ABPK2103 Motivation Cdec15 (RS) PDF

Faculty of Applied Social Sciences
ABPK2103
Motivation
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

ABPK2103
MOTIVATION
Mohamad Zaki Samsudin

Project Directors: Prof Dato’ Dr Mansor Fadzil
Assoc Prof Dr Mohd Yusuf Ahmad
Open University Malaysia
Module Writer: Mohamad Zaki Samsudin

International Islamic University
Moderator: Dr Wong Huey Siew

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Printed by: Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd.

Lot 47-48, Jalan SR 1/9, Seksyen 9,
Jalan Serdang Raya, Taman Serdang Raya,
43300 Seri Kembangan, Selangor Darul Ehsan
First Edition, August 2010

Second Edition, December 2015 (rs)
Copyright © Open University Malaysia, December 2015, ABPK2103
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without
the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 3 Biological Components of Motivation 30

3.1 The Motivated Brain 31
3.1.1 Three Principles 33
3.2 The Brain and Approach-avoidance Behaviour 34
3.2.1 Approach-oriented Structures 35
3.2.2 Avoidance-oriented Structures 36
3.3 Neurotransmitter and Motivation 36
Summary 38
Key Terms 38
References 39
Topic 4 Physiological Needs 40

4.1 Basic Concepts in Physiological Needs 41
4.1.1 Physiological Needs versus Psychological Drive 41
4.1.2 Fundamentals of Regulation 42
4.2 Physiological Needs 45
4.2.1 Thirst 45
4.2.2 Hunger 49
4.2.3 Sex 52
Summary 54
Key Terms 55
References 55
Topic 5 Psychological Needs 56

5.1 Autonomy 57
5.1.1 What is Autonomy? 57
5.1.2 Creating Autonomy-supportive Environments 57
5.1.3 Benefits of Autonomy-supportive Motivating
Style 59
5.2 Competence 60
5.2.1 Optimal Challenge and Flow 61
5.2.2 Performance Feedback 63
5.3 Relatedness 65
5.3.1 Involving and Satisfying Relatedness 65
Summary 68
Key Terms 68
References 69

iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 3 Biological Components of Motivation 30

3.1 The Motivated Brain 31
3.1.1 Three Principles 33
3.2 The Brain and Approach-avoidance Behaviour 34
3.2.1 Approach-oriented Structures 35
3.2.2 Avoidance-oriented Structures 36
3.3 Neurotransmitter and Motivation 36
Summary 38
Key Terms 38
References 39
Topic 4 Physiological Needs 40

4.1 Basic Concepts in Physiological Needs 41
4.1.1 Physiological Needs versus Psychological Drive 41
4.1.2 Fundamentals of Regulation 42
4.2 Physiological Needs 45
4.2.1 Thirst 45
4.2.2 Hunger 49
4.2.3 Sex 52
Summary 54
Key Terms 55
References 55
Topic 5 Psyshological Needs 56

5.1 Autonomy 57
5.1.1 What is Autonomy? 57
5.1.2 Creating Autonomy-supportive Environments 57
Style 59
5.2 Competence 60
5.2.1 Optimal Challenge and Flow 61
5.2.2 Performance Feedback 63
5.3 Relatedness 65
5.3.1 Involving and Satisfying Relatedness 65
Summary 68
Key Terms 68
References 69

TABLE OF CONTENTS  v
Topic 6 Social Needs 70

6.1 Acquired Needs 71
6.1.1 Social Needs 71
6.1.2 Quasi Needs 72
6.2 Achievement Motivation 73
6.2.1 Where does Achievement Motivation come from? 74
6.2.2 How to Satisfy the Need for Achievement? 75
6.3 Affiliation and Intimacy 77
6.3.1 Intimacy Motivation 77
6.3.2 Conditions that Involve the Need for Affiliation
and Intimacy 78
6.3.3 Relatedness versus Affiliation and Intimacy 79
Summary 80
Key Terms 81
References 81
Topic 7 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 82

7.1 Intrinsic Motivation 83
7.2 Extrinsic Motivation 85
7.2.1 Types of Extrinsic Motivation 86
7.2.2 Consequences 86
7.2.3 Benefits of Extrinsic Motivation 89
Summary 90
Key Terms 90
References 90
Topic 8 Plans and Goals 91

8.1 Plans 92
8.1.1 Discrepancy 92
8.1.2 Corrective Motivation 93
8.2 Goals 94
8.2.1 Effective Goals 94
8.2.2 Short-term and Long-term Goals 96
8.3 Implementation Intentions 98
8.3.1 Mental Simulations 99
8.3.2 Formulating Implementation Intentions 99
8.4 Self-regulation 100
8.4.1 Model of Self-regulation 100
Summary 103
Key Terms 104
References 104

vi  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 9 Personal Control Beliefs and Expectancy 105

9.1 Personal Control 106
9.2 Self-efficacy 108
9.2.1 Sources of Self-efficacy 109
9.2.2 Effects of Self-efficacy on Behaviour 113
9.3 Learned Helplessness 114
9.3.1 Effects of Learned Helplessness 115
9.3.2 Overcoming Helplessness 116
Summary 117
Key Terms 117
References 118
Topic 10 The Self 119

10.1 Self-concept 120
10.1.1 Self-schemas 120
10.1.2 Possible Selves 122
10.1.3 Consistent Self 123
10.2 Identity and Agency 126
10.2.1 Identity and Roles 126
10.2.2 Role of Agency on the Self-concept 128
10.3 Cognitive Dissonance 129
10.3.1 Motivational Processes Underlying Cognitive
Dissonance 129
Summary 131
Key Terms 132
References 132
Topic 11 Emotions as Motivators 133

11.1 What is an Emotion? 134
11.1.1 Components of Emotion 134
11.2 Emotion as Motivation 136
11.3 Positive and Negative Emotions 138
11.3.1 Goal-congruent Emotions or Positive Emotions 138
11.3.2 Goal-incongruent Emotions or Negative Emotions 141
Summary 143
Key Terms 144
References 144

TABLE OF CONTENTS  vii
Topic 12 Growth Motivation and Positive Psychology 145

12.1 Growth Motivation and Positive Psychology 147
12.1.1 Features of Positive Psychology 147
12.2 Self-actualisation and Hierarchy of Human Needs 150
12.2.1 MaslowÊs Theory of Hierarchy of Human Needs 151
12.2.2 Self-actualised People 154
Summary 157
Key Terms 158
References 158

viii  TABLE OF CONTENTS

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE  xi
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to the Course
Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
ABPK2103 Motivation is one of the courses offered by Faculty of Applied Social
Sciences at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth 3 credit hours
and should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all learners taking the Bachelor of Psychology
programme. This module aims to impart the fundamental concepts and theories
of motivation. This module should be able to form a strong foundation of
motivational theories to be used in applied areas of psychology.
As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

independently and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please ensure that you have the
right course material, and understand the course requirements as well as how the
course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.

xii  COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussion 3
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10
Online Participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED 120
COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Explain to students what is motivation and how it influences an

individualÊs behaviour;
2. Provide comprehension to students on theories of motivation;
3. Discuss approaches that can be used to motivate an individual; and
4. Expose students to different measurement of motivation.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic can be listed as
follows:
Topic 1 introduces the basic concepts, expression and components of motivation.
Topic 2 describes the philosophical foundation and grand theories of motivation.
Topic 3 describes how the brain and neurotransmitters influence motivation.
Topic 4 explains the motivation that arises from physiological needs.
Topic 5 examines the motivation that arises from psychological needs.
Topic 6 examines the motivation that arises from social needs.

COURSE GUIDE  xiii
Topic 7 discusses the application of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
Topic 8 explains how plans and goals influence motivation.
Topic 9 discusses the role of personal control beliefs and expectancy in

motivation.
Topic 10 describes how self-concept and identity influence motivation.
Topic 11 describes how emotions influence motivation.
Topic 12 discusses the unique approach in growth motivation and positive

psychology.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you
to solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or
research. It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come
across an Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the
module and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage
yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse,
synthesise and evaluate instead of only having to recall and define.

xiv  COURSE GUIDE
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge required.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myVLE.
REFERENCES
Franken, R. E. (2007). Human motivation. Australia: Thomson/Wadsworth.
Petri, H. L., & Govern, J. M. (2004). Motivation: Theory, research and

applications. Australia: Thomson/Wadsworth.
Reeve, J. M. (2005). Understanding motivation and emotion. New York, NY: John
Wiley & Sons.

COURSE GUIDE  xv
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

DIGITAL LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for
the use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books247, InfoSci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner,
you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this
library.

xvi  COURSE GUIDE

Topic  Introduction to
1 Motivation
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the two fundamental questions in the study of motivation;
2. Identify the sources and expressions of motivation;
3. Describe the three major components of motivation; and
4. Explain several themes in the study of motivation.
 INTRODUCTION
Before you begin this topic, ask yourself this ă what will it take for you to
continue reading up until the end of this topic? The answer is none other than
your motivation to finish reading this topic. If you feel demotivated, you will not
continue reading until the end of the topic, and most probably will stop in the
middle of the topic or even right at the beginning. So, what does the word
„motivation‰ mean? The following paragraphs will answer this question.
Motivation is an important research area in the field of psychology. We often

hear the word „motivation‰ used in everyday language where the definitions
and explanations given are very general, for example „the reason for action‰ and
„an internal force that directs behaviour‰. In academic discussions, motivation is
explained in a scientific and more specific manner covering all the different
sources, expressions and components of motivation.
This topic will introduce some of these specific aspects particularly on the
different sources and expressions of motivation, the major components of
motivation and the major themes in studies on motivation. An adequate
understanding of this basic information is important to facilitate a better
understanding of later topics in this course.

2  TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO MOTIVATION
1.1 DEFINITION AND FUNDAMENTAL

QUESTIONS OF MOTIVATION
From Figure 1.1, you might be wondering what is the definition of the word
„motivation‰? Petri (2004) defines it as „the concept we use when we describe the
forces acting on or within an organism to initiate and direct behaviour‰. On the
other hand, Reeve (2005) describes motivation as „those processes that give
behaviour its energy and direction‰.
Figure 1.1: An illustration on the theme „motivation‰

Source: http://www.eyeseethat.com
The study of motivation, therefore, covers anything and everything that

energises and directs our behaviour. What we need to explore are the reasons
why behaviour is initiated, the behaviourÊs direction and its level of intensity.
The two following fundamental questions, as explained by Reeve (2005), address

the above mentioned concerns:
(a) What causes behaviour?
(b) Why does behaviour vary in its intensity?
We will discuss these two questions in the following subtopics.

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO MOTIVATION  3
1.1.1 What Causes Behaviour?

To answer the first fundamental questions, we need to find out the answers to
the following five specific questions. These specific questions as listed by Reeve
(2005) are as shown in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2: Five specific questions which lead to the cause of behaviour
(a) Why Does a Behaviour Happen?

Behaviour may happen for various reasons. For example, an eating
behaviour happens because of a physiological need and the psychological
feeling of hunger. The same behaviour, however, may happen because of
other relevant reasons.
For instance, it is possible for a person to eat even though he is not hungry.
The person may eat because he is in a social situation where there is
pressure to eat.

(b) Why is a Behaviour Sustainable Over Time?

There are certain behaviours that can sustain for many hours while there
are others that occur only for a brief moment. Some people can sit and
watch a movie non-stop for three hours but struggle to pay full attention for
a 30-minute lecture. Struggling to pay attention to a lecture is probably due
to a lack of interest on the subject, or in academic terms, a low level of
intrinsic motivation. Figure 1.3 shows a relevant example for low-level
intrinsic motivation.
Figure 1.3: The tendency to sleep while reading books is an example of

low-level intrinsic motivation
Source: http://www.educator.com
(c) Why Does a Behaviour Stop?

A behaviour stops for various reasons. We stop eating when we no longer
feel hungry. We stop competing in sports because of previous failures. We
stop studying because of our poor achievement in examinations. The
reasons are often not the same and vary from person to person across
different times and situations.
(d) Why Does a Behaviour Change Direction?

Behaviour changes direction when a new important factor or information
emerges. For example, a student may feel highly motivated to revise her
history subject but suddenly changes to physics and chemistry when she
realises there will be a test soon for both subjects.
(e) Why is a Behaviour Directed to Some Goals Yet is Far Away from Other
Goals?
Behaviour reflects a combination of approaching certain goals while
avoiding others. When a person is hungry, he or she eats to stay healthy
and strong. At the same time, the person eats to avoid becoming weak and
incapable of performing his or her duties.
The answers to these five questions must be explored from the two main sources
of motivation, internal motives and external events, as factors causing our
behaviour come from these two sources. These sources of motivation are
explained further in Subtopic 1.2.
1.1.2 Why Does Behaviour Vary in Its Intensity?

Behaviour varies in its intensity because our levels of motivation do not always
remain the same. We may feel motivated to go to work today, maybe not so
much tomorrow, but may feel very motivated the next day. There are four main
factors that have an impact on the intensity of behaviour, as shown in Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.4: Factors affecting intensity of behaviour
(a) Time
For example, some of us are usually highly motivated early in the morning,
but after lunch hour, will feel less motivated. Being motivated early in the
morning emphasises the influence of time on levels of motivation.

(b) Individual Personality

For example, an extroverted person with a sensation-seeking personality is
more likely to be motivated to take up outdoor assignments compared to an
introverted person (Franken, 2002).
(c) Space
There are students who feel more motivated to study in the library (refer to
Figure 1.5), while some others like to study in their rooms. The comfort and
peace of a library exemplify space as a factor that influences motivation.
Figure 1.5: A student doing her revision in the library

Source: http://textilecollection.wisc.edu
(d) Emotions
Emotions, on the other hand, are more likely to play a mediating role to either
enhance or reduce the intensity levels of behaviour. When you are happy, you
are more likely to feel motivated and able to do your work well. However,
when you are sad, you may not be able to push yourself to do it even though
you know you have to complete it as soon as possible (Reeve, 2005).
ACTIVITY 1.1
1. Give one example of an activity that you have no trouble doing
continuously for many hours, and one example of an activity that
you have trouble concentrating on. Explain the reasons.
2. Find out the difference between a „morning person‰ and an

„evening person‰ in terms of the intensity of their behaviours.
Share your answers with others during the tutorial session.

1.2 SOURCES AND EXPRESSION OF

MOTIVATION
Where do we get our motivation from? How can we tell whether someone is
motivated or not? These are the two main questions that we will be looking at in
the following subtopics.
1.2.1 Sources of Motivation

Reeve (2005) divides the sources of motivation into two main categories:
(a) Internal Motives

This is defined as sources of motivation that come from within a person.
They include our needs, cognitions and emotions. Needs are conditions that
are necessary for our survival and personal well-being. They include
physiological needs for food and water, psychological needs for freedom
and close relationships with others, and social needs for achievement and
power. Cognitions are mental events like personal expectations, ambitions
and imaginations. Emotions are complex experiences which involve
subjective feelings, biological changes and a strong sense of purpose.
Positive emotions like joy and interest would normally increase oneÊs
motivation, while negative emotions like sadness and fear would normally
decrease it. Figure 1.6 summarises these three different types of internal
motives.
Figure 1.6: Types of internal motives

(b) External Events

This is defined as sources of motivation that come from the environment.
Examples include environmental incentives, physical rewards and praise.
We will discuss both internal motives and external events in detail in later topics.
1.2.2 Expressions of Motivation

As can be seen in Figure 1.7, when you see your colleagues at work, can you tell
who is motivated and who is not? Although it is impossible to precisely measure
a personÊs level of motivation, there are some vital signs that we can look for to
help us in making an assessment.
Figure 1.7: An illustration on how to measure an individualÊs level of motivation

Source: http://discovery.cbu.ca
The first thing to look for is some important behavioural signs. Examples of some
of these signs are as shown in Figure 1.8:

Figure 1.8: Behavioural signs indicating level of motivation
(a) Effort
We cannot precisely measure the level of effort put in by someone but we
can attempt to do so by using the definition in terms of number of hours
spent on something or the number of tasks completed.
For example, we may say a person who spends 10 hours to complete a

project is more motivated than someone who spends only an hour on the
same task. Similarly, we may also say a person who completes 10 tasks in a
day is more motivated at work compared to someone who completes only
one task on the same day.
These signs, however, are only one of the many indications we need to
look at. To get a more comprehensive understanding, we need to gather
information about some other behavioural signs.

(b) Latency
This refers to the time starting from the moment you are asked to do
something and the moment you actually begin to do it.
For example, if your boss asks you during a meeting to take up a project
and you begin working on it immediately, we can safely say you are very
motivated to work on the task. However, if you start working on the project
only one week after the meeting and delaying it without any valid reasons,
we can then say that you are not very motivated to work on the project.
(c) Persistence
This refers to the time you spend continuously working on something, until
you finally complete it.
For example, if you are working on a project and you continue working on
it until it is done despite the various problems and challenges you face, this
shows that your level of persistence is high and you can be considered to be
very motivated. However, if you keep on putting off your work and often
feel discouraged whenever faced with obstacles, your persistence level is
quite low and your motivation level is not very high.
(d) Facial Expressions

This is a bit tricky and can be quite controversial. While there is an actual
science of analysing a personÊs emotional facial expressions which is known
as „facial physiognomy‰, your own subjective opinion on whether a
personÊs face looks happy or sad may not be enough to determine his or her
level of motivation. It could be a good indication, but, must be supported
by other behavioural signs.
(e) Bodily Gestures

This can also be a good indication but again, not necessarily decisive. Some
bodily gestures, nonetheless, are quite obvious.
For example, when you see two people walking to a meeting, the first walks
upright with fast and confident steps, while the other with shoulders
dropped and feet dragging slowly and lazily, then we can quite confidently
conclude that the first person is more motivated to attend the meeting as
compared to the second person.

SELF-CHECK 1.1
1. What are the two fundamental questions in the study of

motivation?
2. Explain two behavioural signs to look for to assess whether a

university student is motivated to do well in his studies.
In addition to behavioural signs, other expressions of motivation include

physiological indications such as blood pressure, pulse rate, and levels of various
bodily hormones. These are the main focus of psycho-physiological experiments
in the study of motivation which will be discussed in Topics 3 and 4.
ACTIVITY 1.2
Suggest a method that best measures the motivation level of employees

in an organisation. Share your views with others on myVLE.
1.3 COMPONENTS OF MOTIVATION

There are several ways to investigate what causes behaviour. A single behaviour
can be caused by several factors, all at the same time. All these factors can be
grouped into three main components: biological, learned, and cognitive. The
following subtopics provide a detailed explanation on these components.
1.3.1 Biological Component

The main focus of this component is the role of the brain. Playing the role of the
human beingÊs central processing unit, the brain is involved in all motivated
behaviour. With the invention of various medical research tools in recent years,
brain researchers have been able to investigate the roles of specific parts of the
brain on human behaviour.
For example, we now know about the important role played by the
hypothalamus on the regulation of thirst and hunger, and its subsequent
influence on our eating and drinking behaviour. We also know how certain
hormones and other biochemical agents influence the same behaviours. Many of
these findings will be discussed later in Topics 3 and 4.

1.3.2 Learned Component

While certain motivations can be said to be part of human nature, our
motivations are largely shaped by our experiences. Everything that we have
learned from our own experiences and observations, and all that we have been
taught by our parents and teachers are part of the learned component of
motivation.
From an academic perspective, the following questions need to be addressed in

relation to the aforementioned factors:
(a) How do all of these factors influence our motivation?
(b) Do the factors involve intrinsic motivation or the use of rewards and
punishments?
(c) Is the influence short-term or permanent?
(d) What are the different kinds of learning strategies that can be used to
motivate others?
These are some of the important questions in the learned component of

motivation. Many of them will be discussed later in Topics 6 and 7.
1.3.3 Cognitive Component

If the learned component focuses more on the influence of our environment, the
cognitive component focuses on how our thinking and other mental activities
influence motivation. Here, thinking would include factors such as self-esteem,
mastery orientation, self-concept and self-efficacy.
The issues that are specifically covered include:
(a) How much does our self-esteem influence our motivation and achievement?
(b) Which is more effective to motivate ourselves and others: clear and precise
goals or ambiguous goals?
(c) How is it that some people develop a sense of helplessness?
As we will find out, our thinking is a powerful influence of motivation. We will

discuss many more of these issues in Topics 8, 9 and 10.

1.4 MAJOR THEMES IN THE STUDY OF

MOTIVATION
Academic research on human motivation in recent years revolves around several
major themes. Each of these themes is supported by numerous research findings
and has been referred to by many psychologists and other professionals in their
work to help improve the lives of others. Referring to Figure 1.9, we will now
discuss five of these major themes as outlined by Reeve (2005).
Figure 1.9: Major themes in motivation
1.4.1 Motivation Benefits Adaptation

A person who has high motivation should have high adaptation. That is indeed
common sense. However, do take note that the word used here is „adaptation‰,
not „performance‰. The reason is, even with a very high level of motivation, you
may not succeed in achieving what you want. Motivation gives you the boost to
work hard, to adapt to the various challenges, but whether you actually achieve
success in the end depends on many other factors other than motivation.
An athlete for example, may be very motivated to work hard to win a gold medal
in the Olympics, but whether he actually achieves it depends on whether his
personal best is enough to achieve it and the quality of his competitors.
Therefore, we need to be careful not to exaggerate the effect of motivation.
Motivation certainly helps but it does not guarantee anything.
1.4.2 Types of Motivation Exist

This is arguably the most important theme in the study of human motivation.
Many people make the mistake of thinking that motivation is all about intensity.
As a result, whenever you see someone is not motivated to do his work, the
solution that comes first to your mind is „that person needs more motivation‰.
Yes, more motivation, but what kind of motivation? We need to fully understand
that there are many types of motivation, and different people respond differently
to each one. Therefore, what works for some people may not work for others.
Parents, for example, would know that a method which works effectively to
motivate a particular child to study does not necessarily work as effectively on
another. We need to be more creative in finding ways to motivate different
individuals. We will look into many examples of specific types of motivation in
the various topics to come but for the time being, read through the list in
Table 1.1: Top 10 Ways to Motivate Employees by Bob Nelson, the author of the
best-selling book, 1001 Ways to Reward Employees.
Table 1.1: Top 10 Ways to Motivate Employees
Ways Description
Provide personal thanks Provide it in oral or in writing, or both. Do it with
timeliness, often and sincerely.
Make time for employees Meet with and listen to employees, as much as they need
or want to.
Provide specific feedback About the performance of the person, the department and
the organisation.
Create an open Strive to create a work environment that is open, trusting
environment and fun.
Provide information About how the company makes and loses money,
upcoming products and strategies, and how the employee
fits into the plan.
Involve employees In decisions, especially when those decisions affect them.
Reward high performers Promote employees based on their performance.
Develop a sense of Provide employees with a sense of ownership which
ownership encourages them to believe that the organisation is part of
their lives.
Give chances to grow and Give employees chance to learn new skills and create
learn partnerships with senior employees.
Celebrate successes Of the company and of individuals in it. Take time for
team and morale-building meetings and activities.
Source: http://hr.utmb.edu/oetr/toolkits/recognition_toolkit
ACTIVITY 1.3
Think of three different types of motivation that can be used to

encourage a seven-year-old boy to read books.
Share your views with others during the next tutorial session.
All the points in this list correspond to the various types of motivation covered in
other topics of this course. For example, the first and final points (provide
personal thanks, and celebrate successes) are examples of extrinsic motivation
which will be covered in Topic 7. On the other hand, points 4 and 6 (create an
open environment, and involve employees) are directly related to discussions on
the psychological need for autonomy, which is one of the main issues discussed
in Topic 5.
Therefore, what we can see here is that there are many different ways to motivate
people. It is not so much about increasing the amount of motivation, but more
about finding the right type of motivation for the right kind of people at the right
time.
1.4.3 Motives Vary Over Time

Now that we know there are many types of motivation, we also need to
understand that we do things because of different reasons in different situations.
The behaviour may be the same but the motivation for doing it may change from
time to time, and from one place to the other. You may have been very motivated
to do well in your career but your motivation to do so may have changed
through the years.
For instance, when you first started work, you were motivated to earn your
salary to support yourself and save enough to start your own family. Later on,
when your financial situation stabilises, your motivation may no longer be about
money. It would probably be about earning the respect and recognition from
your colleagues, or simply for your own personal satisfaction.
1.4.4 Motivation Reveals What People Want

One of the main sources of motivation is psychological needs. These needs are
believed to be natural tendencies found in all human beings. One example is the
need for autonomy. Various research studies on psychology have shown that

most people prefer to do things on their own. In fact, many people perform better
on tasks when given the freedom to do so as compared to when controlled by
strict and rigid rules.
Since we now know that most people want at least some sense of freedom, we
may encourage parents and teachers to give their children and students some
level of freedom rather than more control and restrictions. Understanding what
people want is the key to help others make improvements in their lives.
1.4.5 Motivation Needs Supportive Conditions

Finally, we need to understand that for motivation to exert the best positive
influence on a person, it requires a supportive condition. Just as shown in Figure
1.10, imagine that somewhere in a village in Africa today, there is a young boy
who is extremely talented in football. He trains every day and is very motivated
to become the best football player in the world. However, motivation alone
would not be enough to help this boy realise his dreams. He needs to be trained
by a professional coach at a professional club where he can fully develop his
talents and abilities. In other words, he needs the necessary environment to be
able to utilise his own motivation.

