NERVE

Part I

By:
Hendra Susanto, S.Pd., M.Kes ., Ph.D
Agustus 2018
Sistem Saraf Invertebrata
Hydra
• Sistem saraf paling sederhana, tersusun
atas sel-sel saraf tersebar di seluruh
tubuh, sambung menyambung
membentuk jala saraf.
• Impuls tersebar ke segala arah (secara
difus),
• Saraf difus juga dijumpai pada bag
periferal tubuh invertebrata yang lebih
maju dan dalam intestin Vertebrata
• Hydra termasuk hewan radial simetri.
Planaria • Termasuk hewan bilateral
simetri. Tubuh memiliki
bagian kepala (depan) dan
bagian ekor (belakang).
• Memiliki bintik mata
(reseptor sensori), “otak”
(ganglion kepala), 2 korda
saraf (terpisah jauh), dan
saraf transversal).
• Konduksi impuls terbatas
pada satu arah saja (s.
sensoris dan s. motoris).
Lintah (Annelida)
• Memiliki sistem saraf pusat
yang lebih maju: otak dua
lobus, 2 korda saraf saling
berdekatan, ganglion
segmental (satu pasang
setiap segmen) yang
bercabang-cabang menjadi
saraf tepi.
• Lintasan saraf pusat
menjadi sangat kompleks,
meningkatkan fleksibilitas
respon.
Belalang (Arthropoda)
• Lebih maju dari Annelida
• Otak berkembang menjadi 3 lobus
(protocerebrum, deuto-cerebrum,
tritocerebrum), masing-masing
mengurusi tipe input sensori
khusus.
• Ganglion segmental lebih menyatu.
• Adanya sistem saraf pusat yg lebih
maju, maka gerak hewan menjadi
lebih lincah.
Cumi-cumi (Mollusca)

• Pada bagian kepala telah terbentuk

otak dan mata yang sudah
berkembang lebih baik.
• Bagian belakang tubuhnya diinervasi
oleh dua sel saraf raksasa (Giant
neuron).
• Adanya otak dan ganglia lain pada
tubuh suatu hewan menunjukkan
peningkatan jumlan sel-sel saraf
pada invertebrata yang lebih
kompleks.
SISTEM SARAF VERTEBRATA

• Pada Vertebrata, otak terorganisasi menjadi 3

bagian: otak belakang (hindbrain), otak tengah
(midbrain), dan otak depan (forebrain). Pada
Mammalia otak depan berkembang dengan sangat
baik khususnya pada manusia.
• Korda spinalis tunggal, terletak di bagian dorsal.
• Korda spinalis tidak begitu jelas terorganisasi
menjadi suatu rangkaian ganglia segmental.
• Meskipun beberapa fungsi koordinasi masih
dipegang oleh korda spinalis, namun fungsi otak
lebih dominan.
 Bagaimana sistem saraf bekerja?

⇒dasar: penghantaran impuls di sel saraf !

Bagaimana proses terbangkitnya impuls?
→peristiwa kelistrikan di sel saraf (depolarisasi &
potensial aksi/impuls)
Mengapa bisa terjadi?
- keterlibatan ion-ion dlm kompartemen tubuh,
terutama ion Na & K di ekstrasel & intrasel
- membran sel semipermeabel →pertukaran ion
⇓
potensial membran ⇒gradien konsentrasi & muatan
antara ekstrasel & intrasel
• The concentration of sodium ions (Na+) and chloride
ions (Cl-) is much greater outside the cell than inside.
The concentration of potassium ions (K+) and
negatively charged molecules, such as proteins and
other molecules containing phosphate, is much
greater inside the cell than outside

• Differences in intracellular and extracellular

concentrations of ions result primarily from (1) the
sodium–potassium exchange pump and (2) the
permeability characteristics of the plasma
membrane.
(a) The sodium–potassium pump actively moves K+ ions to the
inside of a neuron and Na+ ions to the outside.

