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Objectives

To grasp basic theory related to textile fibers

Textile Materials
To understand the properties of textile fibers

To enlarge vocabulary of textile fibers

To keep up with the advance in textile fibers

To improve four skills of scientific English
and of presentation in English

University of Textiles and Clothing

Jiangnan University

Course Syllabus Grading

Textbook Grades for this course are determined by

Zhang haiquan, Textile Materials, 2007
Reference book
Yao, M. et. al. Textile Materials (in
Chinese), 2nd ed., Textile Industry
Publishing House, 1990

Homework (10%),

Final exam (90%).

The final grade will be from A to F
corresponding to the total score
according to the student handbook.

Topical Outline Topical Outline

Chapter 1 Introduction to Textile Fibers Chapter 3 Natural Protein Fibers

1.1 Fiber Classification
3.1 Introduction of Natural Protein Fibers

1.2 Fiber Polymer
3.2 Wool

1.3 Fiber Theory and Fiber Properties
3.3 Specialty Hairs
Chapter 2 Natural Cellulosic Fibers
3.4 Silk

2.1 Introduction Chapter 4 Regenerated Fibers

2.2 Cotton
4.1 Viscose

2.3 Bast Fibers
4.2 Acetate and Triacetate

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Topical Outline Topical Outline

Chapter 5 Synthetic Fibers Chapter 6 Absorption of Water on Textile

5.1 Nylon Fibers

5.2 Polyester
6.1 Introduction of Absorption

5.3 Acrylic
6.2 Equilibrium

5.4 Elastomeric
6.3 Regain and Relative Humidity

6.4 Theories of Moisture Sorption

Topical Outline 1 Introduction to Textile Fibers

Chapter 7 Thermal, Optical, and Electric What is a fiber?

Properties of Textile Fibers

7.1 Thermal properties

7.2 Optical Properties

7.3 Electric Properties

Large length to width ratio

Small enough to be flexible
Textile fibers

Minimum length: 12.5 mm, desirable: >20
mm.

Strong enough to be processed

1.1 Fiber Classification 1.1.1 Natural cellulosic fibers

Natural cellulosic fibers Seed fibers: cotton, kapok
Natural fiber Protein fibers

Mineral fibers Bast fibers: jute, hemp, ramie, flax

Regenerated fibers Leaf fibers: agave (sisal) , pineapple, abaca

Man-made fiber Synthetic fibers
Nut fibers:coir (coconut)
Mineral fibers

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1.1.2 Protein fibers 1.1.3 Mineral fiber

Animal secretion: wool, specialty hair, fur  Asbestos

fibers

Animal-hair fibers: silk, spider silk

1.1.4 Regenerated fibers 1.1.5 Synthetic fibers

Regenerated cellulosic fibers Name Year Company

Tencel
Nylon 1938 Du pont

Modal

PLA Acrylic fiber 1950 E.I. Du Pont
Regenerated protein fibers Polyolefin/ Hercules
1959
polypropylene Incorporated

Soybean fiber

Milk fiber Spandex 1961 E. I. Du Pont

1.1.6 Fineness of fiber 1.2 Fiber polymer

Gravimetric (Direct system) Polymerization

Tex: Mass in grams of 1000 m of fiber
Denier: Mass in grams of 9000 m of fiber Degree of polymerization
Average molecular weight of polymer
=
Molecular weight of thr repeating unit in the polymer
Metric count Ne : The number of meters
per gram. (Indirect system)

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1.2.1 Types of polymer
Homopolymer: Polymerized from the
same or only one kind of monomer.
Copolymer: Polymerized from two or
more different monomers.
Alternating copolymer: Two monomers
polymerize in an alternating sequence
Random copolymer: Monomers are
polymerized in no particular order.
1.3 Fiber Theory and Fiber Properties
Fibers, which are primary materials from
which most textile products are made, can
be defined as units of matter of hair-like
dimension, with a length at least one
hundred times greater than the width.
Many substances found in nature can be
classified as fibers according to this
definition; however, only a limited
number of these materials are useful in the
production of yarns or fabrics.
1.3.2 Mechanical Properties
Strength or Tenacity
Tensile strength
Flexibility
Resiliency
Abrasion Resistance
Pilling
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1.2.2 Inter-polymer forces of attraction
Van der Waals’ forces
Hydrogen bonds
Alt linkages
Cross-links
1.3.1 Physical Properties
Color: White or colorless fibers and
filaments are preferred.
Luster: Luster may be desirable in some
products and undesirable in others.
Shape: Shape of a fiber can be examined
both in cross section and in its longitud-
inal form.
1.3.3 Chemical Properties
Absorbency
Effect of Heat
Flammability
Chemical Reactivity and Resistance
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2 Natural Cellulosic fibers 2.1 Introduction