Figure 1.10: A young boy playing football
Source: http://julianbrownmemorialfund.org

SELF-CHECK 1.2
1. Explain the importance of understanding the different types of

motivation that exist.
2. Why do we say motivation needs a supportive condition?
Ć The two fundamental questions in the study of motivation are, „What causes
behaviour?‰ and „Why does a behaviour vary in intensity?‰
Ć The two sources of motivation are internal motives and external events.
Ć To know whether a person is motivated or not, we look for expressions of

motivation in the form of various behavioural signs and physiological
indications.
Ć There are three major components of motivation: biological, learned, and

cognitive.
Ć There are several major themes in the study of motivation, which provides
useful guidelines for designing motivational programmes for different
individuals.
Adaptation Intensity
Biological component Internal motives
Bodily gestures Latency
Cognition Learned component
Cognitive component Motivation
Effort Needs
Emotion Persistence
External events Personality
Facial expressions Themes

Franken, R. E. (2002). Human motivation. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/ Thomson

Learning.

applications. Pacific Groove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Wiley & Sons.

Topic  Philosophy and
2 History
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the philosophical foundation of motivation;
2. Identify the grand theories of motivation; and
3. Explain contemporary approach in studies on motivation.
 INTRODUCTION
Just mention the word „philosophy‰, and it will scare many people. They think
that it is something deep and confusing. The truth is that philosophy is simply a
rational analysis of issues and ideas. It is the study of the nature of knowledge
and beliefs; where does it come from and how do we analyse whether there is
any truth in it.
Most of what we study in social sciences today is based on these rational analyses
made by philosophers in the past. In this topic, we will look at some of the classic
philosophical ideas that are relevant to the study of motivation in todayÊs
context.

20  TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHY AND HISTORY
2.1 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATION OF

MOTIVATION
Much of what we study today in social sciences, are inspired by ideas from
ancient Greek philosophy. Psychology and theories of motivation specifically are
also derived from the same foundation. Arguably, the two most important
philosophical issues in the study of human motivation are the role of the human
soul and the importance for balance and equilibrium.
In the following subtopics, there will be a detailed explanation on both of these

philosophical issues.
2.1.1 The Human Soul

What is a human soul? We can neither touch nor see it, so how do we know what
it is exactly? When you can neither see nor touch something, obviously it is
difficult for anyone to study it scientifically. Here is where philosophy comes in.
If you cannot prove physically that something exists, you present your
arguments from a rational perspective.
More than 2000 years ago, the great Greek philosopher, Plato, said that although
the human body dies and decays, the human soul is immortal. What we see is the
physical body, and the physical actions and movements that we commit. But
what regulates those behaviours and provides the motive for each and every
action is the human soul.
According to Plato, the human soul has three different components (Reeve, 2005):
(a) Rational Soul

The rational soul acts as a moderator for the other two components. It is the
thinking aspect within all of us, which gives us the wisdom and knowledge
to analyse everything from a rational and objective angle.
(b) Affective Soul

The affective soul controls our emotional side.
(c) Appetitive Soul

The appetitive soul is driven by desires for pleasure.

TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHY AND HISTORY  21
It is essential that these three components complement each other and each
of them. If our soul is controlled by the affective soul and appetitive soul, our
behaviours and thoughts would become irrational.
Just imagine, for example, if you were to give in all the time to your emotions;
you would be a highly emotional person who gets overly sad and angry in many
situations. So, what is needed is a moderating force to guide your soul to the
right path and in this case, it is the rational soul. So, all three components play an
important role in the human soul.
To illustrate this further, imagine an example of a hungry yet weight-conscious

person. His appetitive soul may tell him to eat anything, as much as he can. His
affective soul, however, may influence him to eat very little because of the fear of
gaining a few extra pounds. His rational soul, therefore, will step in to tell him to
eat in moderation and eat more nutritious food like fruits and vegetables.
This idea of a tripartite soul which is a soul with three components was echoed
by PlatoÊs student, Aristotle, as well as Muslim scholars during the medieval
period such as Ibnu Sina (Avicenna), Ibnu Rushd (Averroes) and Al-Ghazali
(Algazel). Al-GhazaliÊs views are particularly unique with references made to
verses from the Quran in which the three components of the soul were described
as (Al-Attas, 1990):
(a) Al-nafs al-mutmainnah (The peaceful soul);

(b) Al-nafs al-lawwamah (The soul that disciplines itself); and
(c) Al-nafs al-ammarah (The soul that encourages evil).
During the European Renaissance period, discussions on the human soul took a
slightly different form. Many philosophers discussed the relation and interaction
between the body and soul, instead of discussing the components.
The 17th century French scientist-philosopher, René Descartes, believed the soul
is connected to the whole body. He even said the body and soul interact in the
pineal gland, which is an endocrine gland located near the centre of the brain
(Brett King & Viney, 2008). However, he was not able to give any scientific
evidence to support his idea. Even results of contemporary research in
neuroscience have also found no supporting evidence.

ACTIVITY 2.1
Search the Internet for philosophical quotes on motivation. Choose one

which you like the best. Discuss the reason you selected it with others
in myVLE.
2.1.2 Balance and Equilibrium

One of the most famous television cartoon characters in the early 1990s was a
superhero called Captain Planet, as shown in Figure 2.1. He emerges when forces
of the four natural elements; earth, fire, wind and water, combine.
Figure 2.1: Captain Planet

Source: http://desenele.com
The idea behind this cartoon character came from an ancient philosophy. The
famous Greek philosopher and physician, Hippocrates, said that physical and
mental health can only be obtained through a balance of forces of all four
elements mentioned above. Disease and natural disaster are some of the results
of disturbance to this balance. Therefore, the basic motivation behind all
behaviours is to maintain and restore this balance (Brett King & Viney, 2008).

Closely attached to this idea is the medical-philosophical concept called

homeostasis. This concept which was made well-known by Sigmund Freud,
proposes that human beings have a natural tendency and capacity to restore a
natural state of balance (Reeve, 2005).
In every aspect of our lives, there are extreme conditions that we may encounter,
such as coldness due to low temperature. What we are naturally inclined to do in
such a situation would be to increase our body warmth to restore the balance
between hot and cold. We would wear warm clothes, light up a fire and naturally
wrap both arms around our bodies to keep us warm.
The same principle applies to our day-to-day actions. Parents, for example,
when dealing with their children, need to find a balance between affection and
control. Too much affection without any control may result in indiscipline, while,
too much control may affect the childrenÊs self-esteem and confidence. The key
message here is that for everything that we do and believe, we need to find
the right form of balance. Any extreme positions or obsessions should be
avoided. Just like taking too much sugar is bad for your physical health (refer to
Figure 2.2), having too much of certain emotions like fear and anxiety is bad for
your psychological health.
Figure 2.2: Abundance in sugar intake affects health

Source: http://www.ballymoneycyclingclub.com

ACTIVITY 2.2
Based on the link provided in Figure 2.2, watch the video titled: „Sugar-
The Bitter Truth‰.
Discuss how balance can play its part in ensuring that sugar intake will
not affect our health. Pick some relevant examples as well to support
your points.
2.2 GRAND THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Grand theories are theories that claim to be able to explain every single aspect of
peopleÊs action. Even though claims for grand theories are no longer widely
accepted today, it is worthwhile to look at some of the grand theories of
motivation used in the past, such as the instinct theory and the drive theory.
Let us now discuss these theories.
2.2.1 Instinct Theory

The instinct theory believes that all motives (in both humans and animals) are
genetically programmed, automatic and inflexible. This theory was the most
well-known theory of motivation in the late 19th century and early 20th century.
Much of this was due to the huge influence of Charles Robert DarwinÊs (1809ă
1882) theory of evolution and its emphasis on biological factors.
The two prominent figures who supported this theory were William McDougall
(1871ă1938) and William James (1842ă1910). Both of them believed that all
human behaviours are innate, which means they are all part of our genetic
characteristics and do not require any kind of learning experience (Reeve, 2005).
The theory is no longer regarded as important due to its overemphasis on

biological-instinct factors, which largely ignore our potential and ability to learn.
There was even a time when those who were obsessed with defending this
theory speculated that there are specific instincts even for common daily
behaviours.

For example, they said the reason why we scratch our nose is because of a nose-
scratching instinct and the reason why we comb our hair is because of a hair-
combing instinct. Such assumptions are indeed quite simplistic and are not
sufficient to support the theory.
2.2.2 Drive Theory

Drive theory proposes that all behaviours are aimed for reducing a state of bodily
tension or arousal and returning the organism back to homeostasis. Hunger is an
example of an arousal. When we are hungry, our aim is to eat, or in other words,
to reduce hunger and restore our energy level.
The famous American psychologist, Clark Leonard Hull (1884ă1952), was the key
figure behind this theory. His drive theory is widely considered as the first
theory of motivation. It contains predictive reliability and validity, which means
the theory, was able to give a fairly accurate prediction on future behaviours.
Specifically, the theory proposes that for any behaviour to occur, both habit or
learning (environmental factor) and drive (biological factor) must be present.
Clark Hull further illustrated this idea with a mathematical formula sEr = sHr  D
(„E‰ stands for excitatory behaviour, „H‰ for habit, „D‰ for drive, and the
subscripts „s‰ and „r‰ stand for stimulus and response). According to this
formula, no behaviour will be committed if either habit or drive is missing. As it
turned out, this rather strict requirement proves to be the weakness of this theory
(Reeve, 2005).
SELF-CHECK 2.1
1. What are the two main philosophical issues in the study of

motivation?
2. Explain what is a grand theory.

In reality, there are many things that we do which do not require any learning.
For example, there are people who despite never taking any mechanical courses
in their lives, are able to fix their own cars and other mechanical equipment. To
further illustrate, there are also people who never learn how to hunt but when
they get lost in a jungle, are able to hunt for food for their own survival.
Looking at the weakness of this theory from another angle, even when both
learning and drive are present, a specific behaviour may not necessarily occur.
Just look at people with eating disorders. These are people who even when they
are very hungry and weak, would still refuse to eat. They put on hold the drive
(hunger) and resist themselves from the behaviour (to eat), despite knowing how
and why they should eat.
2.3 CONTEMPORARY APPROACH

Contemporary research on human motivation has developed quite differently
from perspectives of the past. Current research focuses less on philosophical
ideas and analysis. It focuses more on those that are more practical and that can
be applied in various applied psychological areas. The three points in the
following subtopics, explain the basic framework behind this approach.
2.3.1 Mini-theories
Most psychologists today no longer believe in grand theories. They recognise that
every individual is unique. In addition, there is also a greater awareness today on
cultural differences which goes against claims of a universal grand theory.
So, what we have today are mini-theories; an alternative approach for grand
theories. Basically, mini theories are specific explanations for specific behaviours
committed by specific individuals at a specific time and location. This relates
back to an important theme mentioned in Topic 1 that there are different types of
motivation and not all of them work equally effective for everyone at every time.
Most of the theories we will cover in the later topics are examples of these mini-
theories.

For example, in Topic 5, we will discuss what is known as psychological needs.

One of these psychological needs is the need for autonomy, which explains our
natural tendency to be self-dependent. Although the general assumption is that
everyone has the need for independence, psychologists acknowledge that
different people in different parts of the world have different attitudes towards
independence. In some conservative cultures, more emphasis is put on
conformity and obedience to rules and traditions. In such cultures, the people
may not necessarily have a very high need for independence.
2.3.2 Cognitive Revolution

The current trend in psychology since the last few decades focuses on cognitive
factors. What is of interest here includes the role of the brain and cognitive
processes such as thinking, memory and intelligence, and how they relate to our
behaviours and motivation. Some examples of these research findings will be
covered in the next topic which includes information on the functions of various
brain structures like the hypothalamus and amygdala on human motivation.
2.3.3 Applied and Socially Relevant Research

A very common criticism against psychology is that it is more about theory and
less about practice. Psychologists have reacted to that view and have now taken
more interest in applied and socially relevant research.
After all, one of the main goals of psychology is to improve the lives of people,
and to do so, we need to apply what we know to the real world. As we cover the
various theories of motivation in later topics, we will focus more on how they can
be applied to ourselves, and then to others.
SELF-CHECK 2.2
What are the three main features of contemporary research on
motivation?

ACTIVITY 2.3
1. Why do we need to study theories?
2. Is it possible to skip all these theoretical perspectives and go

straight to practice? State the reason for your answer.
Ć The two important philosophical issues in the study of motivation concerns

the role of the human soul and the importance of balancing and attaining
equilibrium.
Ć The two grand theories of motivation are the instinct theory and drive theory.
Instinct theory focuses entirely on biological factors while drive theory
emphasises on the importance of both biological and learning factors.
Ć Contemporary research on motivation focuses more on mini-theories,

cognitive perspective and application of psychological theories.
Applied research Homeostasis

Balance Grand theory
Cognitive Instinct
Drive Mini-theories
Equilibrium Soul

Al-Attas, S. M. N. (1990). The nature of man and the psychology of the

human soul. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: International Institute of Islamic
Thought & Civilisation.
Brett K. D., & Viney, W. (2008). A history of psychology: Ideas and context.
Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Wiley & Sons.

Topic  Biological
3 Components of
Motivation
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain how the brain is involved in motivation and behaviour;
2. Identify the various parts of the brain and their respective roles in
approach-avoidance behaviours; and
3. Explain how neurotransmitters influence motivation.
 INTRODUCTION
You would most likely know and appreciate that the brain plays a very
important role in our lives and without it our lives would lose its meaning. Let us
take the example of a man who is involved in a tragic accident and pronounced
as brain-dead by the doctors. Even though his heart is still functioning and
beating, the man would still be considered dead as his brain, which is the main
organ in his body, is no longer functioning. From this example, you will realise
how important our brain is and the impact it has on our lives.
One of the key developments in psychology in the last few decades is the
cognitive revolution; a revolution in scientific research that has allowed us to
know more about the power and potential of the human brain. In psychology,
the main focus is to explore the importance of the human brain in influencing our
behaviour.

TOPIC 3 BIOLOGICAL COMPONENTS OF MOTIVATION  31
Using many of the technological inventions in medical-behavioural research,

scientists have discovered the various functions played by specific parts of the
human brain in relation to various types of behaviour. In this topic, we will
look into some of these findings which will enhance our appreciation and
understanding of the importance of the brain and its many different structures.
3.1 THE MOTIVATED BRAIN
The brain is wider than the sky.

ă Emily Dickinson
Source: http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/keywords/brain.html
As quoted above, the role of a brain is much wider than we can imagine. For a
computer, the Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the most important component. It
is involved in everything that a computer does. The brain functions the same
way. Despite its crumbled, wrinkly and grey colour appearance (as shown in
Figure 3.1), the brain is the most important part of the human body. Together
with the spinal cord, the brain is part of the human beingÊs Central Nervous
System (CNS).
Figure 3.1: The human brain

Source: http://matty03.files.wordpress.com

32  TOPIC 3 BIOLOGICAL COMPONENTS OF MOTIVATION
The human brain consists of different structures and each carries a different set
of functions. Figure 3.2 provides an overview of these different brain structures
and their functions. Discoveries in neuroscience have proven that the brain is
involved in not only cognitive-intellectual matters such as thinking and
remembering, but also in motivation. Our brains help us determine whether we
want to do something, and how long we want to do it. In order to study how this
process works, brain researchers are guided by the three important principles
which will be discussed further in the following subtopic.
Figure 3.2: The major structures of the human brain and their respective functions
Source: Ciccarelli & Meyer (2006)

3.1.1 Three Principles

The three principles outlined by Reeve (2005) to illustrate how the brain is
involved in human motivation are shown in Figure 3.3.
Figure 3.3: Three principles
Using the example of the motivation to eat, Table 3.1 shows how the three
principles are applied.
Table 3.1: Illustration of the Motivated Brain Using the Three Principles
A B C D
Environmental Biochemical Agent Activated Brain Aroused
Event Structure Motivational State
Food deprivation Ghrelin, which is a Ghrelin stimulates Hypothalamus

(have not eaten for hormone, is hypothalamus (a creates the feeling
an extended period produced and brain structure) of hunger
of time) released into
bloodstream
Principle 1: The hypothalamus generates hunger (C  D)
Principle 2: Increased ghrelin stimulates the hypothalamus (B  C)
Principle 3: Food deprivation increases ghrelin (A  B)
Source: Reeve (2005)

(a) Principle 1 states that „specific brain structures generate specific

motivational states‰. The „specific brain structure‰ in the above example
is the hypothalamus, and the „specific motivational state‰ it generates is the
feeling of hunger.
(b) Principle 2 states that „biochemical agents stimulate these brain structures‰.
The biochemical agent in the above example is ghrelin, and the brain
structure it stimulates is the hypothalamus.
(c) Principle 3, which states that „biochemical agents are stirred by day-to-day
events‰. Hence, the event in the above example is food deprivation, or the
various times during a day between one meal and the next (for example
between breakfast and dinner); and the biochemical agent affected by this
day-to-day event is ghrelin. The longer the time we spend without eating,
the higher the level of ghrelin in our bloodstream.
This example, therefore, illustrates how the three principles are used to describe
the whole process of how the brain influences our behaviour.
ACTIVITY 3.1
Using Table 3.1 as an example, show how the three principles outlined
by Reeve can be applied for the motivation to drink or quench the
thirst.
You can ask for the assistance of your tutor in doing this activity.
3.2 THE BRAIN AND APPROACH-AVOIDANCE

BEHAVIOUR
Anything that we do, which involves agreeing, seeking, and planning are
examples of approach behaviours, but those that involve the act of running away,
avoiding, and denying are examples of avoidance behaviours. In executing both
types of behaviours, specific structures of the brain are engaged. We will now
look at some of these specific structures.
Figure 3.4 shows the specific structures of the brain that are involved in the
execution of both types of behaviour; hypothalamus for approach behaviour and
amygdala for avoidance behaviour.

Figure 3.4: Cross section view of the hypothalamus and the amygdala
Source: http://www.kinesiologydatabase.com
3.2.1 Approach-oriented Structures

The main approach-oriented brain structure is, without a doubt, the
hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is in fact a small brain structure which is
involved in many different functions. The main function of the hypothalamus is
to regulate factors such as blood pressure, body temperature, fluid and body
weight. The hypothalamus, therefore, is involved in the regulation of
physiological needs for food, water and sex.
Located immediately beneath the hypothalamus is the pituitary gland. The

pituitary gland is the „master gland‰ of our endocrine system. The
hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland as well as the autonomic nervous
system. With that, the hypothalamus is effectively in control of hormonal
changes responsible for the „fight or flight‰ response, and to generate arousal or
relaxation.
So, when you are hungry or thirsty, your hypothalamus will be hard at work to
motivate you to find food and water. And whenever you get excited about
something, your hypothalamus is, in fact, the specific brain structure that makes
you feel that way.
What happens then if your hypothalamus is damaged? You would probably

become very reclusive, preferring to stay away from others and have little
concern about your food intake and overall well-being.

3.2.2 Avoidance-oriented Structures

The main avoidance-oriented brain structure is the almond-shaped amygdala.
The amygdala, which is located next to the hypothalamus, detects and responds
to threat and danger by generating emotions such as fear, anger and anxiety.
The amygdala allows us to learn what to fear and respond instinctively in

dangerous situations. In addition, it also allows us to recognise fear in others. We
experience fear through bodily reactions like increase of heart rate, muscular
tension and emotional facial reaction.
For example, when we hear a thundering earthquake sound, the amygdala

allows us to react instantly to look for protection.
What if the amygdala does not work? You may be able to experience some fear
but you would not be able to recognise fear in others. To put it more
appropriately, it is not a very nice thing to have, especially if you are a parent or
school teacher.
Imagine that you are a parent to a three-year-old child who loves to create chaos
and is prone to silly mistakes. Since your amygdala is not functioning, you will
not be able to sense the reaction of your child whenever she does something
unpleasant. So, there will be a tendency for you to scold or hurt your daughter,
without recognising the expression shown on her face.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
1. What are the three principles that illustrate how the brain is
involved in motivation?
2. What are the main brain structures involved in approach-oriented

and avoidance-oriented behaviours?
3.3 NEUROTRANSMITTER AND MOTIVATION

Neurotransmitters are chemicals that allow the movement of information from
one neuron to another. The most vital neurotransmitter for motivation is
dopamine.

Dopamine and Motivated Action

Dopamine is the „feel-good‰ chemical. It is associated with the pleasure system
in the brain which provides feelings of joy that reinforce certain behaviours. If
you feel good and happy about something, dopamine is most likely involved in
the production of that specific feeling. Dopamine is released naturally but can
also be increased by taking drugs such as cocaine, opium and heroin.
Figure 3.5 shows how drugs such as opium is harvested.
Figure 3.5: A man harvesting opium

Source: http://formaementis.wordpress.com/2007/08/
Dopamine also activates voluntary goal-directed approach behaviours. When

dopamine is released, it will initiate an approach-oriented behaviour towards the
goal. More dopamine will be released as a person continues to approach the
rewarding target.
What if you have too much dopamine? Schizophrenics or people suffering from
mental disorders are known to have high levels of dopamine which explain why
they tend to hallucinate about certain events or things that do not exist in the real
world.