(b) Ion channels allow specific ions to diffuse down their

concentration gradient; K+ ions tend to leave neurons when
potassium channels are open, and Na+ ions tend to enter neurons
when sodium channels are open.
• Potassium channels (K+ ) are the most common open channels
in the plasma membranes of resting (non-stimulated) neurons.
As a consequence, resting neurons are more permeable to K+
than to any other ion

• Many ion channels in the plasma membranes of neurons

behave as if they contain a “gate” that opens under some
conditions, but closes under other conditions. Voltage-gated
channels open or close in response to a change in the voltage
across the plasma membrane.

• Chemically gated channels open or close depending on the

presence or absence of a specific molecule that binds to the
channel protein, or to a separate receptor that in turn alters the
channel protein.
Nongated Ion Channels

Nongated ion channels, or leak channels, are always

open and are responsible for the permeability of the
plasma membrane to ions when the plasma membrane is
unstimulated, or at rest. Each ion channel is specific for
one type of ion, although the specificity is not absolute.
The number of each type of nongated ion channels in
the plasma membrane determines the permeability
characteristics of the resting plasma membrane to
different types of ions.

Note: The plasma membrane is more permeable to K

and Cl and much less permeable to Na because there
are many more K and Cl nongated ion channels than Na
nongated ion channels in the plasma membrane.
 Gated Ion Channels

Gated ion channels open and close in response to

stimuli. By opening and closing, these channels can
change the permeability characteristics of the plasma
membrane. The major types of gated ion channels are:
1. Ligand-gated ion channels
2. Voltage-gated ion channels
3. Other-gated ion channels
 Ion Dalam CES Dalam CIS

Na+ 440 mM 50 mM
K+ 20 mM 400 mM
A- - 270 mM
Macam-macam stimulus berdasarkan intensitasnya
1. Stimulus bawah ambang
(Subminimal/subliminal)
2. Stimulus ambang
3. Stimulus atas ambang
(Supraminimal/supraliminal)
4. Stimulus maksimal.
• A subthreshold stimulus is any stimulus not strong enough to produce
a local potential that reaches threshold. Therefore, no action potential
is produced (figure 11.23).

• A threshold stimulus produces a local potential that’s just strong

enough to reach threshold and cause the production of a single action
potential.

• A submaximal stimulus includes all stimuli between threshold and the

maximal stimulus strength. For submaximal stimuli, the action
potential frequency increases in proportion to the strength of the
stimulus because the size of the local potential increases with stimulus
strength.

• A maximal stimulus is just strong enough to produce a maximum

frequency of action potentials.

• A supramaximal stimulus is any stimulus stronger than a maximal

stimulus. These stimuli cannot produce a greater frequency of action
potentials than a maximal stimulus.
Neurons Generating and Conducting Nerve
Impulses

• The insides of cells are electrically negative in

comparison to the outsides. The difference in electric
potential, or voltage, across the plasma membrane of
a cell is called its membrane potential.

• In an unstimulated neuron, this voltage difference is

called a resting potential.
• The resting potential provides a means for neurons to respond
to a stimulus. A neuron is sensitive to any chemical or
physical factor that causes a change in the resting potential
across a portion of its plasma membrane.

• The most extreme change in membrane potential is an

action potential, which is a sudden and rapid reversal
in the voltage across a portion of the plasma membrane. For 1
or 2 milliseconds, a bioelectric current crosses the membrane
and the inside of the cell becomes more positive than the
outside.