Natural fibers obtained from plants, Relatively high density

animals and minerals. Plant or vegetable
fibers may come from the stem(flax, hemp,
jute and ramie), from the leaves(sisal or
abaca) or from the seed(cotton and kapok).
Good conductors of heat and electricity
Tend to burn easily
Good resistance to alkalis
Most insects do not attack cellulosic fibers.
(Except for silverfish)

2.2 Cotton 2.2.1 Cotton Species

Cotton is the most widely used natural
Upland cotton

fiber. It is almost pure cellulose. It has a
Egyptian cotton
number of qualities making it ideal for
Asian and African cottons
making textiles and clothing.
It is generally recognized that most
consumers prefer cotton personal care
items to those containing synthetic fibers.
Today, cotton is grown in more than 80
countries worldwide.

2.2.2 Cotton Fiber morphology 2.2.3 Structure of cotton fiber

Cross-section of Cotton fiber is

cotton fiber: kidney-shaped composed of cuticle,
primary wall,
secondary cell wall,
lumen.

Longitudinal section
of cotton fiber: convolution

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2.2.4 Polymer system 2.2.5 Chemical properties

Cotton polymer is a linear, cellulose Cotton fibers are weakened and destroyed
polymer. (C6H10O5)n by acids.

Degree of polymerization is about 5000 Cotton fibers are resistant to alkalis and

Cotton is a crystalline fiber, about 65 to 70 are relatively unaffected by normal

percent crystalline laundering.

2.2.6 Physical properties 2.2.7 Growth and Production

Elastic-Plastic Nature Field

Relatively inelastic Preparation
Hygroscopic Nature Planting
Very absorbent Irrigation
Thermal Properties Fertilization
Conduct heat energy Crop
Harvesting
Ginning

2.3 Bast fibers 2.3.1 Fiber classification and morphology

Bast fiber or skin fiber is fiber collected
from the Phloem (the "inner bark" or the
skin) or bast surrounding the stem of a
certain, mainly dicotyledonic plants.
Bast fiber includes flax, ramie, jute and
hemp
Flax fiber is classified as a natural,
cellulose, bast, multi-cellular fiber.
It has a fiber density of 1.50 g/cm3.
Cross-section: polygonal
Longitudinal section: nodes

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2.3.2 Polymer system
Chemically
The flax polymer is a cellulose one.
Physically

The flax polymer differs from the cotton
polymer. It has a DP of about 18000.

The flax system is more crystalline than
that of cotton.
2.3.4 Chemical Properties
Owing to the similar chemical constitution
of cotton and flax, the explanations offered
for the chemical properties of cotton may
also be applied to flax.
 However, it needs to remembered that
linen textile materials are not mercerized.
3 .1 Introduction of Natural Protein Fibers
Natural protein fibers are obtained from
animal sources. Most fibers in this group
are the hair from animals; the rest are
animal secretions.
They have excellent moisture absorbency.
Natural protein fibers have poor resistance
to alkalies
Fibers in this group have good resiliency
and elastic recovery.
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2.3.3 Physical Properties
Tenacity: Flax is a very strong fiber.
Elastic-plastic nature: Very inelastic nature is
due to its very crystalline polymer system.
Hygroscopic nature: The reasons given above
to explain the hygroscopic nature of cotton
apply also to flax.
Thermal properties: The best heat resistance
and conductively of commonly used fibers.
2.3.5 Processing of flax
Pulling and rippling
Retting
Breaking and scutching
Hackling
Spinning
3.2 Wool
The word wool was wull in old English,
wullo in teutonic, and wlna in pre-teutonic
days.
 Wool is the fiber from the fleece of
domesticated sheep. It is a natural,
protein, multi-cellular, staple fiber. The
fiber density of wool is 1.31 g/cm3, which
tends to make wool a medium weight
fiber.
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3.2.1 Fiber morphology
Longitudinal appearance of wool is over-
lapping surface cell structure.
Cross-section of wool is usually oval in
shape.
3.2.3 The polymer system
The wool polymer is linear,
keratin polymer, with some
very short side groups and it
normally has a helical
configuration. The repeating
unit of the wool polymer is
the amino acid which has the
general formula.
3.2.5 Chemical properties
Effect of acids: Wool is more resistant to
acids than to alkalis.
Effect of alkalis: Wool dissolves readily in
alkaline solutions.
Effect of sunlight and weather: Exposure
to sun light and weather tends to yellow
white wool textile materials.
Color-fastness: Wool is easy to dye.
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3.2.2 Felting of wool
Felting of wool is the irreversible shrink-
age of the material.
Wet and heat
Directional
Scales Felting
friction
3.2.4 Structure of wool
Wool fiber is composed of surface scale,
cortex and medulla layer.
3.2.6 Physical Properties
Tenacity: Wool is a weak fibre.
Elastic-plastic nature: Wool has very good
elastic recovery and excellent resilience.
Hygroscopic nature: very absorbent
 Thermal properties: Poor heat conduc-
tivity of wool and its low heat resistance.
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3.3 Specialty hairs 3.3.1 Mohair