SELF-CHECK 3.2
How does dopamine influence motivation?
On the other hand, people with ParkinsonÊs disease are known to have too
little or no dopamine at all. This explains why they are unable to take care of
themselves since they are unable to feel motivated to do anything by themselves.
ACTIVITY 3.2
Find out from the Internet how drugs such as cocaine and opium affect
motivation. Share what you have found with others on myVLE.
Ć Researchers used three principles to illustrate the importance of the brain

to motivation. The three principles are; specific brain structures generate
specific motivational states, biochemical agents stimulate these brain
structures and day-to-day events stir biochemical agents into action.
Ć The hypothalamus is the main brain structure involved in approach-oriented

behaviours while the amygdala is involved in avoidance-oriented behaviours.
Ć Dopamine is a neurotransmitter which generates positive emotions and

feelings, and involved in all goal-directed behaviours.
Amygdala Dopamine
Approach-oriented behaviour Hypothalamus
Avoidance-oriented behaviour Neurotransmitter
Brain

Ciccarelli, S. K., & Meyer, G. E. (2006). Psychology. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson Prentice Hall.

applications. Australia: Wadsworth/Thomson.
Wiley & Sons.

Topic  Physiological
4 Needs
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the differences between physiological needs and
psychological drive;
2. Identify basic concepts in physiological needs; and
3. Describe the processes involved in thirst, hunger and sex.
 INTRODUCTION
Before we jump into the main points contained in this topic, let us ponder on the
word „need‰ in order to have a clearer picture of the word. So, what do you
consider as a need? You need to eat in order to survive but you may or may not
need to wear an expensive dress as you can still live without wearing it. Food is a
necessity but an expensive dress is an option.
Your needs are things that are necessary for your survival and personal
development. You are born with certain needs, while some others are
psychological, and the rest learned from the environment. The most basic of all
needs are the needs for water and food. These are absolutely necessary before
you can think about other needs such as the need to have friends or to achieve
things in life. Thirst, hunger and sex are psychological drives that are part of our
physiological system. In this topic, we will look at some of the processes involved
in each of these three conditions.

TOPIC 4 PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS  41
4.1 BASIC CONCEPTS IN PHYSIOLOGICAL

NEEDS
Physiological needs are conditions that arise when your body is lacking certain
things. When you have not eaten for several hours, you will feel hungry and
weak. You will then be motivated to find food and eat. You will stop eating once
your need for food is satisfied. You cannot go on eating non-stop for hours and
hours, can you? You will know when to stop. You will then go through another
period of time without food. Soon enough, you will feel hungry again and the
whole cycle of hunger and eating will start all over again.
All of these are, of course, common knowledge. What is not so common is the
knowledge of how this whole process takes place and how we can use it to help
others overcome their problems in relation to their physiological needs. The
following sections will explain to you some of these issues.
ACTIVITY 4.1
1. What is the difference between a need and a want?
2. List several things that you consider as a need. State the reason
why you need it.
Think of some examples for the above questions and discuss your
opinions with others during the next tutorial.
4.1.1 Physiological Needs versus Psychological Drive

The first thing we need to know is the difference between physiological needs
and the psychological drive. Physiological needs are biological conditions that
you experience when your body lacks certain things. You will need to drink
water when the water volume in your body drops by about two per cent. You
will need to eat once your blood-sugar level drops.
The need for water and food are two primary examples of physiological needs.
If these needs are not met, your physical health will be affected. In worst case
situations, the effect can be life-threatening.

42  TOPIC 4 PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS
Psychological drive, on the other hand, refers to conditions that we consciously

experience. When you need food, hunger and appetite are the psychological
drives. A physiological need must be fulfilled but how we go about fulfilling it
depends on how we respond to psychological drives.
For example, if you have been eating only a few slices of bread for the last couple
of days, your need for food and level of hunger must be very high. However, you
may very well survive with that and go on with your daily chores if you are able
to push yourself.
Table 4.1 shows the comparison between physiological needs and psychological
drive. Even though both are inter-related, the differences that exist between them
are very significant.
Table 4.1: Comparison between Physiological Needs and Psychological Drive
Elements Physiological Needs Psychological Drive

Definitions Biological conditions that you Biological conditions that we
experience when your body consciously experience.
lacks certain things.
Examples Water and food. Hunger and appetite.
Situations The need to drink when you are The drive of hunger which
thirsty. makes people want to eat.
Consequences of Health will be affected. Depends on the response shown.
ignoring
4.1.2 Fundamentals of Regulation

Regulation of bodily needs revolves around the continuous process of
physiological need, psychological drive and finally, behavioural action. For
example, if the physiological need is for food, the drive is hunger and the
behavioural action is to eat. The following fundamental concepts, as shown in
Figure 4.1, will help us to understand better how this regulation works.

Figure 4.1: Fundamental concepts of regulation
(a) Homeostasis
As explained in Topic 2, the term homeostasis describes our natural
tendency to maintain a state of balance for all types of needs. In other
words, there is an in-built system within us that is inclined towards
moderation.
When we eat, we would be naturally motivated to eat just enough, not too
much and not too little. This tendency, however, is not a precise system.
Our behaviours are affected by other factors both within ourselves (our
personality and emotions) and those from the environment.
(b) Negative Feedback System

In biology, this concept is referred to as the „homeostasisÊ physiological
stop system‰ (Reeve, 2005). Hunger drives you to start and continue to eat,
but how do you know when to stop? Luckily, our body has its own system
that informs us when to stop.
With the negative feedback system in place, we will not be in danger of

continuously eating in binges to the extent of harming ourselves. There are
multiple negative feedback systems involved in both hunger and thirst. We
will look into each of these later in this topic.

SELF-CHECK 4.1
1. Explain the differences between psychological drive and

physiological needs.
2. Explain how the concept of homeostasis is important to our

understanding of physiological needs.
(c) Multiple Inputs and Multiple Outputs

What it means here is that you can be thirsty or hungry because of various
reasons, and you can in turn satisfy both of them through different ways:
(i) Multiple Outputs

This term is defined as reasons that create or intensify the
physiological needs. This term can be also defined as a behavioural
response to satisfy drive.
For example, we get thirsty when we go on without drinking water

for many hours. But, you can also feel the same after excessive
sweating, after eating salty food or after losing a lot of blood through
an injury.
(ii) Multiple Inputs

Multiple inputs are defined as ways to satisfy your physiological
needs. Multiple inputs are also defined as ways to drive means of
activation.
For example, while drinking water is the most obvious reaction to

satisfy your thirst, you can also satisfy it or at least reduce it by
cooling your body down in a cool temperature room, or by receiving
blood transfusion after losing a large amount of blood through
bleeding.
(d) Intra-organismic and Extra-organismic Mechanisms

Your eating and drinking behaviours can be influenced by these
mechanisms:
(i) Intra-organismic Mechanisms

Defined as factors within you, the following example will give you an
idea on the meaning of this term.

For example, two people may be equally hungry but they may not
necessarily eat the same amount of food when given the chance. The
first person may eat more because he has a bigger appetite while the
second person may eat less because he is experiencing a negative
emotion.
(ii) Extra-organismic Mechanisms

On the other hand, extra-organismic mechanisms which is defined as
factors from the environment refer to, among others, the influence of
taste, physical appearance as well as pressure from people around
you. These factors may influence how much or how little you eat and
drink in a particular situation.
ACTIVITY 4.2
What would happen if we do not have negative feedback systems to

regulate thirst and hunger?
Share your findings with your coursemates through myVLE.
4.2 PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS

We will look into the three main physiological needs; thirst, hunger and sex in
the following subtopics. For each of this, we will look at how the needs are
activated, fulfilled and influenced by intra-organismic and extra-organismic
factors.
4.2.1 Thirst
When will you feel thirsty? You will feel thirsty when the volume of water in
your body drops by about two per cent. If it drops by more than three per cent,
you will be dehydrated, which could be a potentially harmful condition. Bear in
mind that about two-thirds of our body consists of water. Physical activities, such
as shown in Figure 4.2, and hot weather make the body need more water than in
other normal conditions.

Figure 4.2: Replenishing water after an exercise session is vital

Source: http://www.methodsofhealing.com
We lose water continuously throughout the day through sweating and urination.
We lose water as well through sneezing, vomiting and bleeding. Therefore,
drinking a sufficient amount of water every day is absolutely vital to replenish
the level of water lost through these various sources.
Figure 4.3 shows the elements that are involved in the process of thirst. These
elements will be explained and elaborated in the following paragraphs.
Figure 4.3: Elements that are involved in the process of thirst

There are two types of fluids in the human body, which are:
(a) Intracellular Fluids

Defined as water inside the cells which constitutes about 40 per cent of our
body weight.
(b) Extracellular Fluids

Defined as water outside the cells which constitutes about 20 per cent of our
body weight.
We need to understand the differences between the two types because the loss of
water from inside and outside the cells gives us two different kinds of thirst:
(a) Osmometric Thirst

Considered as the primary cause of thirst activation, osmometric thirst is
caused by cellular dehydration, which means the loss of water from inside
the cells. This is the type of thirst we feel after urinating and excessive
sweating.
(b) Volumetric Thirst

As for volumetric thirst, we experience it due to the loss of water from
outside the cells which normally happens because of bleeding or vomiting.
This explains why we feel thirsty after going through a surgery, after losing
blood from an injury as well as after donating some blood.
Moving on to the issue of satiety and negative feedback system, how do we

know when to stop drinking? As shown in Figure 4.4 which shows the position
of organs such as the oesophagus, stomach and intestine. Water enters our body
through the mouth and oesophagus when we drink. It then goes to the stomach
and intestines, and is then absorbed into the bloodstream before finally entering
the body cells. Physiologists have conducted various experiments to find out the
location of the negative feedback system. The findings show that there are
multiple negative feedback systems for thirst.

Figure 4.4: The oesophagus, stomach and intestine

Source: http://z.about.com
In one experiment, animal subjects drank water but the experimenters arranged
for the water to go through the mouth and oesophagus without reaching the
stomach. The animals were observed to have drunk four times the normal
amount of water (Reeve, 2005). This shows that there is some kind of negative
feedback system at the mouth and oesophagus but a rather weak one.
If the system was a strong one, subjects in the experiment would not have drunk
four times the normal amount of water. Note that this is an example of an
experiment that can only be done with animals as subjects because of its potential
harmful effects on the human body system. After all, would you want to be a
subject in an experiment like this?
The intra-organismic mechanisms or the factors within you that are involved in
the regulation of thirst are the liver, hypothalamus and a few specific hormones.
As discussed in Topic 3, the role of the hypothalamus is to regulate various
physiological processes such as blood pressure, body temperature and level of
water. For the regulation of thirst, the hypothalamus helps to monitor the level of
intracellular fluid.

Cells will shrink in size if the water inside is at low-levels. The shrinkage of cell
size will be detected by the hypothalamus. It will then send a message to the liver
to conserve water. What the liver will do is to conserve water by releasing
concentrated-yellowish urine rather than diluted ones. Both the hypothalamus
and the liver therefore, work together as one of the intra-organismic mechanisms
in the regulation of thirst.
As for extra-organismic mechanisms or the factors from the environment, the

most influential factor that influences drinking behaviour is taste (Reeve, 2005).
People do not drink tea, coffee and soft-drinks to quench their thirst. They drink
them because of their taste and certain people drink it because it contains
caffeine. Most people also prefer to take drinks that are sweet compared to drinks
of other kinds of taste such as sour, salty and bitter.
We need to be mindful of the recommendations made by health experts that each

person should drink at least 8 glasses of water (about 2 litres) per day. Drinking
enough water is in fact, the simplest way to maintain and improve our health.
4.2.2 Hunger
Regulation of hunger is a bit more complicated. The main reason is that there are
two different types of regulation:
(a) Short-term Regulation

This regulation is based on the glucostatic hypothesis which explains that
hunger is directly caused by a drop in blood-sugar levels (Reeve, 2005). We
eat food to obtain energy and the food that we consume eventually turn
into glucose or sugar, which the cells in our bodies need to produce energy.
Just like the regulation of thirst, the liver and hypothalamus are central to
the regulation of hunger. The hypothalamus plays two different roles in the
brain:
(i) Lateral Hypothalamus

The liver monitors the level of blood glucose. When the level of blood
glucose drops, the liver sends a signal to the lateral hypothalamus
(LH). As shown in Figure 4.5, the LH is the brainÊs hunger centre
which activates the psychological feeling of hunger.


Figure 4.5: Lateral hypothalamus and ventromedial hypothalamus
Source: http://www.vivo.colostate.edu
(ii) Ventromedial Hypothalamus

The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) is the satiety centre. What
the VMH does is exactly the opposite of what the LH does. The VMH
reduces hunger once blood glucose is back at its homeostatic level.
The VMH therefore, functions as the negative feedback system for
short-term appetite.
(b) Long-term Regulation

The long-term regulation of hunger is based on the lipostatic hypothesis.
The word „lipo‰ refers to fat. Hence, the lipostatic hypothesis is based on
the fact that like glucose, fat or adipose tissue also produces energy. The
main difference here is that fat is more stable than glucose, and it is only
used as a source of energy when the blood glucose level is low.
The lipostatic hypothesis explains the relation between food intake, energy
use and body weight. There are people who despite their preference for oily
food are still very thin. Whereas, there are others who despite their best
attempt to control their food intake are unable to reduce as much weight as
they might want. The lipostatic hypothesis uses the set-point theory to
explain this situation.

The theory argues that „each individual has a biologically determined body
weight‰ (Reeve, 2005). According to this theory, our fat cells are genetically
determined. For some of us, our fat cells are naturally small but for others,
it is exactly the opposite. Therefore, those who have naturally large fat cells
will find it very hard but not impossible to reduce much weight, while
those who have naturally small fat cells, will find it hard to gain weight.
Not everyone agrees with the theory but it is certainly something
interesting.
The liver and the hypothalamus are part of the intra-organismic mechanism
for the regulation of thirst. As for the extra-organismic mechanism, there
are various factors that we can look at. Eating behaviour can obviously be
influenced by the taste, smell and appearance of the food, as shown in
Figure 4.6. It can also be influenced by the weather, time of the day,
persuasion and social influence. These factors, at times, can overpower our
physiological condition.
Figure 4.6: Appearance does make food seems tastier

Source: http://www.yatepeople.co.uk
For example, you could be very hungry and feel like eating a lot but when
you are attending a formal event where everyone seems to be eating so
little, you would control yourself from eating too much. Similarly, there
would be occasions where you are still full and no longer have an appetite
to eat. However, if you are visiting your parents and they have prepared so
much food for you to eat, you would probably push yourself to eat because
you do not want to hurt their feelings.

ACTIVITY 4.3
1. Now that we know the functions of the lateral hypothalamus

and the ventromedial hypothalamus, how would you apply this
knowledge to help people reduce or increase their weight?
2. What is your view about the set-point theory? Why do you think
some people are just naturally unable to reduce weight?
4.2.3 Sex
Human sexual motivation is an issue not often discussed openly in conservative
societies. Be as that may, to have sexual motivation and desires is indeed
something natural and expected of all human beings.
As can be seen in Figure 4.7, men and women are different in many aspects, and
one of them is in terms of their sexuality. The intra-organismic aspect of human
sexual behaviour involves the functions of various sex hormones. Sex hormones
are divided into two categories: androgens and oestrogens. When a person is
sexually aroused, these hormones will be released into the bloodstream. The
amount of hormones released is controlled by the hypothalamus. An example of
an androgen is the hormone called testosterone.
High levels of testosterone are often associated with high levels of sexual
motivation, especially amongst men. Testosterone levels are highest during the
period of young adulthood (age 18 to 35), and declines as a person moves
into adulthood and old age. Specifically, studies have reported that menÊs
testosterone levels drop by about one per cent every year once they reach the age
of 40 (Reeve, 2005). Likewise, women would also experience a drop of levels of
oestrogens as they grow older. These findings explain why sexual motivation
amongst both men and women in general reduces gradually as they grow older.

Figure 4.7: The differences in sexuality

Source: http://s0cialbutt3rfly.wordpress.com
Other studies, however, have shown differences between men and women based
on a few aspects of sexual behaviour. For example, when it comes to forming
sexual relationships, women place more emphasis on relationship factors such as
emotional intimacy and ability to earn and protect a family. Men, on the other
hand, emphasise more on age and physical appearance when choosing their
female partners.
This pattern of mate selection is understood to be a universal trend (Reeve, 2005).

It certainly makes a lot of sense. After all, most men do pay more attention to
women who are young and beautiful while women are often attracted to
successful men who are financially stable. Women would still of course consider
physical appearance an important factor but most probably not as strongly as
men do when choosing their partners.
SELF-CHECK 4.2
1. Explain the role of the liver and the hypothalamus in the
regulation of thirst and hunger.
2. Describe the differences between the glucostatic hypothesis and

lipostatic hypothesis in the physiological need of hunger.
3. Explain why sexual motivation decreases as we grow older.

 Physiological needs are biological conditions that you experience when your
body lacks certain things.
 Homeostasis describes our natural tendency to maintain a state of balance for

all types of needs.
 There is a natural negative feedback system that allows us to know when to

stop eating and drinking.
 Eating and drinking behaviours can be influenced by factors within us (intra-

organismic mechanisms) and factors from the environment (extra-organismic
mechanisms).
 Osmometric thirst is caused by loss of water from inside the cells while
volumetric thirst is caused by loss of water from outside the cells.
 The liver and the hypothalamus are the main components of the intra-
organismic mechanisms in the regulation of thirst and hunger.
 The lateral hypothalamus is the brainÊs hunger centre while the ventromedial
hypothalamus is the satiety centre.
 The glucostatic hypothesis explains the short-term regulation of hunger while

the lipostatic hypothesis explains the long-term regulation.
 Human sexual motivation is influenced by sex hormones; androgens and

oestrogens.
 There is a universal trend that explains how men and women choose their
respective sexual partners.

Androgens Mate selection

Extracellular fluid Multiple input/Multiple output
Extra-organismic mechanisms Negative feedback system
Glucostatic hypothesis Oestrogens
Homeostasis Osmometric thirst
Hypothalamus Physiological needs
Intracellular fluid Psychological drive
Intra-organismic mechanisms Set-point theory
Lateral hypothalamus Testosterone
Lipostatic hypothesis Ventromedial hypothalamus
Liver Volumetric thirst
Wiley & Sons.

applications. Australia: Wadsworth/Thomson.

Topic  Psychological
5 Needs
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the differences between psychological needs and
physiological needs;
2. Describe the three psychological needs ă autonomy, competence,
and relatedness; and
3. Identify factors and conditions that satisfy each of the three
psychological needs.
 INTRODUCTION
Do you love to voice your opinions in the classroom or compare your academic
performance with the other learners in your class? Most probably there would be
a majority of us who would say „yes‰ to this question. The tendency to exercise
our freedom and to compare ourselves with others is closely related to the term
„psychological needs‰.
Psychological needs are part of our human nature and focus on positive
psychological development. The three psychological needs; autonomy,
competence and relatedness, allow us to interact and benefit from our social
environment. If physiological needs are about reacting to our bodily conditions,
then psychological needs are more about being proactive. Psychological needs
involve our natural desire to exercise our sense of freedom, our tendency to
compare ourselves and compete with others and our desire to establish close
interpersonal relationships with family members and friends.

TOPIC 5 PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS  57
In that sense, psychological needs are not as vital as physiological needs but
satisfying them would certainly make our lives much happier. In this topic, we
will learn more about the three psychological needs ă how are they defined, how
we go about satisfying them and how they can be used to motivate ourselves and
others.
5.1 AUTONOMY
Which one of these activities that you enjoy doing? Reading a book you choose to
read or reading a book that you are forced to read? Most likely, you would enjoy
the book you choose to read. It is only natural that when we want to do
something, we want to decide how, when and why we want to do it. Nobody
likes to be forced. What we want is the freedom to choose and decide. With that
freedom, we will enjoy better what we do and that is where autonomy plays its
role.
5.1.1 What is Autonomy?

Autonomy or self-determination is all about the freedom to choose and decide.
Psychologists today believe that this is a natural human tendency, which is why
it is categorised as a psychological need. What we need to do then is to be more
autonomy-supportive rather than autonomy-controlling. Here, perception is
important. We need to believe that we are the cause of our own actions, not
threats, persuasions or any other external factors.
In academic terms, this is referred to as internal perceived locus of causality, the

opposite of which is external perceived locus of causality (Reeve, 2005). Another
important perception is the perception of choice. Autonomy is only possible
when there are choices available. After all, what is there to choose from if there is
only one choice available?
5.1.2 Creating Autonomy-supportive Environments

As mentioned above, autonomy can be divided into two different environments:
(a) Autonomy-supportive Environments

Defined as the environments which encourage us „to set our own goals,
direct our own behaviour, choose our own ways of solving problems and
pursue our own interests and values‰ (Reeve, 2005).

58  TOPIC 5 PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS
(b) Autonomy-controlling Environments

Defined as the environments where we are forced to accept and obey strict
rules and regulations.
An important characteristic of an autonomy-supportive environment, which

allows us to exercise our autonomy or self-determination, is that it nurtures our
inner desires. This inner desire corresponds with intrinsic forms of motivation. It
refers to motivation from within oneself, not from external factors like money,
rewards or recognitions from others. You are your own motivator. What is the
most important thing here, are your own desires, interests, inclinations, goals in
life and preferences. If you are able to make your own choice where all these
factors are in harmony with one another, then your need for autonomy will be
truly satisfied.
With this in mind, you should be able to assist others to satisfy their needs for
autonomy too. Parents for example, should know that as their children grow
older, they begin to develop their own sense of freedom and a strong need for
autonomy. It is of course important for parents to maintain some level of control
over their children.
However, knowing that the need for autonomy is something natural and
unavoidable, parents, without exerting too much pressure, should at least allow
their children the freedom to choose what they wish to study, what activities
they like to be involved in, what books they wish to read, etc. If parents are able
to harness this inner motivational resources, their children will be far more
motivated to perform well in everything they are involved in.
One specific way that helps create an autonomy-supportive environment is the

use of informational language. For example, when a student did not do well in
his exams, the teacher might say, „I noticed that you did not do well in your
exam. Do you know why this happened?‰ As you can see, the teacher here,
rather than condemning and criticising, is trying to encourage the student to
reflect on his own why he did not do well in the exam.
With more such encouragement, the student should eventually be able to identify
the causes and think about ways to overcome them in the future. Compare this
with the student being directly criticised and accused of not taking his studies
seriously. The previous scenario is definitely more aligned rather than the latter
with what we know about the need for autonomy.
There are many other ways to help create autonomy-supportive environments.

The following Table 5.1 lists some examples of the reaction of autonomy-
supportive people and compares them with the reaction of autonomy-controlling
people in the same situation.

Table 5.1: What Autonomy-supportive and Autonomy-controlling People Say and Do
What Autonomy-supportive People Say What Autonomy-controlling People Say

and Do and Do
Listen carefully and allow others to talk. Give directives and commands.
Provide rationale. Show and tell correct answers.
Ask others what they want to do. Ask others to obey instructions.
Use statements to praise and encourage. Use „should‰ and „must‰ statements.
Acknowledge others‰ perspectives. Does not tolerate differences of opinions.
All the above examples are ways to motivate others by tapping into their need
for autonomy which, as we will see in the next discussion, is proven to bring
many benefits.
SELF-CHECK 5.1
1. Explain one fundamental difference between physiological needs

and psychological needs.
2. Describe the differences between an autonomy-supportive

motivating style and autonomy-controlling motivating style.

