Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ENGINEERING
by
Like houses and dams, bridges do play vital role in society. Such bridges are
seen for more than 100 years. Earlier day it was all arch bridges which were
simple to construct. Next came RCC and prestressed bridges. There are
outstanding bridges like cable suspension bridges which have spans more
than 200 metres. San Francisco bridge is one of them. Next came the days of
cable stayed bridges.
China, Norway and USA have long term planning of infra-structure in which
multibridge units are commonly employed.
1 Initial Overview 5 - 16
3 RCC Bridges 22 – 25
4 Prestressed Bridges 26 - 32
6 Miscellaneous Points in 41 – 43
Bridge Engineering
CHAPTER 1
INITIAL OVERVIEW
PROPOSAL
The proposal is to compile observations, the author has made over the years in
the field of bridge engineering. In fact the author himself has come across quite a
few points, which are found unusual and worth noting. These may not be
available in standard textbooks. The readers to these notes are either practicing
fresh engineers or engineering college pre-final year students. It is necessary that
there is at least one site visit to understand bridge construction. Retaining walls or
footings, foundations can be seen to get a thorough idea.
The notes are divided into six chapters. Chapter 1 is a general introduction. It
covers broadly all types of bridges. Chapter 2 is for design and specifications.
Chapters 3 and 4 are for RCC and prestressed concrete respectively. Chapter 5 is
on piers, foundations, retaining wall etc. Multiple bridge projects are also
included. Chapter 6 covers miscellaneous points.
The contents of these notes are quite different from the contents of a standard
bridge engineering text book. This chapter 1 covers the basic introduction to
bridge engineering. It states points like age of a bridge. Once the site of a bridge is
proposed, the situation may be treated differently. Some want it as single span or
2 span or a 3 span bridge!
1.1 INITIAL
ANNOUNCEMENT TO INAUGURATION OF A BRIDGE - AN
INTERESTING SET OF UNIMAGINABLE EPISODES
30 M 30 M
20 M 20 M 20 M
Proposal for a bridge is put forth and the constructor /mostly contractor has to
do a lot of study to prepare initial data.
Let us take following values arbitrarily. The road widths may be one lane each
for two-way bridge with foot paths and hand rails.
Indian Road Congress and BIS Codes [Bureau of Indian Standards] are
applicable. We see later why we should widen vision to note about International
standards.
The components of a bridge broadly are superstructure - the portion above the
bearings and substructure the portion below bearings. Bearings may come under
substructure.
Under heading superstructure are : Under dead load self weight of bridge
lanes is one part. Hand rails, traffic lights etc are also additional dead loads.
Overhangs of bridges are also superstructure dead loads. Impact factor applies to
these loads.
Cables, water and sewage lines are often using bridge footpaths. These are
additional loads. These shouldn’t be taken footpaths and overhangs. These can be
from outer sides of footpaths or at pier bearing levels.
SUPER FREE BOARD
ABUTMENT STRUCTURE
HHFL
BEARING
HFL
RETAINING
WALL PIER
Let us see dead loads first. Road slab [self weight] is the important dead load,
on which is moving vehicle load or live load. After road slab is laid, the other or
superstructure loads are placed.
The separation of self weight and dead loads of other category such as
handrail etc. should be understood, since it is essential to note it with prestressing
caused stresses in concrete with passage of time.
Bridge engineering companies and designers have often readily available
designs but in different style. Further the companies usually design the bridge
with available material-especially the formwork for the main girder. The
formwork available may be for superstructure, piers, foundations, for coffer dams,
etc.
DECK SLAB
8400
350
200
STEM
3000
4500
SOFFIT 200
Here is a bridge of total 60m span with 30m each two adjacent spans [may not
be continuous]; central support on pillar 12 m total height [6m above LWL-lowest
water level] and totally resting on rocky foundation 500 mm below bed,
abutments on sides 6 m high , having 1 m below GL.
Which type of bridge – one span, two or three span be chosen is the
construction agency’s choice. There is one thumb rule commonly heard. For
optimum values it is stated: "Cost of superstructure is equal to the cost of
substructure". Choose accordingly!
This is quite practical but not a must!
The basic components of a normal bridge are: Left and right abutments, piers,
foundations for abutments and piers. Left side is the one which is to the left, when
we view the bridge from upstream side to downstream side. This is a general
definition.
Embankments to abutments are required in case the bridge road level is quite
higher than approach roads. The retaining walls to the embankments are necessary
to protect it. Design and construction of retaining walls is carried out in
innovative ways.
Figure 1.4 : Plan showing details of roads coming for the flyover.
