Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

Divergent Blade
 Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents
 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.
Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]
Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout
 Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout
 Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

 The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

 Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]
Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

 Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
 translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

 Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]
Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]
Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.
Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain
 Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.

Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

 Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.

Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]
Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet

Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]

Iris-vectored thrust nozzle

Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.
Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]
Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.
 Divergent Blade

Overview

Manufacturer Divergent Technologies

Production TBA

Assembly Gardena, California

Designer Kevin Czinger

Body and chassis

Class Sports car (S)

Body style 2-door coupe

Layout MR layout

Powertrain

Engine 2.4 L 4B11T turbocharged I4

(Evo-derived, AMS-modified)

Power output 720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS)

Transmission 6-speed Holinger sequential

Dimensions

Curb weight 630 kg (1,389 lb)

The Divergent Blade is a two-door sports car manufactured by Divergent Technologies, and
designed by Kevin Czinger. The Blade is the first automobile to use 3D printing to form the body and
chassis. The car is currently at the prototype stage.
 Contents

 1Usage of 3D printing
 2Vehicle data
o 2.1Design
o 2.2Specifications
 3References

Usage of 3D printing[edit]
The use of 3D construction further reduces the expense of building factories and pollution from
them, with a more compact and cheaper process.[1] This also can lower capital investment and
production costs.[2]

Vehicle data[edit]
Design[edit]
The car's design is bobsled-like, allowing for better weight distribution. The remaining areas would
be filled by aerodynamic features and safety parts.

Specifications[edit]
The car contains a 2.4-liter 4B11T turbocharged inline-four derived from the Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution X. The engine has been modified by American tuning house AMS, which meant bore and
stroke was increased by 400cc, increasing the liters to 2.4. The modifications have increased to
720 hp (537 kW; 730 PS).[3]
The car uses a 3D printed aluminum alloy material for the chassis and body.[3] For the chassis, 3D
printed structural joints (in which Divergent calls NODES) are used to construct the basis of the
interior, which is then completed by metal parts made by computer algorithm.[4] Because of the use
of a 3D printed aluminum material, the overall weight is drastically reduced, sitting at 630 kg
(1,389 lb). The chassis weighs 46 kg (101 lb).[5]
The horsepower and weight create a power-to-weight ratio of 1,142.8 hp (852 kW; 1,159 PS) per
ton.[5] 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) is a reported 2.2 seconds.[6]
The 3D construction makes the car de-materialized, making the car greener (less resource use and
pollution made by manufacturing), lighter (up to 90% lighter than traditional vehicles with more
strength and durability), safer (a strong and light car causes less wear and fewer fatalities), and
made local (cars built by smaller local groups lowers costs, time, and increase quality).[7]

 during dry operation".

Types and configurations[edit]

Convergent nozzle[edit]
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical
value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to
atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet
wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the
throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle[edit]
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple divergent nozzle.

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle[edit]

Main article: de Laval nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate
supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high
area ratios of their nozzles.
When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and
thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and
cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of
the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself.
Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which
permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-
divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy
and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs
with speeds from subsonic to over Mach 3.
For a subsonic application of a fixed geometry C-D nozzle see section "Low ratio nozzle".

Types of nozzle[edit]

Variable exhaust nozzle, on the GE F404-400 low-bypass turbofan installed on a Boeing F/A-18 Hornet
Fixed-area nozzle[edit]
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine
performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not
the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

Variable-area nozzle for afterburning[edit]

The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the
operation of the engine. The variable area iris[9] nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping
petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the
engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a
separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry
may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent
nozzle configuration, as below.
Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave
only one area available for afterburning use.[10]

Ejector nozzle[edit]
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting)
a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging,
nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the
exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two
nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the
exhaust gasses past Mach 1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit
area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases
where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able
to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The
amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to
matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was
a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged
periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.
A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the
afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon.[11] More complex were the arrangements
used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors
(open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors
and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust
and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.
On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was
mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically
actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of
primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach 2 (B-58 Hustler) and
Mach 3 (XB-70).[12]

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent nozzle[edit]

Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust
use the variable geometry C-D nozzle.[13] These engines don't require the external cooling air needed
by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).
The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension
after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous
rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence
with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-
14).[14]
The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to
provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on
the EJ200 (Eurofighter).[15] Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring nozzle[edit]
Iris-vectored thrust nozzle
Main articles: thrust vectoring and vectoring nozzles
Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable
geometry F119 (F-22).

Rocket nozzle[edit]

Rocket nozzle on V2 showing the classic shape.

Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to
minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor
convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet
engines.

Low-ratio nozzle[edit]
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a
convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or
mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable
geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas
approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area
controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away
from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the
nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to
push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge
margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

Thrust-reversing nozzle[edit]
Further information: thrust reversal
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target
thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in 2 halves which come together to redirect the exhaust
partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below),
the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent
changes in engine operating limits.[16] Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker
100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Nozzle with noise-reducing features[edit]

Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface
area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into
multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which
protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

Further topics[edit]
The other purpose of the propelling nozzle[edit]
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the
compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with
the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle.[17] The areas of both the propelling nozzle and
turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these
areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most
notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is
necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the
jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping
performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.[1]
For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the
role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or
stators.[18]

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples[edit]

Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary,
nozzle.[19] This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary
or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner
thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-
floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet
expansion.[11]

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples[edit]

For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the
required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small
an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost
thrust potential[20] With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area
is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle
diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited
to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as
lower drag, less weight.
Examples are the F-16 at Mach 2.0[21] and the XB-70 at Mach 3.0.[22]
Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals
have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3,600 °F
(1,980 °C), by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust
loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the
TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.[23]

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?[edit]

A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.[24]
The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt &Whitney's first C-D nozzle.
The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same
aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2,000 lb, 910 kg at sea-level take-off) on
this engine raised the speed from Mach 1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's
speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) which was just below Mach 2 for the temperature on
that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not
modified for the higher speeds attainable.[25]
Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-
106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach 2. Together with the introduction of the C-D
nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-
106 of 1526 mph (Mach 2.43).[25] Basically, a divergent section should be added whenever flow is
choked within the convergent section.

Nozzle area control during dry operation[edit]

Sectioned Jumo 004 exhaust nozzle, showing the Zwiebel restrictive body.
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and
the Jumo 004 (which had a design known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape),[26] had a
translating plug to vary the nozzle area.[27] The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent
overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and
thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm (16 in) range of forward/reverse travel to vary the
exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area
just behind the exit turbine.