•Nerve impulses are action potentials that

move along axons.
 POTENSIAL MEMBRAN
Konsep Dasar Kelistrikan
• Sebaran ion dalam CIS vs CES tidak
merata.
• Ion memiliki muatan listrik
(negatif/positif)
• Pemisahan muatan listrik negatif
dan positif menghasilkan suatu
voltase pada membran pemisah
(perbedaan potensial listrik).
• Makin besar perbedaan potensial
listrik, makin besar voltase
membran.
• Perbedaan potensial listrik dapat
menyebabkan muatan listrik
mengalir sebagai suatu arus listrik.
Konsep Dasar Potensial Membran
• Membran bersifat semipermeabel,
sifat ini menjaga agar sebaran ion
dalam CIS dan CES tidak merata
• Kedua faktor tsb yg menyebabkan
membran sel memiliki potensial
membran.
• Ion-ion yang paling berperan
terhadap timbulnya potensial
membran: Na+, K+, Cl ¯, A¯.
• Na+ dan Cl¯ dalam CES > CIS
• K+ dan A¯ dalam CIS > CES
• Pertanyaan: Dengan keberadaan Na+
dan K+ tsb, apa yang akan terjadi
dengan kedua ion tsb?
 Macam-macam Potensial Membran
1. Potensial Istirahat
Dalam keadaan istirahat, membran sel
lebih permeabel terhadap K+,
sehingga K+ bo-cor ke luar sel.
Keluarnya K+ diikuti A¯. Karena
membran tidak permeabel thd A¯,
maka A¯cenderung mengumpul di sisi
dlm membran dan K+ di sisi luar
membran, sehingga terjadi polarisasi
muatan listrik, sebelah luar membran
positif, sebelah dalam membran
negatif. Dalam keadaan ini potensial
membran disebut potensial istirahat.
Bila diukur dengan voltmeter, besarnya
sekitar –70 mV (bukan 0 mV).
2.Potensial Bertingkat
Bila membran dirangsang dengan
stimulus bawah ambang, maka
saluran Na+ akan terbuka, Na+
masuk ke dalam CIS, mengurangi
perbedaan sebaran ion, sehingga
menurunkan potensial membran
menjadi potensial bertingkat.
Makin kuat stimulus bawah
ambang, maka potensial
bertingkat semakin besar.
Besarnya potensial bertingkat
berkisar antara -70  -50mV.
Potensial bertingkat merupakan
sinyal jarak pendek.
• The potential difference across the plasma membrane of skeletal
muscle fibers and nerve cells is -70 to - 90 mV.
3. Potensial Ambang
(threshold)
Bila membran dirangsang dengan
stimulus ambang, maka pintu
saluran Na+ akan terbuka lebih
banyak, Na+ lebih banyak masuk,
mengurangi polarisasi. Dalam
keadaan demikian membran
mengalami depolarisasi, dan
potensial membrannya disebut
potensial ambang (threshold).
Besarnya potensial ambang – 50 mV.
Potensial ambang ini dengan cepat
memicu terbukanya pintu Na+ lebih
banyak lagi, sehingga Na+ lebih
banyak masuk, dan potensial
ambang diteruskan menjadi
potensial aksi.
4. Potensial aksi
Bila membran dirangsang dengan stimulus
supraminimal/maksimal, maka potensial
membran akan bergerak ke arah 0 dan
mencapai puncak pada +30 mV. Potensial
membran ini disebut potensial aksi, dan
akan dirambatkan dlm jarak panjang
(sinyal jarak panjang). Bila potensial
membran mencapai +30 mV, pintu Na+
ditutup dengan cepat dan pintu saluran K+
dibuka dengan cepat pula, akibatnya K+
berdifusi ke luar sel dan terjadilah
repolarisasi menuju keadaan istirahat. Bila
keadaan istirahat dicapai maka sebagian
besar pintu K+ ditutup, namun sering
menutupnya pintu K+ terlambat, K+ keluar
terlalu banyak, sehingga terjadi
hiperpolarisasi.
BILA SEL DIRANGSANG? ⇒ TRANSDUKSI RESEPTOR
Membran akan lebih permeabel, shg ion Na ekstrasel
masuk ke intrasel → kenegatifan intrasel berkurang
→penurunan beda potensial ekstrasel & intrasel
(DEPOLARISASI)

Depolarisasi akan meningkatkan permeabilitas membran

shg makin banyak ion Na ekstrasel yang masuk ke intrasel
dan depolarisasi makin besar (LINGKARAN HODGKIN)

Bila peristiwa terus berlanjut, suatu saat depolarisasi

mencapai ambang letup shg terbentuklah POTENSIAL
AKSI; bila tidak berlanjut akan kembali ke keadaan
istirahat (REPOLARISASI)