Flyover bridges are by and large RCC bridges; the approaches to fly over
could be a bit steep/steeper to fit in given space. Axle loads of vehicles play
important role in design. In USA, such flyovers are provided as curved bridges
one over the other. Hence, traffic disturbance is least.
Arch and bowstring bridges are compression member bridges. Arch ones are
common sites of old bridges. Bowstring ones have better architecture. Some of
the old arch bridges belong to pre-cement era and have hydraulic lime as a binder.
Keystone – the centre member stands balance of both sides.
KEY
MURUM STONE
ARC FILL
H
SPRINGING
R
ABUTMENT
Most commonly seen steel framed bridge is pedestrian crossing over main
roads in urban area. Usually, this is accompanied by a pair of steel staircase on
either side to reach the bridge level. The members usually provided are I-sections,
H-sections, T or angle sections and connections are achieved by bolts, rivets or by
welding.
Quite often the railway bridges of the early days, are made of steel frames. In
most of the workshops, steel framed bridges are found convenient to use. The
railways used for over hundred years, steel membered bridges and to do so a lot of
precaution in rust prevention was carried out.
Figure 1.7 : A Steel Framed Bridge
The vehicles can pass through the deck of the bridge. They can also pass over
the top of the bridge. Such bridges are not uncommon in India. Where bridge
construction is costly in rivers like Ganga, steel bridges are found to be
convenient and the traffic through the deck and on top of the deck is a common
practice.
Pylon Pylon
Suspenders
Deeply
anchored
For small spans – say under 40m to 60m cable suspension bridges may not be
suitable or perhaps costly. When the crossings are over sea and large rivers,
intermediate piers and pier foundations are costly and take lot of time to construct.
Sea creeks, bay areas, estuaries are places where such bridges with minimum
piers [pylons] are to be used.
This will be clear if we refer to San Francisco bridge as entrance to Pacific.
Constructed in 1936 and around it is as if a symbol of magnificence. It is at the
bay area that runs from Berkeley at North to San Jose to the south.
Quite a few bridges joining New York are cable suspension bridges!
Comparatively these bridges do need large spans. These bridges would be dealt
with briefly subsequently.
These days around 2012 AD and two decades back the cable stayed bridges
are coming for large spans. The largest bridge on lands [not sea shores, creeks] is
in France. It is partly cable stayed and partly prestressed bridges. The pylons
come into pictures for supports. The bridge is around 12 km in length.
Pylon
Stays
1.3.1 Use of CD
For a particular city municipal corporation such a study revealed that some 12
existing bridges are ‘unsafe’; the state of other dozens was not good! Minor
cracks to piers, abutments to road surfaces are often seen!
Growth of plants and algae is a common site; it remains unattended! This is
how well documentation is useful to improve the condition of a new or an old
bridge.
These days there is all discussion about BOT-build, operate and transfer back
owner-govt or semi-government usually. This may be one or many bridges, one
dam, roadways or all this together. It is a novel idea. Less botheration for owner-
mostly govt.
Let contractor design and construct as per specifications ;operate the work
done and hand it over to the owner – govt and receive the payment! Less office
work or design planning for govt departments. This idea is being implemented by
owner/govt at few places. Since the concept is new let us note an example.
Maharashtra state government has entered into agreement for such a BOT. It is for
constructing a road, cum metro rail, including tunnels, railway stations, fly-over
bridges in Mumbai - between Varsova to Wadala railway stations. A voluminous
and complicated work! The existing road traffic is not to be disturbed.
Possibly it is a unique experiment to be watched. It is a unique BOT!
Vigilance is not to be compromised. Designer, Project Management consultants,
subcontractors and labour gangs etc – all are controlled by BOT contractor.
Here is the bridge proposer- mostly govt owns land, the authority. It may be
state govt or central [Federal in USA] govt or municipal – and other semi govt
authorities.
Sometimes bridge is proposed by state govt ; there is a hold or rights issue of
the central govt. Thus e.g. defence department owns the access road to the bridge!
Its permission norms are different!
The designer of the bridge prepares the design/calculations work and prepares
the drawings. His word about concreting, reinforcement, tendons etc is to be
followed and is final.
Quite often coffer dams to pier footings, low level of piers are retained,
believing that they add to strength and safety of piers! Coffer dams are made of
wire meshes impregnated with weak cement mortar. Pumping out within coffer
dam should be carried out with ease. The coffer dam is what a site engineer erects
to suit his ideas and available material.