Mohair Mohair refers to the hair of

Cashmere Angora goat.
Camel Hair Mohair fiber is approximately
Alpaca 25-45µ in diameter. It is both
durable and resilient. It is
Llama notable for its high luster.
Vicuna Italso takes dye exceptionally
well.

3.3.2 Cashmere 3.3.3 Camel Hair

Cashmere is a type of fiber Camel-hair are both light in

obtained from the Cashmere weight and warm; they have a
goat, or Pashmina. distinctive golden brown colour
cashmere fiber is highly with a pleasing lustre. The
adaptable. fabrics are soft, comfortable, and
Cashmere is similar to wool good wearing, and they drape
in most properties. attractively.

3.3.4 Alpaca 3.3.6 Llama

Alpaca offers excellent warmth and Llama fibre is soft, strong,

insulation. The fibres are strong and glossy and relatively uniform in
and make fabrics similar in appearance to length and diameter but
mohair. somewhat weaker than
alpaca or camel hair.

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3.3.7 Vicuna
Vicuna is one of the
softest fibres in the world.
It is fine and lustrous, has
a lovely cinnamon brown
or light tan colour, and is
strong enough to make
very desirable fabrics. It is
also very light in weight
and very warm.
3.4.1 Fiber morphology
The rounded triangular cross-section of
the silk filament can be used to identify
silk. This is due to the slit-like opening of
the silk secreting glands, one each being
located on either side within the mouth of
the silk moth larvae.
3.4.3 Chemical properties
Effect of acids: Silk is regarded more
readily by acids than is wool.
Effect of alkalis: Alkaline solutions cause
the silk filament to swell.
Effect of bleaches: What has been stated
for wool also applies to silk.
Effect of sunlight and weather: The resist-
ance of silk to the environment is not as
good as that of wool.
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3.4 Silk
Silk is a natural, protein filament. Its fila-
ment density is 1.34 g/cm3, which makes it
a medium weight fiber. However, very
light weight silk textile materials may be
man uf ac tur ed f r om silk f il am en ts.
3.4.2 Polymer system
Silk polymer is a linear, fibroin one. It
differs from the wool polymers as follows:

Silk is composed of sixteen different
ami-no acids compared with the twenty
amino acids of the wool polymer .

Silk polymers are not composed of any
amino acids containing sulphur.

Silk polymer occurs only in the beta-
configuration.
3.4.4 Physical properties
Tenacity: The silk filament is strong.
Elastic-plastic nature: Silk is considered to
be more plastic than elastic.
Thermal properties: Silk is more sensitive
to heat than wool.
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3.4.5 Silk Production 4 Regenerated fibers

Laying of the eggs by Fiber produced by dissolving a natural

the silk moth. material (such as cellulose), then
Hatching of the eggs regenerating it by extrusion and
into caterpillars. precipitation, such as viscose, acetate and
Spinning of a cocoon triacetate, etc.
by the caterpillar.
Emerging of the silk
moth from the cocoon.