Potensial aksi yang menjalar →IMPULS

Process Figure 11.21 Voltage-Gated Ion Channels and the Action Potential Step 1 illustrates the status of voltage-gated Na and K channels in a
resting cell. Steps 2–5 show how the channels open and close to produce an action potential. Next to each step, a graph shows in red the
membrane potential resulting from the condition of the ion channels.
 NERVE
Part II

By:
Hendra Susanto, S.Pd., M.Kes., Ph.D
September 2017
 Potensial aksi merambat tanpa berubah

• Di dalam tubuh, potensial aksi dimulai pada akson hilok (trigger zone).
• Potensial aksi yang dirambatkan disebut impuls.
• Selama merambat, kekuatan potensial aksi tidak berubah.
• Potensial aksi terbentuk akibat dari depolarisasi membran.
Terbentuknya suatu potensial aksi pada suatu titik pada membran sel
saraf akan menjadi stimulus bagi terjadinya depolarisasi baru pada titik
berikutnya, dan seterusnya.
• Siklus depolarisasi potensial aksi depolarisasi  potensial aksi ini
akan berhenti ketika impuls sampai pada ujung akson.
Konduksi impuls

Badan Akson
Sel hilok
Na+

++++++ - - - - - - ++++++
- - - - - - ++++++ - - - - - -
K+

- - - - - - ++++++ - - - - - -
++++++ - - - - - - ++++++

Na+
Bonggol
Sinaps
A B C
Konduksi Arus Lokal (local current flow)
• Konduksi arus lokal terjadi pada serabut saraf tak bermielin.
• A = daerah akson yang telah mengalami repolarisasi (ditinggalkan
potensial aksi). B = daerah yang sedang mengalami depolarisasi (sedang
membangun potensial aksi). C = daerah yang masih istirahat (dlm keadaan
polarisasi).
• Pot. aksi dari A menyebabkan channel Na+ di daearh B terbuka, Na+
masuk CIS, terjadi depolarisasi dan potensial aksi pada titik B.
• Potensial aksi dari B menyebakan terbukanya channel Na+ pada titik C,
Na+ masuk CIS, terjadi depolarisasi dan potensial aksi pada titik C, dan
seterusnya sampai ujung akson.
• Bila potensial aksi telah merambat mis. dari A ke B, maka daerah A
mengalami repolarisasi. Repolarisasi dimulai pada saat potensial aksi
mencapai puncak (+30 mV), channel K+ terbuka, K+ keluar, potensial
membran turun dari + 30 mV ke arah pot istirahat (-70 mV).
 Konduksi Loncatan (saltatory conduction)

Nodus
Na+ Ranvier

++ -- ++ ++
arah perambatan -- ++ -- --
impuls
K+
-- ++ -- --
++ -- ++ ++

daerah inaktif daerah daerah inaktif

baru aktif lama
• Konduksi loncatan terjadi pada saraf bermielin.
• Selubung mielin tidak menutupi akson secara total,
tetapi ada daerah-daerah terbuka (disebut nodus
Ranvier).
• Impuls meloncat dari satu nodus Ranvier ke nodus
Ranvier berikutnya (potensial aksi merambat
secara meloncat dari nodus Ranvier satu ke nodus
Ranvier berikutnya).
• Dengan cara ini maka rambatan impuls pada saraf
bermielin lebih cepat daripada saraf tidak
bermielin (saraf telanjang).
Periode Refraktori (refrakter)

Periode refrakter absolut

Periode refrakter relatif

Permeabilitas membran
Potensial membran (mV)

+30
600
Potensial aksi
0
Permeabilitas Na+

300

Permeabilitas K+

-70
75
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
waktu (mdetik)
• Once an action potential is produced at a given point on the
plasma membrane, the sensitivity of that area to further
stimulation decreases for a time called the refractory period.

• The first part of the refractory period, during which complete

insensitivity exists to another stimulus, is called the absolute
refractory period. It occurs from the beginning of the action
potential until near the end of repolarization . At the
beginning of the action potential, depolarization occurs when
the activation gates in the voltage-gated Na channel open. At
this time, the inactivation gates in the voltage-gated Na
channels are already open . Depolarization ends as the
inactivation gates close. As long as the inactivation gates are
closed, further depolarization cannot occur.When the
inactivation gates open and the activation gates close near the
end of repolarization, it once again is possible to stimulate the
production of another action potential.
• The second part of the refractory period, called the relative
refractory period, follows the absolute refractory period. A
stronger-than-threshold stimulus can initiate another action
potential during the relative refractory period. Thus, after the
absolute refractory period, but before the relative refractory
period is completed, a sufficiently strong stimulus can produce
another action potential.