Style
Numerous research studies conducted in the last few decades have strongly
proven the various benefits of an autonomy-supportive motivating style. These
benefits are as follows (Reeve, 2005):
(a) Higher self-esteem;
(b) Greater creativity;
(c) Greater participation;
(d) Positive emotions;
(e) Greater flexibility in thinking;
(f) Enhanced sense of self-worth;

(g) Improved performance; and
(h) Higher overall achievement.
Let us now look at one specific example to differentiate between autonomy-

supportive and autonomy-controlling. In an experiment done on schoolchildren
in an art class, researchers divided students into two groups: an autonomy-
controlling group and an autonomy-supportive group. Students in both groups
were asked to paint.
In the autonomy-controlling group, the teacher imposed a list of rules and

instructions such as „to not mix paints, to clean off the brushes before switching
to a new colour of paint, and to paint only on a particular piece of paper‰
(Koestner et al. (1984) as cited in Reeve, 2005). The teacher also used instructional
and controlling language to pressure the students to follow all the rules.
However, in the autonomy-supportive group, the teacher used information

language, and provided rational and detailed explanations on every instruction
given. At the end of the class, all the artwork were collected and evaluated by an
independent judge. The result strongly indicates that the artwork produced in
the autonomy-supportive group were of high quality, technically superior and
creative.
ACTIVITY 5.1
Some people think autonomy-supportive motivating style works well

only in Western and liberal societies, not in more conservative and
traditional societies such as in Asia and Africa. What do you think?
Share your views with others during the next tutorial.
5.2 COMPETENCE
Everybody loves to compete. Of course, some people are more competitive than
others but all of us do in fact, compete one way or another. The need for
competence is listed here as a psychological need, hence it is believed to be
something inherent, or part of human nature. If you find that difficult to accept,
observe how a baby as young as a few months old try to imitate the actions of
other babies.

When the baby sees others roll over, they would try to roll over too. When the
baby sees others throwing an object, they would try to do the same thing too.
Our need for competence begins with the comparisons we make between
ourselves and others. It may start with direct imitation but will soon grow into
the desire to take on challenges.
From an academic perspective, competency is defined as „a psychological need

that provides an inherent source of motivation to master optimal challenges‰
(Reeve, 2005). Practically, what that means is, all of us have the desire to perform
effectively; in everything that we do. Most importantly, we are motivated to find
out what is our capabilities and interests. In order to do so, we need to find the
right type of challenge.
5.2.1 Optimal Challenge and Flow

The best type of challenge to satisfy our need for competence is an optimal
challenge ă a challenge which is neither too easy nor too difficult. Whether a
challenge is easy or not is a subjective matter. Something which is easy for one
person may not necessarily be easy for others. Therefore, it is important that we
are aware of our own abilities, so that we can find challenges that best suit our
personal condition.
If the challenge we face is too easy, we will become bored very quickly. And, if
the challenge is too difficult, we will experience fear and anxiety. However, if the
challenge is optimal, we will experience a high level of excitement that will
motivate us to repeat and improve our performance. This excitement that we feel
is what a Russian psychologist, Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, termed as flow.
According to Reeve (2005), flow is „a state of concentration that involves a

holistic absorption in an activity which occurs whenever a person uses his or her
skills to overcome some challenges‰. If you are wondering what the flow
experience really is, imagine yourself doing something that you really like. If you
are someone who likes painting, think back to a time when you spend many
hours continuously painting. Do you recall being tired or bored? Did your mind
wander elsewhere or were you completely focused on your painting, just as
shown in Figure 5.1?

Figure 5.1: A woman painting intently

Source: http://www.webmd.com
Most likely, you did not feel tired or bored at all, and your mind was completely
focused on your work. That is exactly what flow is all about: being totally
involved, mind and body, with what you are doing. And you will experience this
when you are doing something that offers you optimal challenge, which in turn
will satisfy your need for competence.
Figure 5.2 shows an example of a flow model which can be used to measure our
level of skills and the level of challenges that we can face.
Figure 5.2: Flow model

Source: Adapted from www.ebl.org/flow_original.gif

How does this information help you to motivate yourself and others? First of all,
you must find out your present level of skills and abilities, and then seek for
challenges that best meet these abilities. The same applies when it comes to
motivating others.
If you are a teacher, you should not give examination questions which are either
too easy or too difficult. They must be of an optimal level so that students will
enjoy taking the exam, which may in fact make them look forward to learn more
and take more exams in the future. If you are a superior officer in an
organisation, you should regulate duties to your subordinates that match well
with their different levels of abilities. If the task given is optimal, they will enjoy
working and feel more motivated to contribute to the organisation.
5.2.2 Performance Feedback

Any challenge that we face would be meaningless without any feedback. Imagine
students in school taking exam after exam but never receiving any results; how
would they know how well or badly they have performed? Feedback, therefore,
is very important for us to know what our current levels of performance are.
What are the various sources of feedback? According to Reeve (2005), there are
generally four different sources of feedback as shown in Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3: Sources of feedback

(a) The Task Itself

The grade or marks that you receive in an exam is an example of feedback
that comes from the task itself. When it comes to sports, the medals and
trophies you won are also feedback from the task itself.
(b) Comparisons of Past and Present Performances

Comparison between our past and present performances is arguably a more
valuable source of motivation. From here, you will know either you have
improved or done worse than before.
(c) Comparisons with the Performance of others

Comparison with performances of others is important to indicate where we
stand with respect to others. To receive a B grade for a subject, as far as the
task itself is concerned, may not indicate anything outstanding.
However, if everyone else in the class receives Cs and Ds, the grade you
receive is in fact quite an achievement.
(d) The Evaluation of Others

The evaluation of others, something as small as words of praise from your
parents or teachers, could be crucial to boost your sense of competence.
ACTIVITY 5.2
As an employee in an organisation, which source of feedback do

you value the most: the task itself, comparisons of past and present
performances, comparison with others or evaluation of others? State the
reason for your answer.
Discuss your views with others in myVLE.

5.3 RELATEDNESS
Relatedness is „the need to establish close emotional bonds and attachments
with other people‰ (Reeve, 2005). In a simpler term, relatedness is about social
interaction and the desire to form close relationships with others. However,
relatedness is not only about having friends to talk to or play with. It is about
having close relationships with others, relationships that involve genuine
affection, care and responsibility. This is part of our nature, which is why it is
categorised as a psychological need.
5.3.1 Involving and Satisfying Relatedness

Typical examples of relationships that involve relatedness are our relationships
with our parents, spouses and close friends. We build and maintain these
relationships because of the positive effect they give us. For example, a close and
intimate relationship shared by a husband and a wife, as shown in Figure 5.4,
will give both a great sense of emotional, security and comfort. We all need this,
which explains why many of us make considerable effort to find people with
whom we can establish close relationships with.
Figure 5.4: A close relationship between a husband and wife

Source: http://mmlskills.com

Relationships that satisfy our relatedness needs are based on the perception of a
social bond. However, you can only claim to have a social bond with someone if
that person genuinely cares and likes you for who you really are. Your true self
(an issue we will discuss more in Topic 10) refers to who you really are as a
person. This includes both your strengths and weaknesses.
We do not show our weaknesses and vulnerability in front of others. Only those
who are close to us know about them. And if you are to establish a social bond
with someone, the other person needs to know all this, especially your
weaknesses, and still cares and likes you nonetheless. Married couples, for
example, need to understand each otherÊs personality and accept both that is
good and bad, remain loyal and understanding in both good and bad times.
Internalisation is important, in which we voluntarily adopt and integrate the

ways of thinking and preferences of others. We need to accept, understand and
respect them the way they are. Problems occur if either person in the relationship
wishes to change the other to suit his or her own liking or forces the other to fully
integrate his or her own values.
There are two relationships that are inter-connected with relatedness needs:
(a) Communal Relationships

Relatedness needs are satisfied through what is referred to as communal
relationships. Communal relationships, such as those that exist between
close friends, married couples and family members, are not based on
exchanges of benefits (at least they should not be). They are based on
sincere and genuine feelings of affection and concern with no expectation of
anything in return.
(b) Exchange Relationship

The opposite of communal relationship is exchange relationship. Exchange
relationships are based on the exchange of benefits. For example, the
statement „I get something from you and you get something from me‰,
shows this type of relationship. Relationships like these are normal between
colleagues at work or between business partners. Such relationships will
never satisfy your relatedness needs.

Perhaps this story about two brothers will enlighten us about what a communal
relationship is all about.
„A long, long time ago, there lived two brothers. They were both very poor, but
the older brother had a little more rice than the other one. However, he had a
larger family to support than his younger brother. In autumn, they each
harvested their crops and bagged up the grain. But, the older brother was
worried about his younger brother. So, when it was dark, he took a bag of grain
and secretly placed it in his brotherÊs rice store.
Strange to say, the following day, when the older brother went to his own
store, he counted the same number of bags as he had before he took the bag to
his brother. So, the next night, he took another bag and put it in his brotherÊs
storehouse, exactly as he had done before. But when he checked his store the
next morning, once again there was the same amount of bags. His supply had
not diminished at all. The brother was puzzled. „How could this be?‰
The following evening, he took another bag of rice to his brotherÊs grain store,
but instead of going home to bed, he waited behind a bush near his own store.
A little while later, he saw a figure coming through the darkness, carrying a
sack. When he saw, it was his younger brother. He was very surprised. Each
night, the younger brother had taken a bag of rice and put it in his older
brotherÊs store because he was worried about him.
When the two brothers realised what they had been doing, they embraced each
other and cried. They realised that they were not poor at all because they had
something more precious than the sacks of rice ... they had brotherly love.‰
(Adapted from Schatz Blackrose, 2008)
SELF-CHECK 5.2
1. Explain the type of challenges and level of skills required for us to

experience „flow‰.
2. Describe the differences between communal and exchange

relationships.

ACTIVITY 5.3
1. In a situation where parents and children have different values

and ways of thinking, how should internalisation take place?
2. Who should internalise more, parents or children? Why do you

think so?
Discuss with your coursemates during the next tutorial.
Ć Psychological needs are part of human nature and are important for positive
psychological development.
Ć There are three psychological needs: autonomy, competence and relatedness.
Ć Need for autonomy is satisfied in an autonomy-supportive environment and

through the use of autonomy-supportive motivating style.
Ć Need for competence is satisfied by overcoming optimal challenges which

enables us to experience flow.
Ć Need for relatedness is satisfied in communal relationships, where emotional

and social bonds are strongly established.
Autonomy Feedback
Autonomy-controlling environment Flow
Autonomy-controlling motivation Internalisation
Autonomy-supportive environment Optimal challenge
Autonomy-supportive motivation Psychological needs
Communal relationship Relatedness
Competence Self-determination
Exchange relationship

Wiley & Sons.
Schatz, B. M. (2008). Tell me: Storytelling as a global language. Sydney: Ligare

Press.

Topic  Social Needs
6
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain what are acquired needs, social needs, and quasi needs;
2. Describe achievement motivation and the need for affiliation and
intimacy; and
3. Identify factors and conditions that satisfy achievement motivation
and the need for affiliation and intimacy.
 INTRODUCTION
Have you ever wondered how Donald Trump built his business empire so
successfully or how Winston Churchill managed to rule Britain so powerfully?
The answer lies in both these charismatic individualsÊ quest to fulfil their social
needs.
Psychologists believe that we are born with physiological and psychological

needs. We need to drink and eat, and we also need to have close relationships
with family members and friends. We do not need to learn about all these aspects
because they are all part of our nature.
However, when it comes to social needs, which includes what is commonly

referred to as the three big motives; achievement, affiliation and power, social
needs are developed from experiences in life. We develop these needs from what
we have learned and observed from others and from what we are taught by our
parents and teachers.

TOPIC 6 SOCIAL NEEDS  71
Some of us have a higher need for achievement, while others may have a higher
need for affiliation. All these do not indicate whether some of us are better than
others but simply that we are different individuals. In this topic, we will explore
these social needs, as well as the conditions and factors that are necessary to
achieve them.
6.1 ACQUIRED NEEDS

The term acquired needs is used to describe needs that are developed from
learning and other life experiences. Unlike physiological needs for water and
food, acquired needs are not part of our human nature. Nobody is born with
high needs for achievement or even the need to carry an umbrella when it rains.
We acquire these needs from what we learn from others and through our own
observations. Acquired needs can be divided into two types: social needs and
quasi needs.
Social needs develop from life-long experiences which eventually becomes part
of our personality and long-term motivation. Two of these social needs,
achievement and intimacy, are discussed further in this topic. On the other hand,
quasi needs are short-term needs that emerge only in specific situations. The
need for an umbrella mentioned earlier is an example of a quasi need. The
following subtopics describe further both social and quasi needs.
6.1.1 Social Needs

According to Reeve (2005), „social needs are mostly reactive in nature‰. What
this basically means is that these needs appear only in certain suitable situations.
For example, achievement motivation appears and grows stronger in situations
such as studying for an important examination or training for a sports
competition.
How much of this motivation we have depends on many different factors. In

general, they all come from our experiences in life or the values and attitudes we
were taught about since young.
One of the important studies which looked into how social needs develop was
the study by McClelland and Pilon in 1983. These two researchers investigated
how child-rearing techniques influence the development of social needs. They
observed how a group of children were treated by their parents when they were
young and then observed them again when they became adults, to see what kind
of person they have become.

72  TOPIC 6 SOCIAL NEEDS
Their findings were indeed very interesting. Those who in their childhood, were
subjected to a strict-feeding schedule and toilet-training, were found to have
developed high needs for achievement. Whereas kids whose parents used praise
to motivate them rather than through force or fear developed high needs for
affiliation (Reeve, 2005).
We now know that social needs develop from a young age. However, we need to
understand that even though it starts from an early stage, these developments
can change over time. It is very possible that some people develop a high need
for achievement later in their lives. You may not have been a very ambitious
person throughout your life but once you enter an environment where you
receive the necessary encouragement and incentive to aim for greater success,
you may very well turn into an extremely ambitious person.
6.1.2 Quasi Needs

Quasi needs are similar to social needs in the sense that they are acquired from
experience and emerge in specific situations. However, the main difference here
is that while social needs are long-term needs, quasi needs are short-lived needs.
If you are walking to your office and it suddenly rains, you need an umbrella to
avoid getting soaked and wet.
The need for an umbrella here is a quasi need ă a need that emerges in that
specific situation. It is important and something you urgently need in that
specific moment, even though just for a minimal period of time. None of us
would like to arrive at work with water dripping from our clothes.
Other examples of quasi needs include anything in our environment that puts
pressure on us to react. When a student receives an instruction from his teacher
to do an assignment, anything that is necessary for him to complete the
assignment becomes quasi needs.
In this case, they may include the need to go to the library, the need for
individual consultation with the teacher, the need to read all the necessary
reading materials and the need to have a computer to type the assignment. These
are all important and relevant for this particular situation. But once the
assignment is done and submitted, all these quasi needs will disappear, at least
for a brief moment until the next assignment is announced.

ACTIVITY 6.1
Source of image: http://www.babble.com
Read from any books or sources from the Internet about the life and
achievements of Tiger Woods, the worldÊs best golf player. Find out
how he acquired such a high need for achievement to be the best golf
player of all time.
Share your findings with others in myVLE.
6.2 ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION

Achievement motivation is „the desire to do well relative to a standard of
excellence‰ (Reeve, 2005). But, what is the exact meaning of „to do well‰? How
do you know whether or not you have done well in something? Similar to what
we came across in the previous topic in relation to the need for competence, we
will know that we have done well in something based on the result from the task
itself, from our own individual perspective and based on comparisons with
performances of other people.
For example, how can we know whether the result we obtained for a subject in
school can be considered a good achievement? If the grade you received is „A+‰,
obviously it is an outstanding achievement.

However, is it possible that even if you receive a „B‰, it is also considered an

achievement? It certainly can if your grades before this for the same subject were
always „C‰ or below. It can also be considered an achievement if „B‰ was the
highest grade received in the class and all your classmates obtained „C‰s and
„D‰s.
What the above basically tells us is that different people may have different
understandings and definitions of achievement. Although an objective standard
of excellence may exist, achievement motivation is still very much a subjective
matter. If you have always been an „A‰ student, getting a „B+‰ for one subject
would probably be a major disaster. But for a student who regularly fails the
subject, getting a „B+‰ would probably be one of his greatest academic
achievements.
In the following subtopics, you will know the answers to these two questions:
(a) Where does achievement motivation come from?
(b) How to satisfy the need for achievement?
6.2.1 Where does Achievement Motivation come

from?
Achievement motivation is influenced largely by socialisation factors. These are
essentially the values and attitudes we were taught since young particularly by
our parents. Earlier, we came across the classic study by McClelland on the
relationship between child-rearing practices and achievement motivation. In
general, McClellandÊs study emphasised the importance of good parenting
techniques and parenting strategies to harness a childÊs need for achievement.
In the past, research studies have found a number of parenting strategies

positively related to achievement motivation. Let us consider a few examples of
parenting strategies which can create a high level of achievement motivation:
(a) Communicate Explicit or Clear Expectations

Based on the study by Trudewind (1982), parents can inculcate a high level
of achievement motivation to their children by communicating explicit or
clear expectations (Reeve, 2005).

For example, if your daughter is taking her Lower Secondary Examination

this year, you can motivate her by telling her exactly what you want her to
achieve. Say something like, „I want you to get 8As‰. According to
Trudewind, this works better as compared to if you say something like, „I
want you to do your best‰.
As we can see, the clear difference between the first and second example is
that in the first example your daughter would be very clear about what she
should target for, while the second example is ambiguous and open to
different interpretations. Having a clear goal in mind gives a person a
higher level of achievement motivation.
(b) Independence Training

The goal in independence training is to make a child more motivated to
strive for high achievements by providing the child the freedom to choose
his or her own methods to achieve a goal. This can be clearer if we put this
together with the parenting strategy from the previous example.
You tell your daughter clearly about the goal, „I want you to get 8As‰, and
explain further in relation to her autonomy and self-determination; „You
decide how you would like to study, whether you need extra tuition or not,
organise your own timetable, etc‰.
It would be a mistake in this case if you as her parent, decides on your own
that your daughter needs extra tuition for all subjects, organises these
tuition classes on every weekdays, decides on your own how her timetable
should be and what she should be doing after school every day. Your
intention may be good but studies in psychology have shown such a
strategy often does not have a positive effect on your childÊs achievement
motivation, especially in the long term (Petri & Govern, 2004).
6.2.2 How to Satisfy the Need for Achievement?

In his classic book Human Motivation published in 1985, David McClelland
listed three general conditions that involve and satisfy the need for achievement.
The three conditions are (Reeve, 2005):
(a) Set Moderately Difficult Tasks

We have come across something similar while discussing the concept
„flow‰ in the previous topic. As defined then, moderately difficult tasks are
tasks that are neither too difficult nor too easy. The uniqueness about

moderate challenges is that the probability of both success and failure are
more or less equal. This relative uncertainty is a powerful motivator for
most people as although we realise the challenge is rather difficult, we
know deep down it is achievable.
Imagine if you are a professional football player for a prestigious English

Premier League club like Manchester United. Would you like it if you only
play matches against weaker clubs every week? Most likely you would not
because as a football player, you would like to test yourself against strong
oppositions by playing in matches against other big clubs like Chelsea and
Liverpool, as shown in Figure 6.1.
Figure 6.1: The famous football clubs

Source: http://news.bbc.co.uk
You know that these matches are difficult but you are also aware that it is
not impossible to win them. Hence, your level of motivation is higher and
stronger compared to when you play against weaker teams.
(b) Competition
In relation to the point mentioned above, competition is a situation that
allows us to test ourselves. By testing ourselves, we will have the
opportunity to find both our strengths and weaknesses. People with high
need for achievement welcome such feedback for it allows them to
constantly improve themselves. Learning from their mistakes will allow
them to strive towards greater success in the future.
(c) Entrepreneurship
In one of his famous longitudinal studies, David McClelland assessed the
need for achievement among a group of college students. After a gap of 14
years, he traced all these individuals to see what type of careers they ended
up with. What he saw was quite astonishing. Almost all of them who were
assessed with high need for achievement as college students, ended up as
businessmen and stockbrokers (McClelland, 1985).

In addition to the task and competition involved, being an entrepreneur

allows a person to take full responsibility for his success. People with high
need for achievement find that having a position to control and decide on
everything personally is very appealing. Although success in business is
not always stable, the prospect of achieving huge success through the use of
oneÊs own creative ideas and strategic decisions is a powerful source of
motivation.
ACTIVITY 6.2
Do you think achievement motivation is something that can be

genetically inherited? For example, how do you explain the situation
where there are many doctors whose parents were also doctors?
Share your views with others in myVLE.
6.3 AFFILIATION AND INTIMACY

The need for affiliation and intimacy covers the need for strong interpersonal and
intimate relationships with others. At a very basic level, the need for affiliation
involves the fear of being lonely and rejected by others. As a result, we develop
the need to seek approval from others as part as our effort to seek their company
and friendship. This is indeed a rather negative way of looking at why people
make friends. But in reality, it does make sense.
When we move in to a new neighbourhood, what is essentially the reason we go

around and meet our new neighbours? On one hand, it is about being courteous
but on the other, it is about not wanting to reside in a place where we do not
know anyone around us and not having anyone to communicate with.
6.3.1 Intimacy Motivation

The need for intimacy is a more positive conceptualisation of affiliation. It has
been defined as the „willingness to experience a warm, close, communicative
exchange with another person‰ (Reeve, 2005). The obvious examples of
relationships which involve intimacy are relationships between husband and
wife and other romantic relations.

An important characteristic of intimacy motivation is close interaction. Close

here refers to the nature and frequency of conversations. A healthy intimate
relationship is a relationship where both parties are able to share anything and
everything with each other. Neither would have any concern about revealing
anything to the other person which includes any issues and thoughts that may
prove to be embarrassing if revealed to other people. The willingness and interest
to listen and engage in prolonged conversations with the significant other is very
important.
Another important characteristic is regular expression of commitment. Indeed, it

is most refreshing and revitalising for any of us, men and women, to hear from
time to time the words, „I love you‰ coming from our partners. You may neither
demand nor expect it, but you certainly like to hear it. Other important
expressions are expressions of comfort, joy at the success of your partner and
hope of your future together.
The benefits of a healthy level of intimacy motivation have been well researched.
A prime example is the study by McAdams and Vaillant (1982) who found that
men with high needs of intimacy are often happier and better adjusted both at
work and marriage (Reeve, 2005). Results of other studies have indicated benefits
such as improvements of overall psychological health and happiness and better
ability to cope with stress and difficult life situations (McAdams, 1992).
6.3.2 Conditions that Involve the Need for Affiliation

and Intimacy
We will now look at the conditions that result in the need for affiliation and
intimacy. The two conditions are:
(a) Fear and Anxiety

If you are going camping, would you rather go alone or with others? While
there is no doubt that there are people who like to camp alone, most would
like to do so in a group. It is not just for safety reasons but quite simply,
having at least a few people around makes us feel more comfortable.
It is for this same reason too that when it comes to helping people with
various psychological problems, we are encouraged to bring them to meet
others who are suffering or have suffered from the same problem. Victims
of domestic abuse for example, would cope better with their traumatic
experiences by talking to other victims, especially those who have
successfully recovered from their own experience.