4.1 Viscose fibres 4.1.1 Historical review

Viscose is a viscous organic liquid used to Major breakthrough in production of man-

make rayon and cellophane. Cellulose
from wood or cotton fibers is treated with
sodium hydroxide, then mixed with
carbon disulfide to form cellulose
xanthate. The resulting viscose is extruded
into an acid bath a spinneret to make
rayon. The acid converts the viscose back
into cellulose.
made fibers occurred in 1862 when Ozanam
invented spinnerette.
Viscose process was discovered in 1891 by
English scientists C. F. Cross and E. J. Bevan.
Process for manufacturing viscose was
patented by British scientists, Charles
Frederick Cross, Edward John Bevan and
Clayton Beadle, in 1891.

4.1.2 Manufacture 4.1.3 Modified viscose fibres

Pulp Modified viscose fibers differ from the

regular rayon fibers in both strength and
Alkali cellulose
elongation properties.

High-wet-modulus rayon: They have
better dimensional stability, better
Xanthate cellulose
strength, and better elongation than
regular rayon.
Viscose Viscose filaments
Cuprammonium rayon

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4.1.4 Polymer system
It is a linear, cellulose polymer, similar to
that of cotton. However, the viscose
polymer does not have the spiral
configuration of the cotton polymer.
The viscose polymer system is very
amorphous, being about 35 - 40 percent
crystalline and about 65 – 60 percent
amorphous.
4.1.6 Chemical properties
Chemical properties of cotton and viscose
are similar.
Shorter polymers and very amorphous
nature of viscose are responsible for the
much greater sensitivity to acids, alkalis,
bleaches, sunlight and weather, when
compared with cotton.
Viscose can color more brightly.
4.2.1 Structures
Surface: straited
Cross-section: lobed
Skin-core structure
DP: 250-300
Much less H-bond than in rayon
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4.1.5 Physical properties
Tenacity: Viscose is weaker than cotton.
Elastic-plastic nature: Viscose is limp
because its amorphous system.
Hygroscopic nature: The most absorbent
fiber in common use.
Thermal properties: Viscose has somewhat
similar thermal properties to cotton.
4.2 Acetate and Triacetate
Fibers in which forming substance is cellulose
acetate where not less than 92% of hydroxyl
groups are acetylated: replacing -OH groups
with -COCH3.
Acetate: 2 of 3 -OH groups in each 6-member
ring are acetylated.
Triacetate: Nearly all -OH groups are replaced
2.91~2.96.
Major use: lining fabrics for suits, coats.
4.2.2 Properties
Acetate: hydrophilic, thermoplastic
Triacetate: hydrophobic, higher melting
and softening temperature, high
crystallinity
Wrinkle easily in hot water: dry cleaning
only
Swells in water, mechanical properties
change in water
Resist to weak alkali and acids
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4.2.2 Properties
Soluble in acetone
Degrade in UV light
Burns, melts, forms black beads with
vinegar like odder
5 Synthetic Fibers
Synthetic fibers are generally made from
coal, petroleum or natural gas.
In general, synthetic (man-made) fibers
are created by forcing, usually through
extrusion, fiber forming materials through
spinnerets into the air,
forming a thread.
5.1 Nylon
Man-made fibers in which fiber forming
substance is any long-chain synthetic polyamide
in which less than 85% of the amide linkages are
attached to 2 aromatic rings.
Invented in 1938 in Du Pont
Market: carpet fiber 80%, tire cord and ropes
14%, apparel 11% .
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4.2.3 Production
Similar to cellulose rayon for the first a
few steps
Cellulose mixed with acetic acid and acetic
anhydride, a sulfuric acid catalyst is added
Degradation of the polymer making DP
low
Triacetate is made first
When water added, some acetyl groups
are removed
5.0 Types of spinning methods
Melt Spinning: Using heat to melt polymer
to a viscosity suitable for extrusion.
Dry Solvent Spinning: This type of
spinning is used for easily dissolved
polymers. polymer solution is extruded
through a spinnerette into gas or vapor.
Wet Solvent Spinning: Polymer solution is
extruded into a precipitation bath.
5.1.1 Types
Types:

