Oat milling (Figure 10-9) refers to the process whereby oat is
dehulled, stabilized (heat treated) to inactivate lipase activity, and the
endosperm cut into pieces (oatmeal) or flaked (rolled oats). The tough,
fibrous hull is not tightly adherent to the pericarp, so it can be
readily removed by impact, and abrasive milling technology is not
required. The oat kernel may be stabilized either before or after
dehulling. Stabilization of the intact kernel embrittles the hull, which
aids dehulling, and allows the use of higher stabilization
temperatures, which imparts a nutty flavour to the dehulled kernel,
or groat. More commonly today, oats are green shelled and
subsequently stabilized. The stabilized groat has a soft texture and
its bran layers are soft and pale in colour. As a result, the groat is
processed without separation of the bran, germ and starchy
endosperm, usually by flaking the whole groat if thick, slow cooking
rolled oats is the desired product. By steaming, cutting and flaking of
the groat, a thinner, quicker cooking product is produced. Oat bran,
which is really a coarsely ground oat flour enriched in β-glucan
(soluble fibre), is prepared by grinding rolled oats or oat meal in a
hammer mill, following which the harder, β-glucan enriched outer
endosperm is collected by sieving.

Figure 10-9: The oat milling process.

AGRIC 112.3 - Agricultural Science II 10-19

Wet Milling of Cereals

Wet or aqueous milling employs water in the grinding process to
effect a separation of the principal chemical constituents in cereal
grains, namely starch, fibre, and protein. All cereals are potential
targets for wet milling, although corn, and to a lesser extent, wheat,
are most commonly processed in this manner. Wet-milled cereal
products are utilized as ingredients in a wide variety of feed, food and
industrial applications.

Wet Milling of Corn

The wet milling of corn (Figure 10-10) begins with a thorough cleaning
of the incoming raw material, followed by steeping (soaking) in water
containing a trace of SO2 (sulfur dioxide) at 50˚C for 1.5-2 days.
Steeping is intended to soften the grain by raising its moisture
content to 45-50%. The SO 2 inhibits bacterial growth and aids in
disrupting the integrity of the protein constituents of the starchy
endosperm, which improves milling performance later on. Following
drainage of the steepwater, which is then concentrated by vacuum
evaporation and either sold to pharmaceutical companies as a
fermentation substrate or incorporated into the by-product (feed)
stream, the soaked grain is shredded in degerminating mills which
releases the oil-rich germ from the starchy endosperm. The germ is
collected by density separation (flotation), dried and sent to oil
extraction. The degermed grain is very finely ground in a wet milling
system. The finely ground grain is then screened to remove the bran
and endosperm cell wall fibre, and the resulting starch-protein milk
is separated into a solid (starch) and a liquid (protein, sugars, etc.)
fraction by centrifugation. Prior to being dried, the starch is further
refined by washing, and often physically or chemically modified to
alter its functionality. The soluble (protein or corn gluten) fraction is
combined with the steepwater and fibre fractions and ultimately
utilized as feed. The principal product of wet milling is refined starch,
either native or modified, which is the "gold standard" for starch
around the world in food and industrial applications.
AGRIC 112.3 - Agricultural Science II 10-20

Figure 10-10: Steps in the wet milling of corn.

Rice, sorghum, and to a lesser extent, oat starch are prepared in

similar fashion. They are all small volume starches with limited
applications.

Wet Milling of Wheat

Starch and refined gluten are prepared from wheat flour by a
modified wet milling process. In most wheat starch plants, a dough or
batter is developed from wheat flour, and after a short resting (gluten
maturation) period, water or a dilute salt solution is used to wash the
starch from the gluten. The starch is collected, washed, modified and
dried, as described for corn starch. The residual protein mass, or
gluten ball, is gently dried to maintain its dough development
properties. It is then ground and sold as a tan-coloured powder for
inclusion as a protein quality enhancer in flour or baked goods,
principally bread and buns. All wet milling processes generate a
voluminous waste stream which poses problems of an environmental
nature.

Malting and Brewing

Approximately 10% of the Canadian barley crop is utilized in the
manufacture of malt, principally for the brewing trade. Malting is a
controlled or restricted germination process (Figure 10-11). The
AGRIC 112.3 - Agricultural Science II 10-21

objectives of malting are the development of desirable enzyme activity

(principally starch degrading or amylase activity), modification
(partial breakdown) of major components of the starchy endosperm
(starch, protein and cell walls), and development of the characteristic
colour and flavour of malt. Although any grain could be malted,
barley is a favourite among maltsters worldwide, mainly because of
its hull, which protects the growing shoot from breakage and loss,
acts as a filter bed during brewing, and maintains the firmness of the
barley grain at high moisture contents.