As such, we find many support groups today for victims of various crimes
and abuses that are run by people who were victims themselves. Anyone of
us, who are victim of any kind of abuse, consciously or subconsciously,
would like to talk about the experience, to share and express our fears and
anxiety. In such situations, they are no other better people to talk to than
those who have gone through the same experience before.
(b) The Process of Building a Relationship

When you meet someone you like whom you would like to become close
friends with, you would develop the need to spend time together, share all
your secrets with the person, and in return expect him or her to reciprocate
by sharing his or her secrets with you. You would definitely feel much
appreciated when your friend trusts you to keep a secret. It makes you feel
valuable and that is very important in satisfying your need for affiliation
and intimacy.
6.3.3 Relatedness versus Affiliation and Intimacy

Some of us may wonder about the difference between affiliation and intimacy,
and the need for relatedness covered in the previous topic. Well, the key
difference between both of the aspects is shown clearly in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1: Difference between Relatedness and Affiliation and Intimacy
Need Relatedness Affiliation and Intimacy

Involves genuine acceptance. Involves close and frequent
Meaning
interaction with others.
Relationship between yourself Relationship between yourself
Example
and your parents. and your spouse.
Between you and your parents, When it comes to sharing your
there is an emotional bond, secrets and discussing issues of
genuine affection and total your interest, you probably prefer
acceptance. You accept your to do that with your spouse.
parents as they are and they in
turn accept you as you are, When you are lonely and in need
Elaboration of
despite whatever weaknesses of some romantic care and
the Example
both of you may have. attention, you would most
probably turn to your spouse too.
However, you may not
necessarily share all your personal
feelings or spend too much time
with your parents.

Children perhaps, would turn to their parents for both relatedness and intimacy
but for an adult, relatedness and intimacy could well be two separate issues.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
1. Describe the three conditions that satisfy the need for

achievement.
2. Explain why „fear and anxiety‰ is a condition that involves the

need for affiliation and intimacy.
Ć Social needs are needs that are acquired from socialisation and other
experiences in life.
Ć Social needs include the three big motives; achievement, affiliation and
power.
Ć Quasi needs are acquired needs that are short-lived and emerge under
specific situations.
Ć Child-rearing practices can influence the development of achievement

motivation.
Ć The three conditions that involve and satisfy the need for achievement are
moderately difficult tasks, competition and entrepreneurship.
Ć The need for affiliation and intimacy covers the need for strong interpersonal
and intimate relationships with others.
Ć Conditions that result in the need for affiliation and intimacy are fear and
anxiety, and the process of developing close relationships.

Acquired needs Need for achievement

Anxiety Need for affiliation and intimacy
Child-rearing practices Need for power
Competition Quasi needs
Entrepreneurship Relatedness
Fear Social needs
Intimacy motivation Three big motives
Moderately difficult tasks
Wiley & Sons.
McAdams, D. P. (1992). Intimacy motive. In C. P. Smith (Ed.), Motivation and

personality: Handbook of thematic content. New York, NY: Cambridge
University Press.

Topic  Intrinsic and
7 Extrinsic
Motivation
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the differences between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation;
2. Explain how a person can be motivated through intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation; and
3. Compare the benefits of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for
different situations.
 INTRODUCTION
Have you ever pushed yourself to complete a task without expecting any
rewards for your effort? Let us concentrate on this example; you do your best for
your final examination, not expecting any rewards or praise from your parents.
Yet in certain situations, you will expect to be rewarded or punished in order for
you to carry on with a task. Why does this situation occur? Intrinsic and extrinsic
motivations play a part in the above situations.
In the last three topics, we have looked at different human needs and analysed
how they motivate different aspects of our behaviour. Now, we will move on to
some practical strategies of motivation. The first, which is covered in this topic,
concerns two different categories that many of us are familiar with; intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation.
While the first involves motivation from within, the second involves the use of
external rewards and punishments. We will see how these two different
categories can motivate a person and compare the application and benefits of
both.

TOPIC 7 INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION  83
7.1 INTRINSIC MOTIVATION

Have you ever wondered why there are people who dedicate their whole lives
working for non-governmental and charity organisations despite not getting
paid for their work? A very strong reason why they do so is because they are
intrinsically motivated. Figure 7.1 shows an international celebrity doing charity
work in a foreign country.
Figure 7.1: The singer, Celine Dion, on a charity mission in South Africa
Source: http://justjared.buzznet.com
This indicates that they are working for these organisations because they
genuinely enjoy working for them. Money, prizes, praise or any kind of external
rewards are not important in this case. The work they are doing gives them a
deep sense of personal satisfaction and that is what matters to them.
This internal desire to do something comes from our psychological needs. Try to
recall the three psychological needs discussed in Topic 5; autonomy, competence
and relatedness. Whenever we are engaged in something which satisfies and
involves any of our psychological needs, we are intrinsically motivated to do it.
We will do it not because of any reward, but quite simply because of the fun and
satisfaction.
The key here is to feel confident about our own abilities (the need for
competence) and to know that we have the freedom to choose what we want to
do (the need for autonomy). It is for this reason that some people can work
voluntarily. For example, a student can read books even when not asked to and a
child can concentrate for long hours playing a game that he likes.

84  TOPIC 7 INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
Benefits of Intrinsic Motivation

There are many benefits that involve intrinsic motivation but we will concentrate
on the major benefits. Reeve (2005) has listed four main benefits of intrinsic
motivation:
(a) Persistence
Persistence refers to how long a person is able to continuously work
on something. Studies have shown that when a person is intrinsically
motivated to do something, he or she is more likely able to continue work
on it for a long period of time. Specifically, intrinsic motivation has been
found to be positively related to an increased commitment to an exercise
programme and improved attendance and motivation at school (Reeve,
2005).
(b) Creativity
Intrinsic motivation has also been found to have some positive effects on
creativity. You cannot pressure an artist to create a masterpiece by simply
offering him rewards or threatening him with punishment. Creativity
requires interest and enjoyment. If you are a writer and you are pressured
to write a creative piece, you may still be able to do so but writing under
such circumstances may not necessarily be your best piece of work.
The famous American writer, Rita Mae Brown, once said; „Creativity
comes from trust. Trust your instincts and never hope more than you
work.‰
SELF-CHECK 7.1
Explain how intrinsic motivation can benefit persistence and creativity.
(c) Conceptual Understanding or High-quality Learning

When it comes to learning, having a high level of intrinsic motivation has
been found to be positively related to greater flexibility in thinking and
more active processing of information (Reeve, 2005). This goes on to show
that when we are intrinsically motivated, we are more open about
discussing different ideas and exploring new solutions for various
problems. This will eventually result in a greater level of creativity and
innovative thinking which are crucial especially for higher level education.

(d) Optimal Functioning

Studies have also shown the benefit of intrinsic motivation on optimal
functioning. Optimal functioning is a general feeling of self-satisfaction
about oneÊs own achievements and activities in life. When we are doing
something that we are intrinsically motivated to do, we do it without any
worry and anxiety as our mind would be at peace.
People who do not experience optimal functioning are often stressed and
unhappy. As a result, they may find ways to temporarily escape from the
situation by consuming drugs and alcohol. However, those who experience
optimal functioning will not indulge in such behaviours because they are
genuinely happy with their way of life.
ACTIVITY 7.1
Imagine that you are a chairman of an organisation. Your company did

not perform well last year and has not been able to pay bonuses to its
employees as practised in the previous years.
1. What can you do to ensure your employees remain committed to

the organisation?
2. How can you improve their intrinsic motivation?
Discuss with your coursemates during the next tutorial.
7.2 EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

If intrinsic motivation is based on internal satisfaction, extrinsic motivation is
based on external rewards and consequences. Studying to get good grades,
working hard to please your boss and cheating to avoid punishment are all
examples of behaviours that are extrinsically motivated.
Thus, the main difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is the
source of the motivation. Intrinsic motivation comes spontaneously from within
a person whereas extrinsic motivation comes from incentives and consequences
from the environment.

7.2.1 Types of Extrinsic Motivation

Reeve (2005) listed four types of extrinsic motivation; external regulation,
introjected regulation, identified regulation and integrated regulation. Table 7.1
below summarises their differences by illustrating the different reasons why
people recycle.
Table 7.1: Four Types of Extrinsic Motivation
Types of Extrinsic Reason for the Behaviour Examples for the Reason for
Motivation Recycling
External Regulation Incentives and consequences. To get some money.
To be praised by the teachers.
Introjected Regulation Avoiding guilt and increasing To feel good about self.
self-esteem. To avoid sleepless nights.
Identified Regulation Understanding of its To protect the environment.
importance to others or the
environment.
Integrated Regulation Identifying certain values to To reflect views on
oneself. environmental issues.
As we can see from the above table, extrinsic motivation may not necessarily
involve tangible rewards like money, trophies and awards. As long as the reason
for the behaviour is something else other than your own natural desire, the
motivation behind it falls under one of the four types of extrinsic motivation.
7.2.2 Consequences
Extrinsic motivation is strongly connected to consequences of behaviour.
Consequences can be either pleasant and reinforcing or unpleasant and
punishing. Let us now look at the different aspects of reinforcement and
punishment.
(a) Reinforcers
Anything that increases the probability of behaviour to continue to occur is
a reinforcer. There are, however, two different types of reinforcers:

(i) Positive Reinforcers

Positive here means giving or presenting something, thus, positive
reinforcers are pleasant things that are presented to encourage a
certain behaviour to continue.
Examples of positive reinforcers include money, awards, praises and

approvals. When these are presented to anyone, the person will most
likely continue with what he or she has been doing. Figure 7.2 shows
some of the examples of positive reinforcers.
Figure 7.2: Money and trophies

Source: http://www.chicagocrystalball.com
(ii) Negative Reinforcers

Negative in this term means removing something, thus, negative
reinforcers are unpleasant things that are removed to encourage a
behaviour to continue. It can be a bit tricky to understand what a
negative reinforcer is.
Consider the example of a loud sound from an alarm bell. The loud
sound is certainly irritating and unpleasant. The behaviour of concern
here is waking up early in the morning to go to work. To increase the
probability that you will wake up early, you set your alarm clock to
ring at a certain time.

When the alarm bell rings, you will be motivated to wake up because
of the irritating loud sound which you want to stop. You need to
remove the sound and by waking up to switch off the alarm, you are
more likely to get up on time to go to work.
(b) Punishers
If a reinforcer increases the probability of a certain behaviour to continue, a
punisher decreases it. And just like reinforcers, there are also two types of
punishers:
(i) Positive Punishers

Positive punishers are unpleasant things that are given to decrease the
probability of an undesired behaviour from continuing.
Examples of positive punishers include physical punishments like

caning and standing in the corner, jail term and public condemnation.
Figure 7.3 shows an example of positive punishers, the act of caning a

person.
Figure 7.3: Caning

Source: http://lostwhitekenyan.blogspot.com
(ii) Negative Punishers

Negative punishers involve the removal of something pleasant.
Examples for the negative punishers include suspension of benefits
and privileges, such as suspension of driving license or prohibition to
watch your favourite television show.

SELF-CHECK 7.2
1. Explain the two different types of extrinsic motivation.
2. Describe the differences between positive and negative

reinforcers.
7.2.3 Benefits of Extrinsic Motivation

Many people would find it very tempting to say that intrinsic motivation is more
superior as compared to extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is certainly
more important when it comes to long-term effects and in encouraging
persistence and creativity. However, extrinsic motivation has its own unique role
that must not be overlooked.
Let us say that you have a five-year-old child whom you want to encourage to
read books. Would you be able to motivate him to do so using intrinsic
motivation? A child at that age would find it very difficult to conceptualise an
intrinsic interest to read. What you should do instead is to encourage him
extrinsically by praising him and rewarding him with a little gift after he has
finished reading a book. Gradually, of course, you may facilitate your child in
developing an intrinsic motivation to read.
Extrinsic motivation is also important when it comes to motivating others to do

uninteresting and routine chores such as sweeping and cleaning. It would be
quite naive of us to think that a person can be intrinsically motivated to wash the
dishes or sweep the floor.
Extrinsic motivation is important to ensure that these routine but necessary

chores are completed. Other proven benefits of extrinsic motivation are in
developing living skills like dressing and personal grooming, in preventing
undesirable behaviours like reckless driving, and in teaching mentally
challenged children basic living skills (Reeve, 2005).
ACTIVITY 7.2
Do you think punishment is an effective motivational strategy? State

your reasons.
Share your views with others during the next tutorial.

 Intrinsic motivation involves spontaneous internal desires to do something

„just for the fun of it‰.
 Intrinsic motivation is important to encourage persistence, creativity,

conceptual understanding and optimal functioning.
 Extrinsic motivation involves consequences of behaviour that increase and

decrease the probability of future behaviour.
 Extrinsic motivation is important in developing living skills and encouraging

others to do routine and uninteresting activities.
 Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation have their respective unique benefits.
External regulation Negative punisher

Extrinsic motivation Negative reinforcer
Identified regulation Positive punisher
Integrated regulation Positive reinforcer
Intrinsic motivation Punishers
Introjected regulation Reinforcers
Wiley & Sons.

Topic  Plans and
8 Goals
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe how plans influence motivation;
2. Identify the characteristics of an effective goal;
3. Explain the relationship between implementation intentions and
goal pursuit; and
4. Explain the process and importance of self-regulation in goal
pursuit.
 INTRODUCTION
To become fully alive, a person must have goals and aims that transcend
himself.
Herbert A. Otto
Source: http://www.about-personal-growth.com/goal-quotes.html
Based on the quote, this topic will concentrate on the goals and plans needed to
transform the goals. Human cognition includes various mental activities like
thinking, analysing, perceiving, imagining, visualising and conceptualising. All
these are part of the cognitive components of human motivation. Cognitive
psychologists believe that complex mental processes help direct and energise
behaviour. The plans and goals that we make in our minds are products of these
mental processes.

92  TOPIC 8 PLANS AND GOALS
In this topic, we will explore how plans and goals contribute to motivation, how
intentions influence the pursuit of goals and why strong self-regulation is
necessary in order for us to succeed. This topic will be the start of several
discussions on the cognitive aspect of motivation which we will cover in the
coming topics.
8.1 PLANS
What are plans? How do plans motivate behaviour? Studies on how people make
plans are among the earliest in cognitive psychology. George Miller was the man
who studied this way back in 1960. According to Miller, all of us have in our
minds images of the ideals (Reeve, 2005).
For example, if you are a tennis player, you would have in your mind what an
ideal tennis serve looks like. This is an example of an ideal behaviour a person
may have in his mind. You may also have your own view about what your ideal
objects would be. Objects such as house, car, birthday gift and mobile phone
would usually follow your own ideals or preferences.
How do all the above-mentioned „ideals‰ influence your motivation? In the

following subtopic, we will explore some answers to this question.
8.1.1 Discrepancy
What motivates us are the situations where there is a discrepancy or difference
between the ideal and reality (Reeve, 2005). For example, a college student may
have the view that an ideal CGPA (Cumulative Grade Point Average) should be
above 3.8, but at present, his is only at 3.3. This situation will surely motivate him
to do something in order to increase his CGPA.
Every semester, the student will try to increase his CGPA by planning the
courses he takes and setting goals on the grades he should achieve for each of the
courses. He will also continue to compare his current CGPA with his ideal
CGPA. His effort will not stop until and unless he achieves a match between the
ideal and the real CGPA.
In this example, the studentÊs plan for action was inspired by the discrepancy
between the ideal and reality. Most of us can easily derive our own examples of
similar situations where there are discrepancies between the two. In fact, we can
even say that almost everyone faces such situations in their life. Human beings

TOPIC 8 PLANS AND GOALS  93
are naturally optimistic and we often set very high standards for ourselves.
However, most of us find it difficult to achieve those standards. We may fail
sometimes, but failure can be a good learning experience.
The famous American inventor, Thomas Alva Edison, is the man credited in
history as the inventor of the light bulb. He had the plan and goal of inventing it,
but the whole experience was not easy. He was reported to have failed about
10,000 times before he finally got it right. When asked why he continued with the
project after experiencing so many failures, Edison said, „I have not failed. I have
just found 10,000 ways that would not work‰ (Brainy quote, 2010).
8.1.2 Corrective Motivation

EdisonÊs experience tells us that our plans do not always work. Or, it may work
to a certain extent but not exactly to the level of our expectations. That is why
plans should be flexible and not static or rigid. When necessary, we need to
change or modify our plans. In psychology, this is referred to as corrective
motivation.
Corrective motivation leads us to consider different options and strategies to

reduce the discrepancy between the ideal and the reality (Reeve, 2005). We may
have a „master plan‰ of how to achieve our personal goals, but if the master plan
is not working as planned, we should be ready to make the necessary changes.
Changes can be made in many ways, such as change of habits or change in
strategies. In fact, in some cases, correction motivation may result in the
abandonment of the entire original plan.
Football or soccer (as it is referred to in the US) provides a good example of

making changes to the original plan. Imagine this scenario: you are a coach who
plans the tactics and strategies for your team in a football match. What should
you do if after the first 45 minutes, your team is three goals down? The strategies
and tactics you laid out before the match are clearly not working. Ideally, your
tactics should have put your team in a winning position at this point of the game.
The fact that the score is now 0-3 against your team should motivate you to make
some tactical changes.
You may opt for some minor changes but with your team needing to score four
goals in 45 minutes to win the match, something drastic needs to be done and
that may involve abandoning your entire original tactics.

If your tactics before were more on the defensive, you need to change it to an
attacking tactic. If your team only had one striker (attacker) at the start of the
match, you should bring in one or two more to improve your teamÊs attacking
strength. Football coaches all over the world would adopt the same strategy and
these are all practical examples of corrective motivation.
8.2 GOALS
A goal is anything that a person wants to achieve. It helps us to focus and
improve our performance. Various studies have proven that those with goals
perform much better than those without goals (Reeve, 2005). This is because
goals provide us with a yardstick to measure how well we are performing.
Imagine a scenario of two sales officers where both have exactly the same
responsibilities. The first officer was given a goal of completing the sales of the
companyÊs products worth a minimum of RM1,000. The second sales officer,
however, was not given any goals. He was simply asked to „try his best‰. Of the
two sales officers in this example, which one is more likely to be more motivated?
And, which one is more likely to record a higher number of sales?
Common sense would tell us that the sales officer with the goals would be more
motivated and would most likely to record higher sales. This assumption indeed
has been repeatedly proven in various past studies. Therefore, we know that it is
important to have goals, but what kind of goals is the most effective? The
following subtopic will answer this question.
8.2.1 Effective Goals

The best goals are those that are difficult and specific (Reeve, 2005). Generally,
the more difficult the goal, the more motivated we will be to perform. For
example, as a student, would you be motivated to study if the examination
questions are always too easy? The difficulty level must be raised to provoke
students to study harder.
However, the difficulty level should not be too extreme. Yes, it should be difficult
but it should also be realistic and attainable (Franken, 2007). Different individuals
have different levels of ability, thus, a goal that is realistic and attainable to a
person could be a goal that is unrealistic and unattainable to another.

For example, as shown in Figure 8.1, imagine yourself as an athletic coach who is
used to coaching world class athletes in countries like the United States and
China. Currently, you are working with the amateur athletes in Malaysia and
Singapore. Would it be advisable for you to set the same kind of goals for them
as you did with the athletes in US and China?
Figure 8.1: Coach training athletes

Source: http://bretcontreras.files.wordpress.com
Well, it may be possible if there are athletes in both countries whose current
levels of performance are of world-class standard. But if none of them have ever
won a gold medal or even silver, in regional competitions in Southeast Asia,
would it be realistic to set them a goal such as winning a gold medal at the
Olympic Games within one year?
Realistically, the above goal is not attainable. Therefore, it is important that we

assess all relevant information before we set goals for ourselves and others. If this
is not done, goal-setting might just be counter-productive. Instead of motivating
and enhancing performance, it might just lead to negative conditions like learned
helplessness ă a psychological condition that we will discuss in the next topic
(Franken, 2007).
Other than being difficult, goals should also be specific in order to be effective.
Ambiguous or unclear goals such as „the best that you can‰ or „finish the work
soon‰ have been proven to be very ineffective (Reeve, 2005). This is because
people would simply apply their own interpretation on the goal.

For example, „soon‰ for someone may mean „within the next one hour‰ but for
someone else, could mean „within one week‰! Specific goals, on the other hand,
help us to focus and allow us to constantly check whether we are progressing
well towards achieving the goal.
Let us analyse another example to make clearer the concept of goal. Imagine that
you are a parent and you want to motivate your child to perform well in his
school exam, which goals will more likely increase your childÊs motivation: a
general goal like „the best that you can‰, or a specific goal like „distinction in at
least five subjects‰? The latter goal which is far more specific would certainly
motivate your child more.
Before you set the target, assess your childÊs current level of academic
performance. Make sure you comply with the point mentioned previously that
different people have different levels of ability. A parent should be aware of their
childÊs current abilities before setting up goals that are difficult and challenging,
while at the same time, realistic and specific.
8.2.2 Short-term and Long-term Goals

Now that we know that goals should be difficult and specific, the next step is to
find out which ones are more effective; short-term or long-term goals. Short-term
goals are generally more effective for routine and uninteresting tasks (Reeve,
2005).
This is because the short timeframe allows a person to receive immediate and
repeated feedback, which is good in helping the person to make constant
improvement. However, short-term goals do not increase intrinsic motivation. In
fact, short-term goals are more often related to extrinsic motivation and involve
both rewards and punishment (Reeve, 2005).
Long-term goals are more useful for interesting tasks (Reeve, 2005). In pursuing
long-term goals, a person may not receive much external reward. The underlying
motivation for long-term goals is clearly more intrinsic.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
1. Describe what corrective motivation is.
2. Explain why effective goals are those which are difficult and
specific.

As can be seen in Figure 8.2, let us consider an example of a 10 year-old girl who
sets a long-term goal of becoming a professional ballerina. Such an ambition
requires years of training and dedication. Throughout the experience, she may
not get much external reward for all her hard work, but, what makes her
persevere is the intrinsic motivation to acquire the graceful skills of a
professional performer.
Figure 8.2: Practising to become professional ballerinas

Source: http://www.inmagine.com
Both short-term goals and long-terms goals can be incorporated together into one
single long-term plan. Specifically, a long-term goal can be designed as such that
it is made of a number of interconnected short-term goals.
For example, a chain-smoker may set a long-term goal to quit smoking. Realising
that he is unable to force himself to quit immediately, he will set a series of short-
term goals that are interrelated. This will eventually lead him to quit smoking.
The long-term goal in this case could be to quit smoking within one year.
To achieve this goal, a series of short-term goals can be designed to help the
person to gradually stop smoking. These short-term goals could be something
specific such as reducing 10 per cent of cigarette intake within the first two
months of the plan, another 10 per cent within four months, another 20 per cent
within six months and so on. Eventually, after one year, the long-term plan to
totally quit smoking could be achieved.