Mostly: Nylon 6 and Nylon 6,6

Small amount: nylon 3, nylon 4, nylon
5, nylon 7, nylon 8, nylon 12, nylon
4,6, nylon 6,10
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5.1.2 Structure
Polymerization: condensation, eliminating a H2O
molecule
Functional group: amide group
Molecular configuration: linear zigzag molecules
forming well closely packed pleated sheets
IMF: H-bond
Crystallinity: High 65~86%
Cross-sectional and longitudinal shape: can be
any type
5.1.3 Properties
Smooth round cross-section and uniformity
permit close packing
Swells when absorbing moisture
Static: not enough water absorption
Low specific gravity: 1.14g/cc
Resilience: high: wrinkle free
Can be laundered but not easy to clean
Vulnerable to degradation in acids
Low resistance to sunlight
5.2.2 Types
PCDT: poly(1,4-cyclohexylene
dimethylene), Eastman Kodak
PEB: poly(ehtylene oxybenzoate),
produced in Japan, 70’s and 80’s
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5.1.3 Properties
Tenacity: high due to high orientation and
crystallinity
Elongation: high due to zigzag structure
Recovery: high due to zigzag
Energy of rupture: high due to high tenacity and
high elongation.
Abrasion resistance: high
Water absorption: highest among all synthetic
fibers
5.2 Polyester
Manufactured fibers in which fiber
forming substance is any long-chain
polymer composed of at least 85% by
weight of a substituted aromatic
c ar b oxylic ac id , inc lud ing b ut no t
restricted to substituted terephthalic units.
Generic group members:
PET (polyethylene terephthalate) ~95%
5.2.3 Structure
Smooth, even diameter

Diameter generally 12-25 mm

White or off-white colors
Intermolecular forces:

Dipole-dipole between benzene rings
Linear polymer: DP 115-140

Crystallinity: 35%

Orientation: very oriented
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5.2.4 Properties 5.2.4 Properties

High tenacity due to high orientation Very low moisture regain

High failure elongation
Elastic recovery

High with low stress: 97% at 2% strain.

Low with high stress because dipole-
dipole bonding is not strong enough to
hold, leading to intermolecular
slippage
Low compressional resilience: not good for
carpet fiber
Low level of wicking due to hydrophobic surface
High electrical resistivity: static charge likely at
low humidity
Medium specific gravity
Pilling
High dimensional stability
High Tm 450~500 degree F

5.2.4 Properties 5.2.4 Properties

Resistant to acids, potentially degrades in PCDT

concentrated alkalies Lower tenacity and elongation
No UV degradation Superior elastic recovery
Flammable with black smoke Better compressional resilience: good for
Melt drip end uses such as carpets, rugs, knitwear
Best thermal resistant among all general and fiberfill
use synthetics Less pilling due to lower tenacity

5.2.5 Production 5.2.6 Modification

Polymerization High tenacity for tire cord (higher DP and

Form chips crystallinity)
melt spinning Wicking
drawing Sheath-core: polyester core, low melt
heat setting to increase crystallinity and polymer sheath
orientation, reduce elongation and Du Pont Coolmax: 20% more surface area
shrinkage and maybe hydrophilic treated for
wicking

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5.3 Acrylic 5.3.1 Polymerization

Invented in conceptually in 1893 Addition or chain growth

Produced initially in 1944 and full scale in Homopolymer: polyarylonitrile strong but
1950 compact and highly oriented
End uses:  virtually impossible to dye

75% in apparel Copolymers: other types of monomers are

18% household included for a dyeable fiber and easier to

7% Industrial and consumer textiles
process:
 e.g. acrylic acid and vinylpyrrolidone
 most acrylic fibers are copolymers

5.3.2 Structure 5.3.2 Structure

Microscopic Molecular

Cross-section:
DP = 1000
•dog-bone shaped
IMF: dipole-dipole interaction between
•kidney-bean shaped nitrile groups -C≡N
•round
Crystallinity is not well-defined

Longitudinal
•uniform diameter
•rod-like shape

5.3.3 Properties 5.3.3Properties

Mechanical properties similar to wool but Bulky: tend to crimp

stronger Wick but do not absorb water
Medium tenacity, better than wool Low specific density: 1.12 - 1.19 g/cm3
Failure strain: medium Static electricity built up
High elastic recovery at low strain level 90
- 95% at 1 % strain
Moderate abrasion resistance

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5.4 Elastomeric
Elastomeric is polyurethane-based fibre.
Elastomeric consists of polymers which
are at least 85 % segmented polyurethanes.
Polyurethane is synthesised from urea:
H2NCONH2.
Elastomeric has a fibre density of 1 g/cm³,
the lightest apparel fibre in common use.
5.4.2 The polymer system
Two types of elastomeric polymers are
synthesized. Each is extruded into
filaments with excellent elastic properties
but differing in their resistance to alkalis.

