Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Psychosis
by Brian B. Sheitman, Heidi Lee, Rael Strauss, and Jeffrey A. Ueberman
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Schizophrenia Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. 4, 1997 B.B. Sheitman et al.
all be obtained. If neurological signs or symptoms includ- abuse (Bromet et al. 1992). The hallucinogens LSD and
ing asymmetry, weakness, or an altered sensorium are PCP—as well as cocaine, marijuana, and alcohol—may
present, a brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or induce psychotic symptoms. Illicit substance abuse often
computerized axial tomography (CAT) scan should be presents a diagnostic challenge (e.g., the patient whose
obtained. Brain imaging or an electroencephalogram last use of cocaine is more than 3 days past, but who
(EEG) should also be considered for patients who are remains psychotic and agitated and requires antipsychotic
uncooperative with the neurological exam or who have an medication). Strict adherence to DSM—IV (American
atypical presentation (e.g., a first episode at age 70). Psychiatric Association 1994) requires that the psychotic
Psychotic symptoms have been described in many symptoms persist for at least 1 month to exclude a diagno-
neurological and general medical disorders (Doran et al. sis of substance-induced psychotic disorder. The effects of
1986). Neurological conditions to be considered in the substance abuse on the onset, treatment response, course,
differential diagnosis of first-episode psychosis include and outcome of psychotic illnesses are not well under-
head trauma, infections, brain tumors, seizures, multiple stood, although most (DeQuardo et al. 1994; Chouljian et
sclerosis, metachromatic leukodystrophy, Huntington's al. 1995; Gupta et al. 1996), but not all (Dixon et al. 1991)
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Evaluation and Treatment of First-Episode Psychosis Schizophrenia Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. 4, 1997
six distinct clinical events that need to be examined in primarily patients diagnosed with schizophrenia (May et
identifying the onset of a first episode of psychosis: al. 1976a, 1976b; Scottish Schizophrenia Research Group
decline in social functioning, onset of general behavioral 1987a, 1987b; Lieberman et al. 1993a, 1993fo; Szymanski
symptoms, onset of positive symptoms, onset of negative et al. 1994; Kopala et al. 1996), and maintenance studies
symptoms, first treatment, and first hospital admission. of remitted first-episode patients (Kane et al. 1982; Crow
et al. 1986; Johnstone et al. 1986; Scottish Schizophrenia
Response Criteria (Illness "Offset"). In treatment and Research Group 1989; Nuechterlein et al. 1992, 1994) are
outcome studies where the end of the first episode and reviewed here.
number of subsequent episodes are used as measures of
illness course, a clear definition of the end of the episode Acute Treatment Studies. May et al. (1976a, 1976b)
or episode "offset" is required. Multiple dimensions of conducted the first treatment study of first-episode schizo-
psychopathology in schizophrenia make the definition of phrenia. In this study, 228 patients were randomly
response complex, with the potential for a wide disparity assigned to one of five treatment arms: individual psy-
in response rates depending on the operational criteria chotherapy, trifluoperazine, psychotherapy plus trifluoro-
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Schizophrenia Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. 4, 1997 B.B. Sheitman et al.
patients were also evaluated with Research Diagnostic durations of general behavioral symptoms and of psy-
Criteria (RDC; Spitzer et al. 1978a) and Feighner criteria chotic symptoms before study entry were 151 ± 176
(Feighner et al. 1972). Using the RDC classification sys- weeks and 52 ± 82 weeks, respectively.
tem, there were 33 definite and 9 probable cases of schiz- Using a survival analysis, the proportion of patients
ophrenia; because of the requirement for 6 months of ill- remitting by 1 year was 83 percent, with the median and
ness, Feighner criteria diagnosed only 15 cases of definite mean time to remission 11 and 35.7 weeks, respectively.