ACTIVITY 8.1
Read the excerpt taken from an article and answer the following
questions.
Professor Max Bazerman from Harvard University is reported to

have said that goal setting is bad! According to Professor Bazerman,
goal setting encourages people to engage in unethical behaviour for
the sake of achieving their goals.
(Source: http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/5969.html)
1. In your opinion, do you think Professor BazermanÊs statement

is true? State your reasons.
2. Do you think that goals encourage people to cheat? State your

reasons.
3. Share your thoughts and observations with others during the

next tutorial.
8.3 IMPLEMENTATION INTENTIONS

Implementation intentions specifies how, when, where, and for how long a
person should act in his effort to achieve his goal. These are the list and details
that should be included in the entire action plan. Studies in the past have shown
that those with clear implementation intentions are more likely to achieve their
goals compared to those who do not formulate implementation intentions
(Reeve, 2005).
Clear and detailed implementation intentions are particularly useful if your plans
are disrupted midway. For those without implementation intentions, disruptions
may cause failure to the entire plan, but if your implementation intentions are
clear, you can easily figure out a backup plan to counter the disruption. We will
now look at how implementation intentions are formulated.

8.3.1 Mental Simulations

Have you ever been approached by a real estate agent who tried to persuade you
to buy a house? The agent would normally ask you to visualise how perfect the
house is for you and your family. The agent will say things like „Just imagine
how perfect these rooms are for your children‰ or „This corner is perfect for your
library; just imagine how you can arrange all your books here‰.
What the real estate agent asked you to do is an example of mental simulation.
Mental simulations are not simply visualisation of the goal but are more about
the visualisation of how to attain the goal and the positive effects of attaining that
goal (Reeve, 2005).
Visualising yourself working towards the goal is particularly very important. If

for example, your goal is to become a senior executive in your company within
the next five years, it helps a lot if you are able to imagine what it would take to
achieve that goal.
You may, from time-to-time, imagine in your mind completing certain tasks such
as volunteering to be a key role in important projects, making impressive
presentations to your superiors and working extra hours to ensure that
everything you do conform to the finest details.
These visuals would be much more helpful rather than visualising about the
spacious office of a senior executive and the expensive suit you will be wearing
that befits a person of such high position. Such visions are nothing more than
meaningless daydreams that can be counter-productive (Reeve, 2005).
8.3.2 Formulating Implementation Intentions

Implementation intentions are specific action plans directed towards achieving a
goal. As mentioned earlier, they tell you exactly how, when, where and for how
long specific actions need to be taken in pursuing a particular goal. For example,
a college student at the beginning of a semester may set the goal of getting AÊs
for all subjects registered.
In pursuing this, it would be most useful for him to formulate implementation

intentions that specify what kind of studying skills and methods he should
adopt, how often he should have personal consultations with each lecturer, how
many hours per day he should spend revising every subject, where would be the
ideal place for him to study (the dormitory or the library) and the target range of
marks that he should obtain for every class test, quiz and assignment.

If a student is able to figure out all these information right from the beginning of
the semester, he has a bright chance of achieving his goal. Even if his plans are
disrupted at some point during the semester, he can easily compensate by
referring to the action plan.
For example, if he had planned to study two hours every day for a particular
subject and he was not able to do so for several days because of other
commitments, he would compensate the study time by putting in a few extra
hours studying the subject as soon as he has some spare time to do so.
As we can see here, implementation intentions are particularly useful to bridge

the gap between thinking and action. It is good to think about your goals but
what is far more important is to think about how and what you should do to
achieve them (Reeve, 2005).
8.4 SELF-REGULATION
We have seen how important it is for us to create a specific action plan on how to
achieve a goal. These are future actions that must be undertaken. A lot of self-
discipline is required to ensure that these action plans are diligently followed
through. You may have the best action plan but if you do not follow them, all
your planning will go to waste. We need to know then how to self-regulate our
behaviours and actions. To do so, it would be good to know how the process of
self-regulation takes place.
8.4.1 Model of Self-regulation

Zimmerman and Campillo (2003, as cited in Franken, 2007) propose a cyclical
model of self-regulation as illustrated in Figure 8.3.
There are three stages involved in the self-regulation process:
(a) Forethought Phase

This is the foundation phase where all the groundwork is laid. This
includes goal setting and strategic planning. While it is indeed important
to formulate the goal and strategy, it is equally important to have the
motivation and belief for all these to be achieved. This needs to be instilled
right from the beginning.

(b) Performance Phase

In this phase, we need to be in control of our actions to ensure all plans and
strategies are followed. It is vital that we focus on the task and observe our
own progress.
(c) Self-reflection Phase

At this final stage, we judge and evaluate our own performance. We
analyse and attribute our performance to either internal or external reasons.
We then react to the analysis by making the necessary changes to improve
future performances. The process then goes back to the forethought phase
and is continuous until we are completely satisfied or content with what we
have achieved.
Figure 8.3: Phases and sub-processes of a cyclical model of self-regulation

Source: Franken (2007)
Any successful sportsmen will tell you how important self-regulation is. As
professional players, they cannot rely only on the coach. They need to have the
awareness and discipline to follow through the training programme and honestly
evaluate their own performances.

SELF-CHECK 8.2
1. Explain why a person with clear implementation intentions is

more likely to achieve his or her goals.
2. Describe the three phases in the cyclical model of self-regulation.
As can be seen in Figure 8.4, the achievements of Roger Federer, arguably the
best tennis player in history is a living testimony of this. It would surprise many
to know that for many years, Federer did not have a full time coach. He was
practically coaching and training on his own. He has such a high level of
discipline that he is able to do this consistently and effectively for many years. He
analyses his own performances and keeps track of his personal goals and
achievements.
Figure 8.4: Tennis player, Roger Federer

Source: http://edwins.wordpress.com
Roger Federer may well be an exception but there is indeed no reason for us not
to say, „If he can do it, why canÊt I?‰ Of course, we may not have the talent and
ability to become the best tennis player in the world, but we are surely capable of
adopting the same strong self-regulation to our own field of work.

ACTIVITY 8.2
Do you think achievement motivation is something that can be

genetically inherited? For example, how do you explain why there are
many doctors whose parents were also doctors?
Share your views with others in myVLE.
 The cognitive component of human motivation consists of mental activities

such as thinking, analysing, perceiving, imagining, visualising and
conceptualising.
 We are motivated to formulate plans to reduce the discrepancy between the

ideal behaviour and our current level of performance.
 Corrective motivation leads us to consider different options and strategies,

whenever our original plans do not produce results that meet our
expectations.
 The most effective goals are goals that are difficult, specific and attainable.
 Short-term goals are more effective for routine and uninteresting tasks.
 Long-term goals are more effective for tasks that require strong intrinsic
motivation.
 A long-term goal can be designed to consist of a number of interconnected

short-term goals.
 Implementation intentions specify how, when, where and for how long a
person should act in his effort to achieve his goal.
 Mental simulations involve visualisations of what needs to be done to attain a

goal and the positive effects of attaining that goal.

 A strong self-regulation is required to ensure action plans and strategies are

diligently followed through.
 The cyclical model of self-regulation consists of three phases: forethought

phase, performance phase and self-reflection phase.
Cognition Long-term goal

Corrective motivation Mental simulations
Discrepancy Performance phase
Effective goals Plans
Forethought phase Self-reflection phase
Goals Self-regulation
Implementation intentions Short-term goal
Wiley & Sons.
Brainy quote. (2010). Retrieved from http://www. Brainyquote.com/quotes/

authors/t/thomasaedison.html

Topic  Personal
9 Control Beliefs
and
Expectancy
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the two different kinds of expectancy;
2. Define self-efficacy and learned helplessness;
3. Identify the sources of self-efficacy; and
4. Explain the effects of self-efficacy and learned helplessness on
behaviour.
 INTRODUCTION
When you want to marry someone, you will think that both of you will live
happily and be there for each other in any kind of situation. So, when these
thoughts are imbedded in your heart and head, you will do anything to make
your dream come true. And this is where your motivation and behaviour play its
part in ensuring your dream will turn into reality.

106  TOPIC 9 PERSONAL CONTROL BELIEFS AND EXPECTANCY
To elaborate this example, answer the following questions. Before you decide to
do something, do you often try to predict what the outcome would be? Would
these predictions have any effect on your motivation and behaviour? It certainly
would! What is important here is to have the necessary level of faith and belief in
your own ability. A student who is supremely confident of his intellectual ability
would naturally expect to succeed in every school examination he takes. He
would, therefore, be very motivated to work hard in order to meet his own
expectations.
In this topic, we will discuss different kinds of expectancy and the effects of two
social psychological factors, self-efficacy and learned helplessness, on our
motivation and behaviour.
9.1 PERSONAL CONTROL

William Shakespeare once wrote: „It is not in the stars to hold our destiny but in
ourselves.‰
While it is true that we cannot determine exactly what our future would be,
much of our destiny depends on what we believe it should be. All of us have
personal ambitions and goals in life. As discussed in the previous topic, these
goals are powerful sources of motivation.
However, not all the goals we have are achievable. We are quite capable of
stretching our imagination which may result in goals and ambitions that are
rather unrealistic. For example, many school children dream of becoming doctors
and lawyers but not all of them can achieve such dreams.
Whether these goals are realistic and achievable depends on the sense of personal
control we have of the situation. If we believe that we are in control of the
situation due to our faith, confidence in our own abilities and our belief that the
environment is favourable and conducive for us to achieve our goals and
ambitions, then our level of motivation would certainly improve.
Therefore, we will try as hard as we can to achieve these goals because we are
supremely confident that it is achievable. It is important that we exercise
personal control. Our expectations determine how strong our personal control is.

TOPIC 9 PERSONAL CONTROL BELIEFS AND EXPECTANCY  107
Types of Expectancy
According to Reeve (2005), social psychologists have identified two different
types of expectations:
(a) Efficacy Expectation

Efficacy expectation refers to our belief and confidence that we have what it
takes to succeed.
Consider the example of a football team like Manchester United, competing

with Liverpool to win the English Premier League, as shown in Figure 9.1.
The club is confident it can win the championship because it believes it has
world-class players who are competent enough to win the league.
Figure 9.1: A match between Manchester United and Liverpool players

Source: http://www.smh.com.au
(b) Outcome Expectation

Outcome expectation refers to our belief that success can be achieved if we
try hard enough to achieve it.
Referring to the example of the English Premier League, Liverpool is

confident too because it believes it can win 30 league games per season. If it
wins such number of games, the club will win the championship.

SELF-CHECK 9.1
Using your own example, explain the difference between efficacy
expectation and outcome expectation.
Therefore, the two expectancies are essentially about the belief that „I can do it‰
(efficacy expectation), and „What I do will work‰ (outcome expectation). The
level of expectations can exist in two ways:
(a) High Expectations

When these expectations are high, a person will be very motivated to
achieve his goals. A student with a high level of efficacy expectation will be
highly motivated to get straight As because he knows he is smart and
intelligent enough to do so. He may also be confident because of the
outcome expectation that if he studies consistently for four hours per day,
he will obtain the results he wants.
(b) Low Expectations

On the other hand, if these expectations are low, a person will be less
motivated to achieve his goals. The person will doubt his own ability and
feel reluctant to even try to achieve it. This explains why there are many
students who avoid participating in activities such as public speaking and
sports. They just do not feel that they are good enough and they do not
believe they have what it takes to do well in such activities.
ACTIVITY 9.1
When it comes to motivation at work, which type of expectation is more

important, efficacy expectation or outcome expectation? Discuss with
your coursemates and share your views with others in myVLE.
9.2 SELF-EFFICACY
Do you know that there are people who refuse to drive a car even though they
have a driving licence? They have learned how to drive, passed the driving test,
were issued a valid driving licence and have the means to own their own car, yet,
they still take the bus and refuse to drive simply because they are afraid of
driving. One of the main reasons why this happens is due to a lack of self-
efficacy.

The famous psychologist, Albert Bandura, defined self-efficacy as „oneÊs

judgement of how well or poorly, one will cope with a situation, given the skills
one possesses and the circumstances one faces‰ (Reeve, 2005). What that means is,
self-efficacy is about how confident and capable we are to use our skills and
knowledge effectively in any situation. Skills and knowledge alone are not enough.
We need to have the confidence and capability to use it for our own benefit.
If we look back at the driving example mentioned above, having obtained a

driving license, these people do have the skills and knowledge to drive. But they
simply do not drive because they doubt their own skills to drive in actual driving
conditions. Therefore, what they lack here is self-efficacy. If they have high levels
of self-efficacy, they would be willing to drive even in difficult road and weather
conditions because they believe they can use the skills they have to handle all
kinds of driving conditions.
9.2.1 Sources of Self-efficacy

Where do we get self-efficacy from? If we have low levels of self-efficacy, how
can we increase it? These questions can be answered by looking at the following
four sources of self-efficacy outlined by Reeve (2005), as shown in Figure 9.2:
Figure 9.2: Sources of self-efficacy

(a) Personal Behaviour History

This refers to our interpretation of past attempts. Successful past attempts
will increase self-efficacy whereas failed attempts will decrease it.
Take the example of football players and penalty kicks if a player has
always successfully scored from the penalty spot, would he have the self-
efficacy to take penalty kicks in any football match he plays in, even if the
match is for the World Cup final? Most likely he would.
But if a player had failed on numerous occasions, it would not be hard to

imagine that he would not be volunteering to take a penalty kick in the
future, especially in an important match like the final of a World Cup.
(b) Vicarious Experience

This refers to our experience of observing someone else. You may improve
your self-efficacy by simply observing someone else successfully
performing a task.
For example, many people are naturally afraid of attempting any extreme
activity such as bungee jumping (refer to Figure 9.3). However, if you have
seen someone else doing it, you may tell yourself, „If he can do it, so can I!‰
It helps your self-efficacy even more if the person you observed was
someone similar to you in terms of size, height and personal background.
Figure 9.3: Bungee jumping

Source: http://www.marieclaire.com

We should note, however, that if the vicarious experience was a negative

one, your self-efficacy most certainly will not improve. In the case of
bungee jumping, if you have witnessed someone getting badly injured or
died while doing it, most likely you will never ever attempt to bungee jump
in your life.
(c) Verbal Persuasion

This is perhaps the most common, but not necessarily the most effective
way to improve self-efficacy. Often, teachers, coaches, parents and
employers use words of encouragement to instil self-efficacy into those
under their guidance and supervision. We should use informational
language that is autonomy-supportive to maximise the effectiveness of
verbal persuasion. (Reeve, 2005).
The language should not be instructive and controlling such as „you must
do this or else⁄‰. It should be informational and autonomy-supportive by
stating the rationale and importance of different suggestions and then
allowing the person to choose on his own which suggestions he wishes to
follow. Verbal persuasion works even more effectively when the person
who is persuading has the credibility and expertise and is perceived as
trustworthy.
For example, a teacher who is honest, hardworking and knows his subject
well should be able to more effectively instil self-efficacy in his students
compared to a teacher who is known to be lazy and is often unable to
answer questions posed by students.
(d) Physiological State

Physiological signals such as muscle pain, headache and trembling hands
do not contribute directly to self-efficacy. However, they do provide us
with important indications on whether we have high self-efficacy or not.
These signals are most crucial when we are doing something for the first
time.
When you are about to make your first public speech, you would
experience these physiological signals. To have them is normal, in fact, vital
as it gives you the necessary level of anxiety which motivates you to be
vigorously prepared for the task. However, if your hands are trembling too
much and your mind suddenly goes blank, that could well be signs that
your self-efficacy is not that high. You may have doubts about your own
ability and that needs to be rectified by other sources of self-efficacy.

Figure 9.4 shows a man conducting a presentation before a large audience.
Figure 9.4: Public speaking

Source: http://stagefrighthelp.com
Various studies have shown that the first two sources, personal behaviour
history and vicarious learning, are the most influential sources of self-efficacy.
This conclusion is important to all of us interested to help ourselves and others to
increase our confidence in our own skills and ability. If you want to train yourself
to be a good public speaker, you can start with speaking to a small and familiar
audience before slowly moving on to a bigger audience on a bigger stage.
What you are essentially doing here is to gradually build your own personal
behavioural history that will eventually help you increase your self-efficacy.
Along the way, it would boost your self-efficacy too, if you have the opportunity
to observe how a friend who has a similar background like yourself become a
successful public speaker. You would definitely feel more encouraged to emulate
his achievements.
SELF-CHECK 9.2
1. Identify and explain the two most important sources of self-

efficacy.
2. What kind of person would be able to give an effective verbal

persuasion? Explain.

9.2.2 Effects of Self-efficacy on Behaviour

The positive effects of self-efficacy have been consistently proven in numerous
studies. Generally, what self-efficacy does is to improve your effort and
persistence. A person who has faith in his own abilities will work hard for as
long as it takes to achieve his target. For example, as shown in Figure 9.5, an
athlete like Usain Bolt has always been confident that he has what it takes to
break the world record for the 100 meters athletic sprint event. To date, he has
broken it three times and is still confident that he can run faster in the future.
Figure 9.5: Usain Bolt, the sprinter

Source: http://seeadamtrain.wordpress.com
Self-efficacy also has an effect on the choices we make every day. College
students with low self-efficacy would most probably avoid taking „difficult‰
subjects because of the doubt they have with their own abilities. They may also
try as much as they can to avoid taking classes with professors who are known to
be strict even though these professors are the best teachers around. Students with
high self-efficacy would not have such worries as they know they can overcome
all challenges no matter how difficult they are.

ACTIVITY 9.2
Imagine a coursemate is having a problem studying mathematics at

school. He has even told you that he wants to quit the subject because
he believes that he is not smart enough to learn it.
Discuss how you can change his self-efficacy through the four sources
of self-efficacy discussed earlier.
9.3 LEARNED HELPLESSNESS

According to Reeve (2005), in a classic study done by Martin Seligman in 1967, a
dog was placed into a sling in a specially made compartment and given mild
electric shocks consistently for many days. During the first few days, the dog
would jump and bark trying to escape from the situation (refer to Figure 9.6).
The dog, however, was not able to escape from the situation and its resistance
began to subside. After two months in this „inescapable‰ situation, the dog was
moved to a compartment where it was now possible for him to avoid the electric
shock.
Figure 9.6: A similar experiment conducted to test the response of a dog

Source: http://bcs.worthpublishers.com

Now, all that the dog needs to do is to learn that if he moves to one end of the
compartment, he would totally avoid the shock. Amazingly, the dog did not even
try! He felt helpless in the previous situation where no matter how hard he tried;
he was not able to escape from the shock. At that point, the dog had learned, that
it was useless for him to try again.
Some of us may well think that the example above is only relevant to animals
and is not applicable to human beings. Well, it is not! According to Franken
(2007), in an experimental study done by Hiroto (1974), human subjects were put
in a room exposed to loud noise.
Although there were a few control buttons in the room, subjects very quickly
learned that they were not able to turn down the loud noise after attempting to
do so with the buttons a few times. They were then moved to another room
which was also exposed to loud noise, but this time, the control buttons can be
used to turn the noise down. However, just as the dog in SeligmanÊs study,
human subjects in HirotoÊs study did not even try.
9.3.1 Effects of Learned Helplessness

Learned helplessness is essentially a psychological state where a person believes
he has no control of what happens to him. No one is born feeling helpless. People
learn to be helpless after numerous experiences of failures and rejections. Such
psychological state has a direct negative effect on a personÊs motivation and
ability to learn.
In real life situations, we see various examples of learned helplessness. There are
many people who develop a sense of helplessness after experiencing many
unsuccessful attempts in finding a job. They have completely lost the motivation
to find a job and would just sit at home doing nothing instead of continuing to
try. They would come to this state after accepting the belief that it is their fate to
be jobless and there is nothing that they can do to change it.
In schools, there are many students who quit studying a particularly „difficult‰
subject, after a series of failures. This is because they believe that they are
simply not smart enough. Prolonged feelings of helplessness will soon lead to
depression, lethargy and other negative emotional reactions. Those with such a
sense of pessimism, require professional help. Nevertheless, although learned
helplessness results in some serious and long-term effects, they are not
irreversible.

9.3.2 Overcoming Helplessness

One way to overcome helplessness is to adopt a more optimistic explanatory
style. What this basically entails is a more positive interpretation of events and
experiences in life. So, instead of blaming yourself for bad events that happen to
you, put the blame on external factors. You may put the blame on other people or
on your environment.
In addition, this explanatory style would require you to see the world as
constantly changing. Nothing is fixed which includes the bad luck you have
experienced. If you believe that things can change, you will not lose hope, no
matter how many times you have failed. Therefore, a person who previously felt
some sense of helplessness may recover their sense of hope and optimism by
adopting an optimistic explanatory style.
However, upon closer analysis, one would realise that an optimistic explanatory
style is advocating a certain sense of self-serving bias. Here, we blame others and
not ourselves. Taken to the extreme, this is clearly something that will create
serious problems.
On the other hand, if and when we are trying to help someone who has been
suffering from a very deep sense of helplessness, guiding him to adopt an
optimistic explanatory style would be an ideal first step towards recovery.
Gradually, the person must be guided to develop a greater sense of responsibility
and self-efficacy to enable him to achieve his goals in life.
ACTIVITY 9.3
Imagine someone who is suffering from a terminal disease. He has

been told that there is nothing much the doctors can do and he has only
a few months more to live.
1. How would you help someone with such feelings of

hopelessness?
2. Would an optimistic explanatory style help?
Discuss these questions and share your views with others during the
tutorial.

Ć Personal control is important in helping us to achieve our goals and

ambitions in life.
 The two types of expectations are efficacy expectations and outcome

expectations.
 Self-efficacy refers to how confident and capable we are in using our skills
and knowledge effectively in any situations.
 The four sources of self-efficacy are personal behaviour history, vicarious

experience, verbal persuasion and physiological state.
 Self-efficacy helps to increase effort and persistence and encourages one to

seek optimal challenges.
 Learned helplessness is a psychological state where a person believes he has

no control of what happens to him.
 Learned helplessness has negative effects on a personÊs motivation, ability to

learn and emotional condition.
 Adopting an optimistic explanatory style is one way to overcome feelings of

helplessness.
Efficacy expectation Personal behaviour history

Expectancy Personal control
Learned helplessness Physiological state
Optimistic explanatory style Verbal persuasion
Outcome expectation Vicarious experience

Wiley & Sons.
Franken, R. E. (2007). Human motivation. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.

Topic  The Self
10
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define the self and self-concept;
2. Identify the differences between self-schemas, consistent self and
possible selves;
3. Describe how identities are developed and maintained;
4. Analyse how cognitive dissonance is reduced; and
5. Explain the motivational processes underlying cognitive dissonance.
 INTRODUCTION
„Who am I?‰
This is a question that many of us ask ourselves from time to time. The question
looks simple but the answer can be complicated. While most of us are very much
aware of our family background, ethnicity and religion, not many of us are truly
aware of our own attributes and personality characteristics.
At times, we define ourselves in ways that may not describe what we are at
present, but more in terms of what we wish ourselves to be in the future. We also
have our own ideas and imaginations about how we wish others in the society
should see us as a person. The way we define ourselves and how we relate to
others may change due to the changes in the environment and our own desire to
improve our personality and image.
In this topic, we will explore some key issues in relation to this natural
inclination of defining and creating the self.