The polyether type (for example Lycra)
resistant to alkalis

The polymer type (for example,
Vyrene)
5.4.4 Chemical properties
Effect of acids: Elastomeric textile material
in general are resistant to acids.
Effect of alkalis: The elastomeric is
sensitive to alkalis.
Colour-fastness: Elastomeric textile
material tend to be difficult to dye owing
to the hydrophobic and very crystalline
nature of their polymer system.
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5.4.1 Fibre morphology
Longitudinal appearance has distinct
striations and specks.
Cross-section of fiber has the dump-bell or
dog-bone shape
5.4.3 Physical properties
Tenacity: Elastomeric are weak.
Elastic-plastic nature: Excellent recovery
Hygroscopic nature: Elastomeric are
hydrophobic
Thermal properties: Elastomeric are
thermo-plastic.
6.1 Introduction of absorption
Adsorption in a non-swelling medium, for
example, the adsorption of gases on
charcoal, is a comparatively simple
process, but the absorption of water by
fibers is an example of a process that
comes midway between these two and
partakes of some features of each.
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6.2 Equilibrium
When a textile material is placed in a
given atmosphere, it takes up or loses
water at a gradually decreasing rate until
it reaches equilibrium, when no further
change takes place. This is a dynamic
equilibrium.
6.4 Theories of moisture sorption
Sorption refers to the action of either
absorption or adsorption. As such it is the
effect of gases or liquids being
incorporated into a material of a different
state and adhering to the surface of
another molecule.
6.4.2 Directly and indirectly attached water
The first water molecules are absorbed
directly onto hydrophilic groups, but, for
the others: They may be attracted to other
hydrophilic groups, or they may form
further layers on top of water molecules.
Fiber
H 2O H2O H2O Direct
H2O H2O H2O Indirect
H2O H2O
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6.3 Regain and relative humidity
p(H 2 O)
Relative humidity(RH)= p* (H × 100%
－
2 O)
p(H2O) Partial pressure of water vapor
p*(H2O)—Saturation vapor pressure
G − G0
Regain W= × 100%
－ Mass of undried specimen
G0
G
G0 －Mass of dried specimen
6.4.1 The effect of hydrophilic groups
As absorption, we take account of interac-
tion between water molecules and molec-
ules of the fiber. All the natural animal
and vegetable fibers have groups in their
molecules that attract water, such as –NH2,
—CONH, —OH, —COOH.
6.4.3 Absorption in crystalline regions
In crystalline region, the fiber molecules
are closely packed together in a regular
pattern. Thus it will not be easy for water
molecules to penetrate into a crystalline
region, and, for absorption to take place,
the active groups would have to be freed
by the breaking of cross-links.
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7 Other properties of textile fibers
Thermal, optical and electric are important
properties of textile fibers, which decide
the performance of the processing and
usage of textile fibers.
7.2 Optical properties
When light falls on a fiber, it may be partly
transmitted, absorbed or reflected.
Refractive index niso of an isotropic fiber is
given by the mean of the refractive indices
of an oriented fiber in 3 directions:
niso = 1/ 3(n
+ 2n⊥ )
 n
Polarized parallel to fiber axis
 n⊥ Polarized perpendicular to fiber axis
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7.1 Thermal properties
Thermal conductivity: Thermal conduc-
tivity is a property of materials that
express the heat flux(W/m2) that will flow
through the material if a certain
temperature gradient DT(K/m) exists over
the material.
Fiber material Thermal conductivity[mW/(m.k]
Cotton 71
Wool 54
Silk 50
7.3 Electric properties
The electronic properties of fibers are of
less obvious technical importance than the
mechanical properties, the electronic
properties are interrelated.
Resistance can be defined: R = Rs l ×105
NT

l—Distance between the ends of
specimen, cm

N —Number of ends of yarn or fiber

T —Linear density of yarn or fiber, tex
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