During the relative refractory period, the membrane is more

permeable to K because many voltage-gated K channels are
open. The relative refractory period ends when the voltage-gated
K channels close.
 SINAPS
Impuls di suatu neuron akan diteruskan ke neuron
lain mll SINAPS

Neuron sblm sinaps→neuron presinaps; Neuron stlh

sinaps →neuron postsinaps/pascasinaps

Penghantaran pd SINAPS LISTRIK ≈ akson ⇒mll

GAP JUNCTIONS

Penghantaran pd SINAPS KIMIA perlu perantara ⇒

NEUROTRANSMITTER
• The combination of neurotransmitters with their specific receptors
causes either depolarization or hyperpolarization of the
postsynaptic membrane.

• When depolarization occurs, the response is stimulatory, and the

local depolarization is an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP).
EPSPs are important because the depolarization might reach
threshold, thereby producing an action potential and a response
from the cell. Neurons releasing neurotransmitter substances that
cause EPSPs are excitatory neurons. In general, an EPSP occurs
because of an increase in the permeability of the membrane to Na.

For example, glutamate in the brain and acetylcholine in skeletal

muscle can bind to their receptors, causing Na channels to open.
Because the concentration gradient is large for Na and because the
negative charge inside the cell attracts the positively charged Na,
they diffuse into the cell and cause depolarization. If depolarization
reaches threshold, an action potential is produced.
• The combination of a neurotransmitter with its receptor results
in hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane, the
response is inhibitory, and the local hyperpolarization is an
inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) . IPSPs are important
because they decrease the likelihood of producing action
potentials by moving the membrane potential farther from
threshold. Neurons releasing neurotransmitter substances that
cause IPSPs are inhibitory neurons. The IPSP is the result of an
increase in the permeability of the plasma membrane to Cl- or
K+.

For example, in the spinal cord, glycine binds to its receptors, directly causing Cl
channels to open. Because Cl are more concentrated outside the cell than
inside, when the permeability of the membrane to Cl increases, they diffuse
into the cell, causing the inside of the cell to become more negative and
resulting in hyperpolarization. Acetylcholine can bind to its receptors in the
heart, causing G protein–mediated opening of K channels . The concentration
of K is greater inside the cell than outside, and increased permeability of the
membrane to K results in diffusion of K out of the cell. Consequently, the
outside of the cell becomes more positive than the inside, resulting in
hyperpolarization.
• Two types of summation, called spatial summation and temporal
summation, are possible. The simplest type of spatial summation occurs
when two action potentials arrive simultaneously at two different
presynaptic terminals that synapse with the same postsynaptic neuron. In
the postsynaptic neuron, each action potential causes a local
depolarization that undergoes summation at the trigger zone. If the
summated depolarization reaches threshold, an action potential is
produced

• Temporal summation results when two or more action potentials arrive in

very close succession at a single presynaptic terminal. The first action
potential causes a local depolarization in the postsynaptic membrane that
remains for a few milliseconds before it disappears, although its magnitude
decreases through time. Temporal summation results when another action
potential initiates another local depolarization before the local
depolarization caused by the previous action potential repolarizes to its
resting value . Subsequent action potentials cause local depolarizations
that summate with previous local depolarizations. If the summated local
depolarization reaches threshold at the trigger zone, an action potential is
produced in the postsynaptic neuron
Structure of the neuromuscular junction,
showing an axon terminal adjacent
to the sarcolemma of a muscle fiber.
Schematic of events:

(1) Acetylcholine is about

to bond to the ACh receptor in the
sarcolemma.
(2) Channel opens to allow Na+ ions
into the muscle cell.
(3) Cholinesterase inactivates
acetylcholine.