Figure 10-11: The barley malting process.

The first step in malting is cleaning and sizing the grain to remove
undesirable foreign matter and to classify barley kernels according to
plumpness. Following this the grain is soaked (i.e., steeped) in large,
aerated steep tanks for up to two days. The intent of steeping is to
raise all kernels to a uniform, high moisture content of approximately
45%, which ensures uniform germination later. The steeped grain is
transferred to aerated germination beds where, over a period of 2-5
days, the germination process is allowed to proceed. Cool air is
passed continually through the germination beds to compensate for
the heat produced by the germinating grain. Once the shoot, or
acrospire, has grown to one-half to two-thirds the length of the
kernel, the partially germinated grain is transferred to kilns where
warm air dries the malt over a period of 1-2 days to a stable storage
moisture. The heat applied during kilning also develops the
characteristic colour and flavour of malt, darker malts being exposed
to higher temperatures than lighter malts. During kilning, the
temperature applied must be moderate, at least initially when the
AGRIC 112.3 - Agricultural Science II 10-22

moisture content of the grain is high. Otherwise, the enzyme activity

induced during germination would be lost. Small quantities of malt
are intentionally overheated for use as a flavouring agent in bakery
and confectionery products. Most malt, however, is destined for use
in the brewing of beer or the manufacture of distilled beverages.
Minor quantities are used in the production of malt flour, which is
generally added to baked goods or flour as a source of amylase, or in
the manufacture of malt extract and malt syrup, which are used as
sweeteners and flavour ingredients, primarily in the bakery and
confectionery industries.

The brewing process (Figure 10-12) involves the rehydration of malt

with warm water, whereby the enzymes in malt are reactivated and
continue the conversion of starch to fermentable sugars, principally
maltose and, to a lesser extent, glucose. Subsequently, the
solubilized sugars and other constituents are drawn off as a clear
liquid solution known as wort. This liquid is boiled to stop enzyme
activity, to destroy contaminating microorganisms and to extract
flavour from the hops which are added at the midpoint of the boiling
step. The hopped wort is then cooled and inoculated with yeast
which, after a period of growth, begins the conversion of fermentable
sugars to alcohol and CO2 . After several days, the yeast are removed
by filtration and the beer is transferred to aging tanks. The final step
in the brewing process is bottling, which may be accompanied by a
pasteurization step to destroy or remove spoilage organisms. Malt is
also used as a source of enzymes and carbohydrate in the production
of distilled alcoholic beverages.
AGRIC 112.3 - Agricultural Science II 10-23

Figure 10-12: Schematic diagram of the brewing process.

AGRIC 112.3 - Agricultural Science II 10-24

Summary
Cereal grains, principally wheat, rice, corn, barley, oat, rye, sorghum
and millet, are critical to the world’s human food supply. So
important are cereal grains as human food that the domestication of
wild cereals has paralleled the development and spread of human
civilization.

Cereal grains are actually fruits, not seeds, since in the mature grain,
the pericarp (i.e., fruit coat) is tightly fused to the testa (i.e., seed
coat). All cereals are composed principally of starch, with lesser
quantities of dietary fibre, protein, fat, ash, and vitamins.
Unprocessed grains are virtually inedible. The composition and
structure of grain types dictate, to a large extent, the processing
methods and technologies utilized, as well as their nutritional value
and ultimate end use. These methods and technologies are applied to
improve palatability, appearance, functionality, and shelf life of the
resulting food products. The specific processes of malting and
brewing likewise convert barley grain into a useful commodity.

Additional Study Questions

Describe the kernel structure of wheat, corn, and rice.

Outline the stages in the roller milling of wheat and contrast this to
the roller milling of corn.

Distinguish between wet and dry milling technologies.

Describe the objectives of the malting and brewing processes.

AGRIC 112.3 - Agricultural Science II 10-25

References
CIGI. (1993). Grains and oilseeds: Handling, marketing, processing.
Vol. 2, Winnipeg, MB: Canadian International Grains Institute.

Ensminger, A. H., Ensminger, M. E., Konlande, J. E. and Robson, J.

R. K. (1995). The concise encyclopedia of foods and nutrition.
Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Hoseney, R. C. (1994). Principles of cereal science and technology. 2nd

Ed., St. Paul, MN: American Association of Cereal Chemists.

Kent, N. L. (1975). Technology of cereals. 2nd ed., Oxford, UK:

Pergamon Press.

Ziegler, E. and Greer, E. N. (1971). Wheat: chemistry and technology.

2nd ed. Y. Pomeranz, Ed., St. Paul, MN: Am. Assoc. Cereal
Chem., pp. 115-199.