120  TOPIC 10 THE SELF
10.1 SELF-CONCEPT
Self-concept refers to the individualsÊ mental representations of themselves
(Reeve, 2005). This „mental representation‰, however, is neither something we
are born with, nor something fixed. Your mental representation represents
how you view yourself ă and how you view yourself depends a lot on your
personality and your experiences in life. All of us have colourful life experiences
which contain happy and sad events, positive and negative emotions and success
and failures in life.
We reflect on these experiences and make changes as to how we view ourselves

and how we wish to change it for our benefit in the future. In psychology,
theoretical exploration of the self-concept goes beyond general descriptions. In
order to help us understand ourselves better, psychologists have broken down
the self into different layers of focus. As a result, we now have specific terms like
self-schema, consistent self and possible selves. All these specific terms explain in
greater detail the self-concept.
In the following subtopics, we will take a look at the explanation given for self-
schema, possible selves and consistent self.
10.1.1 Self-schemas
Self-schemas are „cognitive generalisations about the self that are domain-
specific„ (Reeve, 2005). The word „cognitive‰ is used here to emphasise the point
that the generalisations we make about ourselves are purely subjective. They are
based entirely on what and how we perceive ourselves.
This is an important point to note because the way we see ourselves may not
necessarily be the real truth about who we are. Some people have an overly
positive view of themselves while there are others who are overly pessimistic.
Whichever the case, the generalisations we make are important features of our
psychological development.
Self-schemas are domain-specific because they include different domains or

aspects in life. These aspects include job competence, family commitment,
financial status, social work, social relationships, interpersonal relations, sporting
ability and many others. Each of these aspects can be analysed individually.
In actual fact, a personÊs self-concept is a collection of self-schemas. For example,

a person may view himself as being good at professional relationships but very
lousy when it comes to intimate relationships. While for some others, if they

TOPIC 10 THE SELF  121
were to evaluate themselves honestly, they may come to realise that while they
are good supervisors to their employees, they are not necessarily very good
parents to their children at home.
As shown in Figure 10.1, there are different kinds of domains. Different domains
are important at different stages of development. For many teenagers, physical
appearance and peer acceptance are the important domains in their life. This is
consistent with what they go through during the period of adolescence where
they begin to feel conscious about how they look and how they fit in with others
of the same age. On the other hand, many young adults would consider career
achievement as the most important domain. To them, marriage and family life
are domains that will only be important later in the future.
(a) Career (b) Family
Figure 10.1: Important domains

Source: http://www.saidaonline.com
http://ccmh.byu.edu
At this point, some of us may wonder what is the connection between self-
schemas and motivation. There are many people today who struggle to find a
good balance between work and family commitments. They may wish to be
equally good at both, but in reality they are not. Using their own personal
reflections or with the help of professional counsellors, they can take the
appropriate action to correct the situation by making certain changes in their
lives.

Some may even choose to sacrifice one of the domains in view of the greater
importance placed on the other. We see such examples today where there are a
number of career women who chose to quit their jobs to spend more time with
their children. The motivation to do so comes from a careful analysis of their self-
schemas. Thus, instead of being content with their present situation, they move
towards a desired future self which was initially part of their possible selves.
10.1.2 Possible Selves

If self-schema represents the present, possible selves represent the future.
Possible selves refer to what we would like to become as well as what we are
afraid of becoming in the future (Reeve, 2005). We have hopes and dreams about
ourselves. Some of us wish to be more successful in our careers, others wish to
become better parents, teenagers wish they are more popular with their peers
and children dream about imitating the styles and success of their pop idols.
When it comes to things we are afraid of becoming, they would include negative
things such as being stuck in the same job and salary for many years, being
emotionally detached from your children as they become older and continuous
failures in romantic relationships.
Possible selves act like our personal goals in life. In many ways, they represent
our future „ideal self‰ that motivate us to make positive changes in our lives. On
one hand, they represent various kinds of dissatisfactions that we have about our
own self. But looking at it from a more optimistic perspective, possible selves
serve as an in-built motivator that help us to make continuous improvements in
our lives.
Can we use these ideas of possible selves to help others? We certainly can. If you
are a parent, it would be good if you can discuss openly with your children about
their possible selves. Young children may have certain dreams and ideals that are
not applicable in the real world like wanting to grow-up to be Batman or
Spiderman (refer to Figure 10.2). However, you can certainly play with those
imaginations to motivate them to do well in other things.

Figure 10.2: Fictional super-heroes that are admired by children (from left: Superman,
Batman and Spiderman)
Source: http://forum.lowyat.net
http://www.fastcharacters.com
For example, if your eight-year-old son says he wants to be Batman, you may
respond by explaining that Batman does not have superpowers. You may use the
following reasons to explain why you said that Batman does not possess any
kind of superpowers: „Batman defeats his enemies by inventing his own
weapons and gadgets. He is able to do that because he is very good in science
and mathematics. So, if you want to be like Batman, you need to do well in
science and mathematics at school‰.
10.1.3 Consistent Self

This particular aspect of the self focuses on how we wish to consistently portray
ourselves to others. In other words, it refers to what we want others to see us as.
A person preserves his consistent self by carefully adopting behaviours and
physical appearances that are consistent with his self-concept while at the same
time, avoiding all those that contradict his views of himself. He may also in
addition, interact only with a selected group of people who enhances his self-
concept.

Let us take the example of a person who wishes to adopt a consistent self of an
individual with high-status. As shown in Figure 10.3, he may adopt certain signs
and symbols such as dressing himself in branded clothing, driving an expensive
car, becoming a member of prestigious golf clubs and living in a luxurious house
that fits into his status in the society.
Figure 10.3: A man dressed in branded clothing

Source: http://www.martincmusicblog.com
There is nothing wrong about preserving a consistent self. In fact, it is very useful
to encourage us to hold on to a certain set of values and principles. On the other
hand, without a consistent self, a person may be clouded by uncertainties that
may negatively affect the decisions he makes in life.
For example, a person who is not sure whether he is either an ethical or

materialistic person may find it difficult to resist the temptation to cheat for his
own financial benefit. In turn, a person who consistently holds on to a certain set
of ethical principles would easily ignore the temptation to do so.

ACTIVITY 10.1
Shown below is the „Wheel of Life‰ which represents eight aspects of

life: fun and recreation, physical environment, business or career,
finances, health, family and friends, romance, and personal growth.
Rate yourself on each aspect with the score from 1 to 10. Mark each
score on the wheel. Once you have given ratings for all eight aspects,
join the points together.
How does your wheel look like? A person who has a well-balanced life
would have a perfectly rounded wheel. Compare what you got with
others and share your ideas on what it means during the next tutorial.
Source: http://www.urbanmoms.ca

SELF-CHECK 10.1
1. Describe the differences between self-schema and possible selves.
2. Explain what a person would do to preserve his or her consistent

self.
10.2 IDENTITY AND AGENCY

While self-concept refers to how a person sees and defines himself, his identity
refers to how he relates to others in the society. A personÊs race, nationality and
religious belief are examples of parameters that define a person to others. In
addition, we also relate ourselves to others through the different social roles we
play.
As an individual, you play different social roles which may include being a child
to your parents, a student to your teachers, a coursemate to your friends and a
member of a social organisation. As we play these roles in life, we experience
greater personality and motivation development.
In the following subtopics, there will be further elaboration on the aspects that
are closely related to the concept of identity.
10.2.1 Identity and Roles

Does your identity influence your behaviour and motivation? It definitely does.
A Muslim, for example, would be motivated to preserve his Muslim identity by
observing the Islamic way of life. Many Muslim women wear the hijab or more
commonly known as the veil, as a sign of their commitment to their religious
belief. Muslims would also organise their daily activities according to their five
times daily prayers.

Figure 10.4 shows the practise of wearing hijab among the Muslim women.
Figure 10.4: Muslim women wearing hijab

Source: http://www.minnpost.com
When it comes to the different social roles we have, our behaviour depends a lot
on the social situation and culture we live in. Different cultures have different
expectations for each of these roles.
For example, being a college student in Malaysia is not the same like being a
college student in England. Students in Malaysia are normally expected to be
well-mannered, wait for instructions from their lecturers and seldom ask
questions in class. In England and many other Western countries, the
expectations are different. College students are expected to be active in class and
able to express critical comments and ask questions during lectures. Lecturers, in
turn, would welcome such behaviour and would not feel hurt when a student
disagrees openly with them.
These different social roles also demand us to make some necessary behavioural
adjustments. For example, the way we speak varies in different situations and
depends a lot on whom we are talking to.
For instance, when you talk to your friends and close family members, the words
and expressions you use are more casual and at times can be even rough. But you
would not talk the same way to your parents or your teachers. Cultural traditions
would demand you to be more polite. Such differences of behaviour, do not
make you a hypocrite but simply shows how you are able to adapt to different
situations.

10.2.2 Role of Agency on the Self-concept

Agency is the part of the self which is intrinsically motivated to change and
develop from within (Reeve, 2005). As mentioned earlier in this topic, our self-
concept is neither fixed nor static. We or our agency can change it voluntarily by
integrating new values and preferences.
There are various terms used to describe how these changes to the self-concept
take place. But, let us concentrate on these two terms:
(a) Differentiation
Differentiation is a process where a person strengthens his self-concept by
specialising and focusing more on his existing values and preferences. An
outdoor person may further concentrate on outdoor activities by quitting
his job in the city and moving to a new job as an organiser of outdoor
events. This would further differentiate him as an outdoor person with a
strong extroverted personality.
(b) Integration
Integration is a process where different values and preferences come
together to form a coherent unity. For example, an introverted person could
also be very interested in sports and very passionate about social issues. He
can integrate all this by excelling in individual games like tennis and golf,
and be part of a small organisation that deals with small-scale community
work.
All of us go through the process of differentiation and integration at some point

in our lives. For example, during the period of adolescence and early adulthood,
many of us experiment with different activities, hobbies and social groups. Such
a mixture of experiences can be quite complex, even contradictory to one another
in some respect. But all these can be differentiated and integrated to form our
own unique self-concept.
ACTIVITY 10.2
Recall some of the things you did when you were young: the music you
listen to, the people you idolised, the friends you had and all other
things you did in the past.
How much have all these experiences influenced what you are now as a
person? Discuss and share your personal insights with your coursemates
during the next tutorial.

10.3 COGNITIVE DISSONANCE

Before we touch on the subject of cognitive dissonance, let us look at this
example. Lisa has been a vegetarian all her life. She does not take meat and
refrains from all animal-based products, including milk and eggs. She believes it
is cruel to kill an animal for its meat. Professionally, she is an accountant and has
been working in the same company for many years. She receives good pay and
benefits and enjoys working in the company. One day, she comes across an
internal report which shows that the company has been investing in a sheep farm
for many years.
The company is not only one of the main investors, but is also responsible for the
marketing and exporting of meat-based products from the farm to all over the
world. How do you think Lisa would feel at that moment? Most probably, she
would feel guilty and angry; guilty that she had not known about this and angry
that the company has been involved in something which she is strongly against.
This is an example of cognitive dissonance ă a condition where we experience
new information that is inconsistent with our present attitudes and behaviour.
10.3.1 Motivational Processes Underlying Cognitive

Dissonance
What would you do when you experience cognitive dissonance? You would try
to reduce the stressful feeling by reducing the dissonance. According to Reeve
(2005), the founder of the cognitive dissonance theory, Leon Festinger has listed
four ways to reduce the dissonance.
Let us try to illustrate these four ways using the example of Lisa, the vegetarian,
mentioned earlier:
(a) Remove the Dissonant Belief

Suppose that Lisa decides to take the first option; which is to remove the
dissonant belief, what should she do? Remember the issue here is, there is
an inconsistency between her self-concept and behaviour. On one hand, she
is strongly against killing animals for food but on the other, she is working
with a company that is directly involved in producing animal-based food
products. Hence, to remove the dissonant belief, she has to sacrifice either
one; the attitude or the behaviour.
We would expect she would be more motivated to sacrifice the behaviour

that is her direct involvement in the company. If she does feel very strongly
about the issue and assuming she would not be able to ask the company to

withdraw their investment in farming and animal-based food products; she

would quit her job to be free from the guilt and anger she is feeling. On the
other hand, she could just completely abandon her beliefs as a vegetarian
and continue working in the company, but, it seems rather unlikely to
happen.
(b) Reduce the Importance of the Dissonant Belief

How about if she reduces the importance of the dissonant belief? She could
do so by telling herself that her companyÊs investment is, in fact, very small.
The size of the farm is not really big and the volume of products produced
is insignificant. By telling herself all this, she is trivialising or reducing the
importance of dissonance belief.
(c) Add a New Consonant Belief

To take the third option, she needs to add a new consonant belief. A
consonant belief is a belief which is consistent with her behaviour. A new
consonant belief in this case could be an assumption that meat and
products distributed by her company are being sold to third world
countries at a discounted price.
(d) Increase the Importance of the Consonant Belief

She could further add importance to the above mentioned consonant belief
(which corresponds to the final aim of reducing the dissonance) by
assuming that most of the meat and products are, in fact, donated for free to
countries facing drought and famine.
SELF-CHECK 10.2
1. Describe how the self changes through differentiation and

integration.
2. Explain by using your own example, the four ways to reduce

cognitive dissonance.
While our own experience with cognitive dissonance may not be as dramatic as
described in LisaÊs case, such dilemmas are in fact quite common to occur in our
life. While you are honest, your company and colleagues may not be. You may
hate corruption, but your boss and colleagues may think it is a way of life.
Therefore, it is important that we know how to deal with such situations by
considering all possible options to reduce the dissonance.

ACTIVITY 10.3
Have you ever experienced cognitive dissonance just like the vegetarian
lady mentioned in the example? If you have, write about it on myVLE
and share with others whether you think you had taken the best option
to reduce the dissonance.
Ć Self-concept is a personÊs mental representation of himself or herself, which is

shaped by his or her personality and life experiences.
 Self-schemas are cognitive generalisations about the self that are domain-
specific.
 Possible selves refer to what we would like to become as well as what we are
afraid of becoming in the future.
 A person preserves his consistent self by adopting behaviours and physical

appearances that are consistent with his self-concept, while at the same time,
avoiding all those that contradict his views of himself.
 Every individual have multiple identities and roles that influence his or her
behaviour and motivation.
 Differentiation is the process where a person strengthens his self-concept by

specialising and focusing more on his existing values and preferences.
Ć Integration is the process where different values and preferences come

together to form a coherent unity.
Ć Cognitive dissonance is an uncomfortable psychological state which we

experience when new information is inconsistent with our present attitudes
and behaviour.
Ć The motivation underlying cognitive dissonance is the motivation to reduce

the dissonance either by:
(i) Removing the dissonant belief;
(ii) Reducing the importance of the dissonant belief;

(iii) Adding a new consonant belief; or
(iv) Increasing the importance of the consonant belief.
Agency Identity
Cognitive dissonance Integration
Consistent self Possible selves
Consonant belief Roles
Differentiation Self-concept
Dissonant belief
Wiley & Sons.

Topic  Emotions as
11 Motivators
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify the components of emotion;
2. Explain how emotion can act as motivators;
3. Describe examples of goal-congruent emotions; and
4. List the examples of goal-incongruent emotions.
 INTRODUCTION
Most football fans would tell you one of the most enjoyable parts of watching a
football game is witnessing the expression of pure joy on the face of a player who
has just scored a goal. A player may score a goal at the very last minute of the
game, when physically he must be very tired.
Figure 11.1 shows players celebrating their victory after scoring a goal.
Figure 11.1: Players celebrating after successfully scoring a goal

Source: http://artist-chef.blogspot.com

134  TOPIC 11 EMOTIONS AS MOTIVATORS
But once he sees that he has scored a goal, being tired will be the last thing on his
mind. The sheer joy felt immediately after scoring a goal is enough to energise
the goal scorer to sprint all around the stadium to celebrate his goal in front of
thousands of cheering fans. The emotion of joy has clearly energised the playerÊs
goal celebration behaviour.
In this topic, we will discuss how emotions act as motivators that help energise
and direct behaviour.
11.1 WHAT IS AN EMOTION?

Everyone knows what an emotion is, but the problem is how do we define it?
Just like the word „motivation‰, there is no standard definition for „emotion‰.
Different people have described emotions in different ways. And all of them are
true because the fact is, an emotion has many dimensions. It is more important to
know and understand these different dimensions than to have a standard
definition. It will help us a lot to understand how emotions can act as motivators.
We will now look at these different dimensions in the following subtopic.
11.1.1 Components of Emotion

Reeve (2005) presented the different dimensions of emotion as these four
components of emotion summarised in Figure 11.2:
Figure 11.2: Four components of emotion


TOPIC 11 EMOTIONS AS MOTIVATORS  135
As shown in the figure, the arrows connecting all the four components of
emotions point to both directions. This is done purposely to emphasise the
point that each component can influence each other. A combination of all four
dimensions would tell us what kind of emotion we are currently experiencing.
The following is a detailed explanation for the four components of emotion:
(a) Feelings
As the first component, feelings refer to the subjective experience of an
emotion. Some emotions such as happiness and joy bring positive feelings,
while other emotions such as anger and sadness bring negative feelings.
(b) Bodily Arousal

The second component which is bodily arousal includes all physiological
changes that occur when a person is experiencing an emotional experience.
For example, a person who is sad often experiences decreased heart rate
and low-energy-level. On the other hand, a person who is angry often
experiences an increased heart rate and high-energy-level.
(c) Sense of Purpose

The third component, sense of purpose, is the most important component
in discussing the relationship between emotion and motivation. Emotion, as
a motivator, provides behaviour with a sense of purpose, or in other words,
a sense of direction. Some emotions result in approach behaviour, while
others result in avoidance behaviour. We will discuss this further in the
next subtopic.
(d) Social-expression
The final component of emotion is social-expression. Emotions function as a
form of social communication that communicates to others how a person is
feeling and how best to deal with that person.
For example, as shown in Figure 11.3, when a person is angry, you can
normally see this from his face. Typically, the facial expression of an angry
person would be one where his eyebrows are lowered to form wrinkles on
the forehead and his lips pressed together, or in some cases, the mouth is
widely open to show gritted teeth. Based on the personÊs facial expression,
you need to decide whether it is wise to approach him or maybe leave him
alone for a while to allow him to calm down.

Figure 11.3: Face of an angry person

Source: http://efia.bl0gger.eu
SELF-CHECK 11.1
List and explain briefly the four components of emotion.
11.2 EMOTION AS MOTIVATION
„The emotions are not always immediately subject to reason, but they are
always immediately subject to action.‰
William James
The statement above is from one of the most famous figures in the history of
psychology. The question of how emotion is related to motivation has been
debated for many decades. Emotion is no doubt a motivator, but how strong a
motivator it is and what is the nature of its influence on human behaviour are
important questions for us to ponder.

Relationship between Emotion and Motivation

In the past, many psychologists believe there is only a weak relationship between
emotion and motivation. According to Reeve (2005), psychologists believe drive
and needs are the primary sources of motivation (as cited in Franken, 2007). It is
only in the last three decades that motivation researchers began to pay more
attention to emotion. Now emotion is widely considered as a type of motivation,
but the influence of emotion on behaviour, although strong, may not necessarily
be direct.
Reeve (2005) points out that emotion is more of a „readout system‰ that energises
rather than causes behaviour. For example, positive emotions like happiness and
love often increase the intensity of behaviour. Just imagine yourself working in
your office. Would you be more energetic at work when you are happy or when
you are sad? Most likely, you would be more energetic when you are happy.
Emotion also serves as a motivator in the sense that it provides behaviour with
direction. Recall the third component of emotion mentioned earlier in this topic;
sense of purpose. Every emotion, positive or negative, has a sense of purpose that
leads to either an approach or avoidance behaviour. Fear is an example of a
negative emotion.
Imagine a person who suddenly comes across a tiger while jungle trekking. He
will experience fear. The question is, will fear lead to approach or avoidant
behaviour? Will fear lead the person to approach the tiger or lead him to avoid
it? Logically, fear will lead the person to avoid the tiger by running away as fast
as he can! This example shows how fear can lead to avoidant behaviour.
Another way to explain how emotion influences motivation is to explain it from a

learning perspective. The general rule in psychology of learning states that
reward encourages behaviour and punishment discourages it. When a person is
rewarded for his behaviour, the emotion he would most likely to experience is
happiness.
The reward will directly encourage the continuation of the behaviour while
happiness will help increase the encouragement. As can be seen in this example,
emotion is not directly influencing the behaviour, but it moderates the influence
by further strengthening the behaviour.

ACTIVITY 11.1
Are there people born without emotions? What would it be like if you
do not have emotions? Would that be a good or a bad thing?
Discuss your views with others on myVLE.
11.3 POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE EMOTIONS

All emotions have their own unique functions and importance. Thus, when
psychologists categorise emotions as positive and negative, they do not mean to
say that positive emotions are good while negative emotions are bad. According
to Reeve (2005), as cited in Franken (2007), positive and negative here refers to
either the emotions contribute towards reaching a goal (goal-congruent) or
contribute to stop someone from reaching a goal (goal-incongruent).
Both types of emotions are important as it ensures our survival (Reeve, 2005;
Franken, 2007), a point that we will explore more in the next topic. We will now
look at several examples of both positive and negative emotions and explore
their respective unique functions.
11.3.1 Goal-congruent Emotions or Positive Emotions

Goal-congruent emotions help us to achieve our personal goals. Goal-congruent
emotions are also referred to as positive emotions because it helps rather than
hinders.
Table 11.1 shows some examples of positive emotions. All these emotions help us
to attain our personal goals and encourage approach behaviour, which explains
why they are categorised as positive emotions.
Table 11.1: Positive Emotions
Cheerful Courageous Energetic

Enthusiastic Excellent Great
Glamorous Graceful Happy
Humorous Joyful Magnificent
Love Playfulness Peaceful
Relaxed Surprised Thrilled
Source: http://www.self-improvement-mentor.com/list-of-human-emotions.html

The most common examples of positive emotion are happiness and interest.
Let us try to explain both of these emotions using the framework of the four
components of emotion mentioned earlier:
(a) Happiness
With regards to happiness, what is the subjective experience you feel when
you are happy? The feeling, which is the first component of emotion, would
be one of a mixture of joy and deep satisfaction.
As for bodily arousal, happiness is often associated with increased levels of

chemicals like dopamine and serotonin in our bodies (Ferris, 2009). And the
social expression of happiness involves jovial facial expressions such as
when a person smiles, the eyebrows will be raised and the lips stretched
(Reeve, 2005).
Referring to a sense of purpose, what is the purpose of happiness? If you

are currently working on a project, happiness would be a sign that you are
enjoying your work and satisfied with your progress so far. Happiness, in
this case, will keep you motivated and excited while working on the
project. Happiness indeed helps you to cope with and overcome challenges
in life (Franken, 2007).
Figure 11.4 summarises the four components of happiness.
Figure 11.4: Four components of happiness

(b) Interest
Whenever you are interested about something, the feeling is a combination
of strong concentration and eagerness. The bodily arousals associated with
interest are similar to those associated with happiness. Increased levels of
dopamine and serotonin as well as other types of neurotransmitters like
endorphin are associated with the emotion interest (Ferris, 2009).
As for social expression, how does a person who shows interest in

something looks like? Experienced teachers would tell you that it is not
difficult to identify which students are interested and which are not
interested with the lessons taught in class. An interested student would
often wear a half-smile on his face, eyebrows slightly raised and eyes
widened (Reeve, 2005). These are the signs that show that the student is
deeply interested in what is being taught in the class.
The sense of purpose of the emotion interest is clearly goal-congruent. As

Reeve (2005) explains, interest generates the following elements:
(i) The desire to explore and investigate;
(ii) Encourages us to be creative and develop new skills; and
(iii) Leads to effective learning by enhancing our comprehension and

understanding of important and relevant information.
Figure 11.5 shows the four components of interest.
Figure 11.5: Four components of interest

11.3.2 Goal-incongruent Emotions or Negative

Emotions
Goal-incongruent emotions prevent us from attaining personal goals. This
sounds like a very bad thing but that is not necessarily the case. As it prevents
us from achieving our goals, goal-incongruent emotions are also referred to as
negative emotions.
As with positive emotions, there are many examples of negative emotions.