or probable schizophrenia. Sixty-three percent were clas- Within the treatment algorithm, 62 percent of patients
sified as "responders" to antipsychotic medication, with developed at least one form of extrapyramidal side effects
similar results for each medication. Nonresponders tended (EPS) (Chakos et al. 1992). Brain pathomorphology and
to be male, and they had more neurological signs, cogni- abnormal basal growth hormone secretion significantly
tive deficits, and negative symptoms. Twenty percent of predicted time to remission (Lieberman et al. 1993a). The
the patient sample was noted to have a history of possible length of time a patient had been psychotic before study
neurological dysfunction. Response criteria were not entry (i.e., duration of untreated psychosis) was associated
operationally defined. with both a longer time to remission and a lower level of
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Evaluation and Treatment of First-Episode Psychosis Schizophrenia Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. 4, 1997
1 mg twice daily and increased to 2—8 mg/day; mean dose in the initial assessments. Of these, 120 (74 male) agreed
was 4.7 mg/day (SD = 1.5). The mean duration of treat- to participate in the maintenance medication trial. Onset
ment was 7.1 weeks (SD = 3.2; range, 1.8-14.1). The of illness was defined as the beginning of psychotic symp-
authors reported that 59 percent of patients met response toms; response, as discharge from the hospital for 30 days
criteria. or more; and relapse, as readmission to psychiatric care
for any reason. Participating patients had been psychotic
Maintenance Treatment Studies. Kane et al. (1982) for a median of 2.8 months (range, 1-101 months) before
were the first to report on the efficacy of prophylactic index admission. Patients were assigned to one of five
antipsychotic medication in a study of 28 (14 female) antipsychotics or to placebo. The minimum medication
patients screened from referrals to an aftercare clinic who dosages were flupenthixol intramuscular 40 mg/month,
had achieved a stable remission following treatment for a chlorpromazine 200 mg, haloperidol 3 mg, pimozide 4
first episode of schizophrenia. Inclusion criteria were one mg, and trifluoperazine 5 mg per day. Fifty-four patients
schizophrenic episode, no important psychopathology or (35 male) who received medication and 66 (37 male) who
mental health contact for a period of 3 months before hos- received placebo were treated up to 2 years or until study
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Schizophrenia Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. 4, 1997 B.B. Sheitman et al.
acculturated Hispanic or Asian background. Exclusion ing treatment (Fenton 1997). Although data are not defini-
criteria were a known neurological disorder; recent (less tive, the association between the duration of untreated
than 6 months) significant and habitual substance abuse; psychosis and time to and quality of remission (Loebel et
mental retardation (IQ < 70); and African-American al. 1992) suggests that an active morbid process may be
descent (these patients were excluded due to differences operative in the early stages of schizophrenia (Wyatt
in electrodermal conductivity from other groups, a biolog- 1991, 1995). In a prospective study of treatment response
ical variable that was also being studied). Two-thirds of in first-episode and chronic patients, Szymanski et al.
the patients were neuroleptic naive before enrolling in the (1996) found that a longer duration of untreated illness
study. Assessments included BPRS and Psychiatric was associated with diminished reduction in positive
Assessment Scale (PAS; Krawieka et al. 1977), admin- symptoms over 6-month and 2-year followup in both
stered weekly; life-event interviews, monthly; and patient groups. In the Nottingham study of predictors of
Strauss/Carpenter social and work outcome scale (Strauss long-term outcome among first-hospitalized patients
and Carpenter 1972) and the UCLA social attainment (Harrison et al. 1996), longer duration of untreated illness
scale (Goldstein 1978), quarterly. Operational criteria predicted poorer outcome at 13 years in the domains of
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Evaluation and Treatment of First-Episode Psychosis Schizophrenia Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. 4,1997
detect signs of relapse, especially those patients who are Andreasen, N.C., and Olsen, S. Negative v positive schiz-
unable to identify such symptoms themselves. The risks ophrenia: Definition and validation. Archives of General
and benefits of medication continuation and withdrawal Psychiatry, 39:789-794, 1982.
should be fully discussed with patients and family mem- Beasley, C M . ; Tollefson, G.; Tran, P.; Satterlee, W.;
bers before initiating medication withdrawal, and Sanger, T.; Hamilton, S.; and the Olanzapine HGAD Study
informed consent should be obtained. Group. Olanzapine versus placebo and haloperidol: Acute
In our opinion, the novel antipsychotics currently phase results of the North American double-blind olanza-
available (risperidone and olanzapine) and others soon to pine trial. Neuropsychopharmacology, 14:111-123,1996.