CHAPTER 2
2.1 VIBRATIONS
We draw attention to some other points. The first is based on the lessons learnt
from an English Movie: ‘BRIDGE ON RIVER QUAI’. It is shown that when army
walks over the road bridge, it doesn’t follow MARCHING action - all at a time
following LEFT-RIGHT! It is a common belief that if steps of all jawans - all
soldiers are simultaneously coming on the bridge, it may resonate and may
collapse! In the movie, it is perhaps wooden planks, are used as bridge on steel
frames. Spans are small!
Apart from the bridge details, the lesson of the movie to be drawn is unique;
avoid resonance of the bridge even in the ordinary foot-walk! For vehicles some
more care has to be taken. Such a precaution need be stated on bridge sites, may
be by limiting speed of vehicles.
Especially for long span cable suspension bridges such oscillations or
vibrations are felt by pedestrians and also by small car travelers! Some bridges in
Scotland are such that oscillations/vibrations are felt.
It is not that bridges would come down! But it is desirable to minimize these
vibrations. In quite a few bridges – more so with steel bridges, such vibrations are
felt. This needs more attention.
IRC 6-2014 furnishes a long list of such loads. These are 19 in number. Some
of these are: snow loads; impact factor for vehicular loads, vehicle collision load,
impact factor due to vehicles moving, centrifugal loads, wind load, water currents,
earth pressure, temperature effects, deformation effects, secondary effects etc.
This list is quite exhaustive.
Some load combinations need be made as per requirements. Thus in
Maharashtra or in general Non-Himalayan region, ‘snow load’ is non-existent!
We do not consider snow load in Maharashtra. Local requirement is to be studied
and used.
70R loading is of two types. One is a wheel train and the other is TRACK
load. Track load is usually – military tanks . 70R wheel loads are as follows:
70R 4570
840 2900
Tracked Nose to tail
Length 7920
Max. Max.
Single axle Bogie
FOUR WHEELERS load load
100 t 20 t 40 t
8.0 12.0 12.0 17.0 17.0 17.0 17.0 20.0 20.0
810 3980 1520 2130 1370 3050 1370 910
1220
1220 1830 1830
Wheel loads are stated as in IRC 6-2014 appendix. These are: – first distance
in mm and next wheel load in t.
610mm-8t-3980mm-12t-1520mm-12t-2130mm-17t--1370mm -
17t-3050mm-17t-1370mm-17t-910mm
Max single load 20t over 1220mm;
Max Bogie load on two wheels 40 t with distances 1830mm-1220mm
[wheels] - 1830mm
This could be shown by sketches. Students should work out these figures into
regular sketches. Total value of wheel loads is : 100t [ not 70t !]. These values are
further to be multiplied by vehicle impact factors. There are other wheel load trains
such as Class A and AA, Class B [for timber frames], 5R, 9R, 18R, 24R, 30R,
40R, 50R, 60R.
Since 70R load is so common, it is necessary that we learn more about it.
Total length is 14840 mm. This means spans less than 15m may not be covered by
the wheel loads. Wheel loads are 7 in number. There are 7 wheels. Four are 17 t
coming one after another; two loads are 12 t and one of 8 t at engine level. Axle
load of 20t is noteworthy for fly over bridges .
It is good that practice using 70R loads is carried out in engineering college class
rooms. That may help firm understanding loads on simply supported spans say 20m
onwards with 5 m step to 40 m spans.
Under clause 203 note 6 list of engineering material and their densities in t/m3
are tabulated. This is very useful information. However, it is suggested that it is
better to find the densities locally. Particularly in case of prestressed concrete,
these densities are crucial. Dead weight calculations should be precise;
accordingly the cable location and number has to be provided.
Here we note that densities of concrete - Items 12 to 15 it is shown as
2.5 t/m3. In Maharashtra the aggregate used is dense basalt; usually the densities
of concrete or RCC, made from such aggregates are around 2.6 t/m3! In fact it
may be more-say 2.62 especially of RCC or concrete with M40 upwards.
This is different - higher than 2.5 t/m3!. In terms dead weight of material -
concrete; this means increase of self weight - dead weight say by 4 %!!
Hence what IRC 6-2014 says is a broad way of classification. The best way to
come out is to find density. Already 150 mm cubes [ 6" ] are being used; the
weight of the cubes, when taken out of the mould need be weighed. Design
procedure may go ahead with 2.6 t/ m3 as density or whatever has come out in
previous tests.
There is a lot of change in the design procedure. Let us take 70R Load train.
Let us say it is 25 m simply supported span. We have to calculate BM and SF at
intervals of L=0. 0.1L span, 0.2L span, 0.3Lspan. 0.4L span and at 0.5 L span.