Table 11.2 shows some examples of negative emotions. All these emotions
prevent us from attaining our personal goals and produce avoidant behaviour,
which explains why they are categorised as negative emotions.
Table 11.2: Negative Emotions
Anxious Bored Confused

Depressed Disgusted Exhausted
Envy Fear Greed
Impatient Irritated Jealous
Lonely Mad Panic
Remorse Shocked Weary
Source: http://www.self-improvement-mentor.com/list-of-human-emotions.html
The most common examples of negative emotion are fear and sadness. Let us try
to explain both of these emotions by using the same framework used earlier for
the positive emotions:
(a) Fear
As Reeve (2005) explains, fear involves the feelings of being vulnerable and
insecure. When you experience fear, your heartbeat increases but your body
temperature goes down. That is why fear often results in cold sweat. Your
face will become pale and your eyes wide open, which create an unpleasant
expression. However, fear actually serves a very important purpose.
Earlier in this topic, we came across the example of a man who stumbles
upon a tiger. Imagine if this person is somehow unable to experience fear?
What are the chances that he will come out alive from that particular
situation? If the man is indeed incapable of experiencing fear, he may not
even attempt to run away. He might just stare at the tiger, unable to realise
that he is actually in a very dangerous situation.

Fear is needed here to alert the person of the danger he is in and to tell him
that he needs to do something to save his life. Do you still remember the
earlier statement which said emotion is important to ensure our survival?
Well, this is a very good example that proves the point.
Figure 11.6 summarises the four components of fear.
Figure 11.6: Four components of fear
(b) Sadness
According to Reeve (2005), the first three components of sadness include
being down and distress (feelings), decreased heart rate and physical
exhaustion (bodily arousal) and crying and trembling (social-expression).
As for the purpose, sadness actually helps us to reflect on a negative
experience and to emerge stronger from it.
For example, when we receive news of the death of someone we love, a

period of sadness is necessary to help us accept the loss. Sadness helps us to
reflect on the experience and recollect the good memories we had with the
recently departed person. It is part of the grieving process and sooner or
later, we will be ready to move on.
SELF-CHECK 11.2
1. Describe one example of how emotion functions as a motivator.
2. Explain the difference between positive and negative emotions.

Figure 11.7 summarises the four components of sadness.
Figure 11.7: Four components of sadness
ACTIVITY 11.2
Is anger a positive or negative emotion? Does it help you to attain your
personal goals or do they prevent you from attaining them?
Discuss and share your thoughts with others in the next tutorial session.
Ć There are four components of emotion: feelings, bodily-arousal, sense of

purpose, and social-expression.
 Feelings include subjective experiences such as the joy and satisfaction we

feel when we are happy and the vulnerable or insecure feeling we feel when
we fear something.
 Bodily arousals include physiological changes and bodily reactions like

decreased heart rate that occur when we are sad and increased levels of bio-
chemicals like dopamine and endorphin when we are happy.
 Social expression includes unique facial expressions of each emotion; for

example, when someone is happy, his eyebrows will be raised and his lips
stretched.
 Sense of purpose explains the functional aspect of emotion; whether it leads

to approach or avoidance behaviour.
 Emotions act as motivators by energising behaviour and by giving behaviour

its sense of purpose and direction.
 Goal-congruent emotions or positive emotions help us to achieve our

personal goals.
 Goal-incongruent emotions or negative emotions prevent us from achieving

our personal goals.
Bodily arousal Negative emotions

Emotions Neurotransmitters
Facial expression Positive emotions
Feelings Sense of purpose
Dopamine Serotonin
Goal-congruent emotions Social expression
Goal-incongruent emotions Vocal expression
Ferris. (2009). Happiness chemicals: Dopamines, neurotransmitters, and beyond.

Retrieved from http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/2170481/
happiness_chemicals_ dopamine_neurotransmitters.html?cat
Wiley & Sons.

Topic  Growth
12 Motivation and
Positive
Psychology
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the relationship between growth motivation and positive
psychology;
2. Describe the unique features of positive psychology;
3. Recall the basic features of MaslowÊs theory of hierarchy of needs;
and
4. Define self-actualisation and the characteristics of a self-actualised
individual.
 INTRODUCTION
What goes through your mind when a person mentions the word „psychology‰?
For most people, they will straight away associate this with negative images such
as mental institutions (as illustrated in Figure 12.1), lunatic and mental disorders.
Few will associate it with the study of humanÊs feelings, behaviours and how the
brain works.

146  TOPIC 12 GROWTH MOTIVATION AND POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Figure 12.1: An illustration of a mental institution

Source: http://www.cartoonstock.com
Some people even think psychology is an academic subject that deals with
mental problems. Psychologists are often stereotyped as professionals who deal
only with people suffering from mental and psychological problems. These
simplistic assumptions are indeed very unfortunate.
Psychological problems and disorders are indeed among the main issues in
psychology. But psychology is also involved in helping others to seek happiness
and maximise their potential. Therefore, psychology is definitely not only about
depression, stress and other negative psychological conditions.
In fact, skills and knowledge in psychology have helped millions of people

around the world to improve their lives by making positive proactive changes in
their behaviour, personality and motivation. Positive psychology is a specific
area of psychology that explores the secrets of realising oneÊs potential and
promotes growth motivation.
In this topic, we will discuss some of the key issues in positive psychology and
growth motivation.

TOPIC 12 GROWTH MOTIVATION AND POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY  147
12.1 GROWTH MOTIVATION AND POSITIVE

PSYCHOLOGY
The philosophical background of both growth motivation and positive
psychology comes from the humanistic psychology school of thought.
Humanistic psychology believes in the idea that human beings are naturally
motivated to learn and discover new things (Reeve, 2005). Abraham Maslow, one
of the founders of this school, refers to this as growth motivation. The opposite of
growth motivation is deficiency motivation.
The motivation to eat and drink is part of deficiency motivation. As we eat due to
hunger, thus the motivation to eat is simply a reaction to the psychological
feeling of hunger. Therefore, deficiency motivation is mostly about reacting to
physiological and psychological conditions. Growth motivation, on the other
hand, inspires proactive behaviour which is essential in order to find eternal
happiness, to fulfil our utmost potential and to continuously learn new things in
life.
Positive psychology is one of the by-products of Abraham MaslowÊs unique

insights on human motivation. It is a specialised field in psychology that explores
how psychology can be used to inspire positive and proactive behaviours.
Growth motivation is naturally one of the main principles of positive
psychology.
12.1.1 Features of Positive Psychology

As mentioned in the earlier topic, positive psychology aims to create or inspire
positive behaviours. Thus, what are the features of positive psychology, which
make it possible to produce those behaviours? The features of positive
psychology are as follows:
(a) Goals and Ambitions

The most important feature of positive psychology is its goals and
ambitions. The founders of positive psychology, Martin Seligman and
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, believe psychology should move beyond its
traditional focus on negative psychological conditions.

The new focus instead should be on positive intervention, positive

personality traits and positive emotions (Seligman, 2002). In tandem with
MaslowÊs idea of growth motivation, positive psychology focuses on how
to make a person better than his present condition.
For example, counselling psychologists should not focus only on how to

help clients overcome their psychological problems but also on how to
encourage positive changes in their lives. With that, a client should not only
overcome his problems, but also become a better person as a result of the
counselling sessions he attended.
Figure 12.2 illustrates counselling therapy in a satirical way.
Figure 12.2: An illustration on counselling therapy

(b) Preferred Approach

Another important feature of positive psychology is its preferred approach.
Rather than focusing on negative approaches like fear and punishment,
positive psychology encourages the use of positive approaches to motivate
others.
For example, when it comes to motivating students in the classroom,

positive psychology would encourage teachers to use success stories of
previous students to motivate them. Teachers should also create an
environment in the classroom, which is fun and relaxing by encouraging
students to talk and express their views. This is very much different from
the traditional approach of using punishment and fear to motivate students
to perform in the class.
(c) Positive Prevention

Positive psychology also focuses on positive prevention. Positive
psychologists believe that there is something inherent in human nature that
if used well enough, can protect us from of all kinds of psychological
problems and diseases. These inherent qualities include the feelings and
emotions of happiness, courage, hopefulness, enjoyment and perseverance.
According to Selingman (2002), keeping happy thoughts, for example, has

been found to protect people from experiencing severe depression. Positive
psychologists would encourage us to store happy thoughts in our minds
and retrieve them whenever we are frustrated and sad. These happy
thoughts would serve as buffers that lessen the impact of any negative
experiences in life.
True to its humanistic tradition, positive psychology believes that all of us

can learn to be happier and more optimistic about our lives, as shown in
Figure 12.3. Happiness and optimism are two key issues in positive
psychology. Studies in the past have reported numerous benefits of both
virtues.
Figure 12.3: Happiness is one of the vital elements in positive psychology

Source: http://www.granbyhousedental.co.uk
Both have been found to be positively related to strong marriages, better

performance at work and improved physical and mental health (Seligman, 2002).
Based on these research findings, positive psychologists believe that all mental
health professionals should focus on how to make their clients more happy and
optimistic. Storing some happy thoughts and memories in mind is certainly one
of the ways of doing it.

However, positive psychology should not be misunderstood as being just like

positive thinking. There is no doubt that positive thinking is part of positive
psychology. Nonetheless, as a specialised area in psychology, theories and
applications of positive psychological principles are based entirely on scientific
research findings. They are not just simple common sense advice, but principles
that are derived from extensive analysis of research findings in the past. These
findings are then used to help others to overcome their psychological problems
and to help them become better individuals.
SELF-CHECK 12.1
Describe some examples of positive approaches to human motivation
which are encouraged by positive psychologists.
ACTIVITY 12.1
1. Do you think too much happiness is a bad thing? Give reasons for
your answer.
2. Read the article linked below:
http://www.virginia.edu/uvatoday/newsRelease.php?id=3071
State whether you agree or disagree with the arguments presented

in the article.
Discuss and share with your classmates during your next tutorial.
12.2 SELF-ACTUALISATION AND HIERARCHY

OF HUMAN NEEDS
Throughout this course, we have come across several discussions on human
needs. As defined in Topic 4, needs are essential for our survival and personal
development. Physiological needs for water and food are essential for our
survival, whereas psychological and social needs are important for our personal
development. What is lacking in the previous discussions is a way to organise
these needs into one common theoretical framework.

We would like to know, for example, whether we try to fulfil all these different
needs at the same time or do we actually choose and prioritise? If we do indeed
choose and prioritise, is there an order of priority which tells us which needs we
tend to focus on first and which we focus on last? MaslowÊs theory of human
needs provides the best answers to these questions. MaslowÊs theory of hierarchy
of human needs places self-actualisation needs at the top of hierarchy.
12.2.1 Maslow’s Theory of Hierarchy of Human

Needs
Maslow believes that human needs can be organised in a framework. It tells us
which needs we will pursue first and the ones that we will pursue later. (Reeve,
2005). Maslow categorised human needs into five different clusters. A pyramid is
often used to illustrate the order of importance of these needs clusters.
Figure 12.4 shows the pyramid of human needs based on MaslowÊs Theory of
Hierarchy of Human Needs.
Figure 12.4: MaslowÊs Theory of Hierarchy of Human Needs
(a) Physiological Needs

Physiological needs are placed at the base of the hierarchy to point that they
form the foundation of human needs and they are the most important
needs for our survival. In any situation, we will first look for needs such as
food, water, warmth and shelter.

(b) Safety Needs

Once these physiological needs are secured, we will work to fulfil our
safety needs. When safety needs such as security, stability or freedom from
fear are secured, we will move to the needs of belonging and love.
(c) Belonging ă Love

Humans essentially need friends, family, spouse or lover for companionship.
These needs are very important in our lives.
(d) Self-esteem
Self-esteem needs such as achievement, mastery, recognition or respect are
something that increases our level of worthiness.
(e) Self-actualisation
The needs of self-actualisation cover aspects such as creativity, fulfilment
and inner talent.
We need to understand the three important themes that are closely related to
MaslowÊs theory to fully appreciate MaslowÊs hierarchy of human needs. These
themes, as outlined in Reeve (2005), are as follows:
(a) Theme 1
The lower the needs are in the hierarchy, the stronger and more urgently it
is felt.
(b) Theme 2
The lower the needs are in the hierarchy, the sooner it appears in our lives.
(c) Theme 3
Needs in the hierarchy are fulfilled sequentially, from lowest to highest;
from the base of the pyramid to its apex.
Physiological needs and safety needs at the base of the pyramid are physical
needs that are most essential for our survival. The motivation to fulfil these needs
are stronger and more urgent as indicated in Theme 1 above. As indicated in
Theme 2, these lower needs appear the soonest in our lives.
Children, for example, would feel the need for water, food, safety and security,
but would not be expected to be too much concerned about love and esteem
needs. As they grow older, these higher needs would become stronger and more
important.

Most importantly, as indicated in Theme 3, MaslowÊs theory dictates that we can

only pursue higher needs once the needs below them are fulfilled. For example, a
person would not be too concerned about love and belongingness if his safety
and physiological needs are not secured.
Similarly, a person would not be thinking too much about his self-esteem if his
needs for love and belonging are not fulfilled. And, when it comes to the need for
self-actualisation, it can only be experienced once all the four needs below it are
satisfactorily fulfilled.
While it is important to understand MaslowÊs theory correctly, it is equally

important to apply the theory in real-life situations especially in trying to
motivate ourselves and others. From MaslowÊs theory, we know that there are
needs which are more important and urgent than the others.
We must ensure all basic needs, especially physiological and safety needs, are
fulfilled first in order to motivate people to pursue higher level needs such as
achievement and recognition (self-esteem needs), and creativity and talent
fulfilment (self-actualisation needs).
Figure 12.5 shows how a child applies his self-actualisation needs; the need of
being creative.
Figure 12.5: A child fulfilling his self-actualisation needs

Source: http://www.alextoys.com
Now, the following example will illustrate how we can translate the above
principles to a real-life situation. Imagine that you are the head of division of a
creative arts company. Your clients demand for high-quality creative products.
Ask yourself what you should do to motivate the artists and graphic designers
under you to produce high-quality creative products.

Based on MaslowÊs theory, what you should do first is to ensure their basic needs
are well taken care of. This means that their salaries should be adequate, so that
they have no worries about feeding themselves and their families, and at the
same time, present them with comfortable working conditions. Once these
physiological needs are covered, you should move on to their safety needs.
Assure those working under you that their jobs are secure and provide them
with medical insurance.
The next step is to look into their love and belongingness needs. As their boss,
you do not need to get involved in your employeesÊ romantic or personal lives.
However, do make yourself available should any of them come to you for advice
or assistance on any personal matters. Furthermore, love and belongingness do
not involve only romantic relations. It involves other types of interpersonal
relations, for example, relationships among friends and colleagues.
In that regard, it might be useful for you as the head of the division to encourage
your co-workers to mingle with each other beyond their professional duties at
the office. You may also want to, from time to time, organise outings or events to
encourage your employees to establish communal relationships (something we
learned about in Topic 5) with each other.
Once all these are done, you may concentrate on motivating your employees to
strive for their self-esteem needs and self-actualisation. According to MaslowÊs
theory, since the lower level needs are now secure, the artists and graphic
designers in your division will be able to concentrate on professional and artistic
achievements in order to fulfil their creative potential.
A point to note; despite the obvious popularity and practicality of MaslowÊs

theory, it remains only a theory. A theory is never absolute. This means that the
theory can be proven true or false at any given time. In that regard, MaslowÊs
theory should not be seen as the ultimate law of human motivation. While many
people prefer to have their physiological needs to be secured first before moving
on to higher level needs, there are numerous examples of individuals who
achieve great personal success despite paying little attention to their basic needs.
12.2.2 Self-actualised People

Maslow explains self-actualisation, which is on top of the hierarchy of human
needs:„A musician must make music, an artist must paint, a poet must write, if
he is to be ultimately happy. What a man can be, he must be. This need we may
call as self-actualisation‰ (Reeve, 2005).

As mentioned earlier, self-actualisation involves the pursuit of inner talent,

creativity and fulfilment of an individualÊs potential. Hence, self-actualisation is
all about finding what we are best at and realising to the fullest our talents and
potential. Maslow believes all of us have this motivation. But, it can only be
pursued if and when all other needs are fulfilled.
Figure 12.6, illustrates self-actualisation in a humorous way. However, the

essence of the illustration portrays the tremendous challenges one need to face in
order to fulfil their self-actualisation needs. The whole process leading to self-
actualisation involves various challenges and covers a long period of time in a
personÊs life. In fact, Maslow believes that the most self-actualised people are at
least 60 years old. He believes that less than two per cent of people in the general
population would experience self-actualisation (Petri & Govern, 2004).
Figure 12.6: An illustration on self-actualisation

The challenge here is to find what is it exactly that we are best at. Only very few
people will know the answer to this and those who know, may not have the
means to pursue it.
For example, you may be a gifted tennis player, but if you are not given the
support and training required, you will not be able to fully realise your true
potential. This explains why Maslow emphasised the importance of fulfilling all
basic needs first before a person can concentrate on self-actualisation.

According to Petri & Govern (2004), Maslow identified several characteristics of a

self-actualised person and they are as follows:
(a) Efficient perception of reality.
(b) Acceptance of self, others and nature.
(c) Spontaneous.
(d) Problem-centred (not self-centred).
(e) Has a need for privacy (to enable the person to concentrate intensely).
(f) Independent and autonomous.
(g) Freshness of appreciation.
(h) Frequent peak experiences.
(i) Sympathy for humankind.
(j) Close interpersonal relations.
(k) Democratic and unprejudiced.
(l) Strong ethical sense.
(m) Philosophical and constructive sense of humour.
(n) Creative and inventive.
The most important and unique characteristic is peak experiences. Peak

experience is a term introduced by Maslow to describe the feeling of pure joy and
ecstasy, conviction and deep satisfaction that help to transform and strengthen a
person (Petri & Govern, 2004). It is similar to the term flow discussed in Topic 5.
People who enjoy frequent peak experiences are those who are deeply satisfied
with their lives- where work is not considered as a burden and everything else in
life is well taken care of.
SELF-CHECK 12.2
1. List five cluster of needs as mentioned in MaslowÊs Hierarchy of
Needs.
2. Explain „peak experiences‰.

A more recent interpretation describes self-actualisation as an on-going and

never-ending process. Hence, no one in fact can be said to have self-actualised.
Thus, the correct term should be „self-actualising‰, referring to the earlier
explanation (Reeve, 2005). From this point-of-view, a self-actualised person is a
person who has achieved perfection, something which is impossible. A person
who is on the journey to realise his utmost potential is a self-actualising person.
Try as he might, he will not be able to reach the absolute peak of his potential,
but he may come very close to achieving it.
ACTIVITY 12.2
1. If you are a self-actualising person, what would be your

characteristics?
2. Based on the self-actualisation needs, what are the aspects that

you are good at?
3. Share your answers with others on myVLE.
 Growth motivation encourages proactive behaviour, which is essential in

order to find happiness, to fulfil our utmost potential and to continuously
learn new things in life.
 Positive psychology is a specific area of psychology that explores the secrets

of realising oneÊs potential and promotes growth motivation.
 Positive psychology focuses on positive interventions, positive personality

traits and positive emotions.
 The five clusters of needs in MaslowÊs theory of hierarchy of needs are

physiological needs, safety needs, love and belongingness needs, esteem
needs and self-actualisation.
 Needs in the hierarchy are fulfilled sequentially, from lowest to highest.

 Self-actualisation involves the pursuit of inner talent, creativity and

fulfilment of individual potential.
 Peak experiences involve the feeling of pure joy and ecstasy, conviction and
deep satisfaction that helps transform and strengthens a person.
Esteem needs Positive intervention

Growth motivation Positive prevention
Hierarchy of needs Positive psychology
Love and belongingness needs Safety needs
Peak experiences Self-actualisation
Physiological needs Self-actualising

applications. Australia: Thomson/Wadsworth.
Reeve, J. M. (2005). Understanding motivation and emotion. New York: John

Wiley & Sons.
Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Positive psychology, positive prevention, and positive

therapy. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.). Handbook of positive
psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

MODULE FEEDBACK
MAKLUM BALAS MODUL
If you have any comment or feedback, you are welcome to:
1. E-mail your comment or feedback to modulefeedback@oum.edu.my
OR
2. Fill in the Print Module online evaluation form available on myVLE.
Thank you.
Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

(Pusat Reka Bentuk Pengajaran dan Teknologi)
Tel No.: 03-27732578
Fax No.: 03-26978702


ABPK2103 Motivation Cdec15 (RS) PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

ABPK2103 Motivation Cdec15 (RS) PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Faculty of Applied Social Sciences

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writer: Mohamad Zaki Samsudin

Moderator: Dr Wong Huey Siew

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Printed by: Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd.

First Edition, August 2010

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 3 Biological Components of Motivation 30

Topic 4 Physiological Needs 40

Topic 5 Psychological Needs 56

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 3 Biological Components of Motivation 30

Topic 4 Physiological Needs 40

Topic 5 Psyshological Needs 56

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 6 Social Needs 70

Topic 7 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 82

Topic 8 Plans and Goals 91

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 9 Personal Control Beliefs and Expectancy 105

Topic 10 The Self 119

Topic 11 Emotions as Motivators 133

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 12 Growth Motivation and Positive Psychology 145

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

1. Explain to students what is motivation and how it influences an

2. Provide comprehension to students on theories of motivation;

3. Discuss approaches that can be used to motivate an individual; and

4. Expose students to different measurement of motivation.

Topic 1 introduces the basic concepts, expression and components of motivation.

Topic 2 describes the philosophical foundation and grand theories of motivation.

Topic 3 describes how the brain and neurotransmitters influence motivation.

Topic 4 explains the motivation that arises from physiological needs.

Topic 5 examines the motivation that arises from psychological needs.

Topic 6 examines the motivation that arises from social needs.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 7 discusses the application of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Topic 8 explains how plans and goals influence motivation.

Topic 9 discusses the role of personal control beliefs and expectancy in

Topic 10 describes how self-concept and identity influence motivation.

Topic 11 describes how emotions influence motivation.

Topic 12 discusses the unique approach in growth motivation and positive

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

Petri, H. L., & Govern, J. M. (2004). Motivation: Theory, research and

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Motivation is an important research area in the field of psychology. We often

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

1.1 DEFINITION AND FUNDAMENTAL