be marketed (sertindole, quetiapine, and ziprasidone)
Bromet, E.J.; Schwartz, J.E.; Fenning, S.; Geller, L.;
should be seriously considered as a first-line therapy for a
Jandorf, L.; Kovasznay, B.; Lavelle, J.; Miller, A.; Pato,
first-episode of psychosis. Enhanced efficacy in the treat- C; Ram, R.; and Rich, C. The epidemiology of psychosis:
ment of negative symptoms and a more favorable side- The Suffolk County mental health project. Schizophrenia
effect profile, particularly less EPS, have been demon- Bulletin, 18(2):243-255, 1992.
strated in chronic patient samples (Marder and Meibach
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Schizophrenia Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. 4, 1997 B.B. Sheitman et al.
Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 57(Suppl. 12B):l-57, Kopala, L.C.; Fredrikson, D.; Good, K.P.; and Honer,
1996. W.G. Symptoms in neuroleptic-naive, first episode schizo-
Frances, A.; First, M.B.; and Pincus, H.A. DSM-1V phrenia: Response to risperidone. Biological Psychiatry,
Guidebook. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Press, 39:296-298, 1996.
1995. Koreen, A.R.; Siris, S.G.; Chakos, M.; Alvir, J.;
Gift, T.E.; Strauss, J.S.; Harder, D.W.; Kokes, R.E.; and Mayerhoff, D.; and Lieberman, J.A. Depression in first-
Ritzier, B.A. Established chronicity of psychotic symp- episode schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry,
toms in first-admission schizophrenic patients. American 150(ll):1643-1648, 1993.
Journal of Psychiatry, 138(6):779-784, 1981. Krawieka, M.; Goldberg, D.; and Vaughn, M. A standard-
Goldstein, M.J. Further data concerning the relationship ized psychiatric assessment scale for rating chronic psy-
between premorbid adjustment and paranoid symptoma- chotic patients. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 55:299-
tology. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 4(2):236-243,1978. 308, 1977.
Gupta, S.; Hendricks, S.; Kenkel, A.M.; Bhatia, S.C.; and Lieberman, J.A.; Jody, D.; Alvir, J.; Ashtari, M.; Levy,
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Evaluation and Treatment of First-Episode Psychosis Schizophrenia Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. 4, 1997
merit: II. Hospital stay over two to five years. Archives of outcome in schizophrenia: I. Characteristics of outcome.
General Psychiatry, 33:481^86, 1976b. Archives of General Psychiatry, 27:739-746, 1972.
McGlashan, T.H., and Carpenter, W.T., Jr. Postpsychotic Susser, E.; Fennig, S.; Jandorf, L.; Amador, X.; and
depression in schizophrenia. Archives of General Bromet, E. Epidemiology, diagnosis and course of brief
Psychiatry, 33:231-239, 1976. psychosis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152:1743-
McGlashan, T.H., and Johannessen, J.O. Early detection 1748, 1995.
and intervention with schizophrenia: Rationale. Schizo- Szymanski, S.; Cannon, T.; Gallacher, R; Erwin, R.J.; and
phrenia Bulletin, 22(2):201-222, 1996. Gur, R.E. Course and treatment response in first episode
Nuechterlein, K.H.; Dawson, M.E.; Gitlin, M.; Ventura, and chronic schizophrenia. American Journal of
J.; Goldstein, M.J.; Snyder, K.S.; Yee, CM.; and Mintz, J. Psychiatry, 153:519-525,1996.
Developmental processes in schizophrenic disorders: Szymanski, S.; Masiar, S.; Mayerhoff, D.; Loebel, A.;
Longitudinal studies of vulnerability and stress. Geisler, S.; Pollack, S.; Kane, J.; and Lieberman, J.
Schizophrenia Bulletin, 18(3):387^t25, 1992. Clozapine response in treatment-refractory first-episode
schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 35:278-280,1994.
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