The other half span values of BM and SF are simply repeated, because of
symmetry.
At these points max value of BM and SF in tm and t are computed and
tabulated. The stresses in the beams in concrete [including reinforcement and
prestressing cables-ignoring their role in BM/SF] are computed. BM may be
sagging or hogging. Accordingly reinforcement or cable tensions are designed .
A decade back and due to advance in accessing computer, transverse section
stresses are being asked by the Govt. Mostly these are satisfied, process is lengthy
and coefficients are to be quoted from tables.
CHAPTER 3
RCC BRIDGES
3.2 DIAPHRAGMS
Usually these long bridge lengths should have diaphragms of RCC at 0.25L,
0.5L and 0.75L. That helps to stiffen the main road deck slab.
SPAN
Pier
Fig. 3.1 : Simply Supported RC Beam
It is good as a learning practice to take 15 t/m as the dead load. This is slightly
on higher side.
Again for avoiding over micro detailing in this write up the cross section is
maintained same throughout. Once bending moments are known, it should be
possible to design reinforcement, noting that concrete doesn’t take tension.
Thus area of steel required is checked at every 0.1L interval for maximum
bending moment value due to rolling loads on the bridge.
It is not that increase in depth would be a must for spans say 25 m or more;
thereafter i.e. for longer than 25m span, it is better to switch over to prestressed
concrete (PSC) and create opposite type of bending moments! Wherever there is
tension, we create compression using prestressing cables. Thus if it is sagging
moment due to loads, cable creates compression at the bottom; if it is hogging
moment, tension in beam is at top, hence prestressing cable group creates
compression at top! Anyway the limit is around 25 m to 30m; upto that limit is
RCC and beyond that it is PSC. Perhaps if it is possible additional piers could be
constructed and small spans created.
Thus 20 x 4 = 80m means three piers. 2 x 40 = 80m means one pier! Span
being large we go in for PSC beam.
Min and max dia of reinforcement could be 8mm and 40mm. It is sometimes
that designer has chosen 32 mm steel; in the market however it is not available!
What to do on such occasions?
One way is either delay the work, wait and place the order that suits the
revised time table! Else go for available smaller diameter and if required increase
the beam depth! All this is a case of site experience and it is quite interesting.
PRESTRESSED BRIDGES
MAIN THEME
The main theme of this chapter is to introduce to prestressed concrete bridges
in a general way. Detailed calculations may not be possible to include. Span is
simply supported beam over 25m to say 46m. The whole idea is to acquaint with
the bridge details.
8400
350
200
SIEM
275 CABLE (PSC)
OR REINFORCEMENT
3000
4500
SOFFIT 200
SPAN
Pier
Pl
=
AE
Cable Tension created
by elongating using
Fixed end pulling devices. Fixed end
anchor anchor for
for cables Pulling cables
4.3 CODES
IS 1343 released by BIS and is all purpose useful for various prestressing
situations. However, IRC 18-2000 is the code that is exclusively for prestressed
concrete road bridges. Let us have a brief idea of IRC 18-2000.
4.5.1 Material
4.5.2 Anchorages
The anchorages are at supports and also at intermediate for part length cables-
usually around midspan.
A] For cables in ribs except spare cables…
12T13 system is in use for cables. It means there are 12 number of stands
and 13 is nominal diameter in millimetres. This yields approximately the area of
strand as 100 sqmm2. This is how strands of Freyssinet Prestressed Concrete
System work.
B] For short cables and spare cables… 7K13 and 6T13
C] Slip of anchorages for 12T13 is 6 mm
D] Slip of anchorages for 6T13 is 6 mm
E] Slip of anchorage for 7K13 is 6 mm
4.5.3 Sheathing
Over the years the designer has realized that sometimes a cable amongst a
group may get snapped or may not work at all. The bridge is yet to open for
traffic. It is here that spare cable may be brought in operation; this cable is pulled
at anchor places and grouted.
ABUTMENT
SUPER FREE BOARD
STRUCTURE
BEARING HHFL
HFL
RETAINING
WALL PIER
5.1 SUBSTRUCTURE
(TBM)
STIFFENER
PTFE
BEARINGS
PIER CAP 147.00
PIER
BRACES
PIER 132.00
FOOTING
300
Bearings receive the loads and transmit to the piers or abutments. Here only
elastomeric bearings are introduced. Recent practice is the use of elastomeric
bearings. In comparison to earlier day metallic bearings these elastomeric
bearings are very convenient, cheaper and offer ease of maintenance and
replacement. These are polymeric bearings. Neoprene polymeric bearings are
already installed with success to quite a few bridges. These are antioxidants and
antiozonants. Pad and pot neoprene bearings are commonly employed. In
elastomer pad bearings layers of elastomer and steel laminates are placed one over
the other. Three or more layered pairs of elastomer steel laminates are laid. IRC
1076 be followed. Plan area of laminates should be adequate so that average
normal stress is less than permissible contact pressure of the concrete structure.
The ratio of overall length to breadth be equal to or less than 2. Total elastomer
thickness should be less than one-fifth to one-tenth of the overall breadth of the
bearing. It should be strong enough to resist strain due to horizontal loads /
movements due to creep, shrinkage and temperature effects.
The students and interested fresh engineers should see these elastomer –
called Neoprene bearings. It is a big departure from early day metallic bearings.
Earlier day there used to be roller below say one support and the other had
hinged support. But PTFE bearings can with modifications have rocker and also
roller with due modifications.
Mr Vijay P. Deshpande an intelligent engineer has since 1989 developed
various sizes and shapes of such PTFE bearings. Maharashtra and Gujarat state
and central government bridge engineering authorities have approved these.
Bridges in Maharashtra, Gujarath and other states have since 1997 or so used the
PTFE [trade name] bearing. Here we append only relevant type of the bearing.
Fixed and Free/Sliding Pot Bearings are available to support loads upto 1200
Tonnes. Fix Pots can permit rotations upto 0.02 radians about any axis, but no
translational movement. However, Sliding Pots can offer rotations as well as
sliding/translation in any direction. Constraints can be provided to restrict
movement in a particular direction.
The manufacturer’s address is as follows : Mr.
Vijay P.Deshpande
Tefcon Bearings Pvt. Ltd.
24, Padmadarshan Society, Behind Rawat Showroom Satara
road, Pune 411009
BOTTO
CENTRE M
PLATE POT
DIMPLE
LIFE S.S.
SHEET
TOP PLATE
FIXED POT
Abutments and piers are important. Piers are required for two or more spans.
Piers as a vertical wall [often widening] with water facing conical edges are a
normal practice of yesteryears. Circular ring type piers are also a common
practice. Equilibriums of forces and moments are important points in design.
Stabilizing moments should be more than overturning moments. This is to be
ensured for various combinations of forces. This is further to be checked or
established at various levels from foundation to bearings.
There are various combinations of situations. Winds may be at 70 km per hr!
There may be earthquake; there could be one span dislodged condition. Self-
weight of a road slab with footpaths etc may be around 15 t/m including impact
factors. This information is useful to rough estimation of forces, moments on
foundations.
Pier foundations are to be checked for no tension development. Middle third
rule is applicable. Height is a local variable. Few sketches of piers, especially
pylons and foundations are enclosed. With 40 t/m2 safe bearing pressure, the
footing area need be 10 m2/length is fixed.
Reaching the load to the bottom of foundation at last is achieved by
substructure. Below the foundation is the mother earth!
A number of points arise! Is it loose earth? Is it in marshy land only at bottom
layers? Is it reclaimed land of Mumbai or coastal area or slushy area? It is all
uncertain!
This means enough safety precautions should be taken. Trial pits are a definite
way to guess some certainty.
Foundation is as such a very vast and complex field. It is driving piles, wells
to dig the soil, and allied problems. Under-reamed piles are quite different… not
suitable for bridges!
MISCELLANEOUS POINTS IN
BRIDGE ENGINEERING
Besides the basic structure covered in the earlier chapters, few more miscellaneous points
crop in. These are in brief stated in this chapter.
Usually, the construction sites are at remote place and may be away from the sites earlier
bridge constructed. Thus, the earlier site may be at Khadakwasla near Pune while the new site
for bridge construction is at Mohol on Seena river near Solapur. This is more than 130 km. The
entire bridge equipment such as mixer, vibrators, lifting mechanisms need be taken to Mohol
which is quite difficult. Here, the question may be studied and if local construction agencies are
available, local machinery can be used on hire basis.
Construction of site office is the next step. This is in G.I. sheets and also similar
construction for labour and engineers. May be electricity construction available from MSEB is
tapped. Else generating set is a must. That adds to the cost. The road in between site office and
bridge site is essential. Telephone connection is must in these days. Sometimes, due to
prevalence of mobile phones this is becoming much easier, but a must.
Store and shades for cement are a must. Else, moist cement may result in decrease the
strength. HYSD steel Fe500 and above, and in case of prestressed steel, cables of steel are to be
adequately protected and placed.