Experimental Gerontology 110 (2018) 216–222

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Experimental Gerontology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/expgero

High-speed resistance training in elderly women: Effects of cluster training T

sets on functional performance and quality of life
Rodrigo Ramirez-Campilloa, Cristian Alvareza, Antonio Garcìa-Hermosob, Carlos Celis-Moralesc,
⁎
Robinson Ramirez-Velezd, Paulo Gentile, Mikel Izquierdof,
a
Universidad de Los Lagos, Department of Physical Activity Sciences, Research Nucleus in Health, Physical Activity and Sport, Laboratory of Measurement and Assessment
in Sport, Osorno, Chile
b
Laboratorio de Ciencias de la Actividad Física, el Deporte y la Salud, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, USACH, Chile
c
Human Nutrition Research Center, Institute of Cellular Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, United Kingdom
d
Centro de Estudios para la Medición de la Actividad Física “CEMA”, Escuela de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad del Rosario, Bogotá, D.C. 111221,
Colombia
e
Faculdade de Educação Física e Dança, Universidade Federal de Goias, Goiânia, Brazil
f
Department of Health Sciences, Public University of Navarre, CIBER of Frailty and Healthy Aging (CIBERFES), Navarrabiomed, Pamplona, Navarre, Spain

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Section Editor: Christiaan Leeuwenburgh Objective: To compare the effects of 12 weeks of high-speed resistance training on functional performance and
Keywords: quality of life in elderly women when using either a traditional-set (TS) or a cluster-set (CS) configuration for
Strength training inter-set rest.
Resistance training Methods: Three groups of subjects were formed by block-design randomization as follows: (i) control group (CG,
Aging n = 17; age, 66.5 ± 5.4 years); (ii) 12-week high-speed resistance training group under a CS configuration
Women (CSG, n = 15; age, 67.6 ± 5.4 years); and (iii) 12-week high-speed resistance training group under a TS con-
Power output figuration (TSG, n = 20; age, 68.0 ± 5.3 years). Training was undertaken three times per week, including high-
Older adult
speed resistance training exercises. The main difference between the training groups was the recovery set
structure. In the TSG, women rested for 150 s after each set of eight repetitions, whereas the CSG used an interest
rest redistribution, such that after two consecutive repetitions, a 30-s rest was allowed.
Results: Group × test interactions were observed for a 10-m walking speed test, an 8-foot up-and-go test, a sit-to-
stand test, and physical quality of life (p < 0.05; d = 0.12–0.81). The main results suggest that both training
methods improve functional performance and quality of life, however, the CS configuration induced significantly
greater improvements in functional performance and quality of life than the TS configuration.
Conclusion: These results should be considered when designing appropriate and better resistance training pro-
grams for older adults.

1. Introduction et al., 2002; Martinikorena et al., 2016). Therefore, adopting strategies

Functional capacity shows a progressive decline with aging,
reaching a reduction of as much as 40% between 60 and 90 years (Rikli
and Jones, 2013); this decline might be associated with many factors,
such as decreases in muscle mass, strength and power (Byrne et al.,
2016). The ability to exert high force at higher velocities show a pro-
nounced and particularly sharp decline with age, with an even more
pronounced decline than that in muscle mass and strength (Edwen
et al., 2014). This loss of muscle power has been associated with an
increased risk of falling and with impairments in quality of life, cog-
nitive function and functional performance (Alcazar et al., 2018; Bean
that aim to preserve or increase muscle power might be of great im-
portance to older people. One common strategy to attain this goal is
through high-velocity resistance training (HVRT). In agreement with
this suggestion, previous studies have shown that HVRT is able to in-
crease muscle functionality largely than traditional resistance training
in older people (Ramirez-Campillo et al., 2014, 2016, 2017).
Notwithstanding its potential benefits, a discussion about the fea-
sibility of HVRT has emerged (Cadore and Izquierdo, 2018; Cadore
et al., 2018), and more information is needed on how to implement this
type of activity. One possible strategy to perform HVRT in the elderly
might be using cluster sets (CS), which involves performing resistance

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mikel.izquierdo@gmail.com (M. Izquierdo).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exger.2018.06.014
Received 21 April 2018; Received in revised form 9 May 2018; Accepted 12 June 2018
Available online 15 June 2018
0531-5565/ © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
R. Ramirez-Campillo et al.
training with short breaks between the sets, allowing the performance
of the exercise at lower fatigue levels. Previous studies in young men
have shown that 8 weeks of training at lower fatigue levels is associated
with higher increases in muscle power (Pareja-Blanco et al., 2017), and
CS have been shown to acutely improve muscle power when compared
to traditional RT (Garcia-Ramos et al., 2015; Haff et al., 2003), as well
as after 12 weeks of training (Oliver et al., 2013). However, the effects
of CS on functional capacity and quality of life in older people are still
unknown. It is important to note that while RT is mainly associated
with increases in muscle power, strength and hypertrophy, it can also
improve other important health outcomes in the elderly, including
functional capacity and quality of life after interventions of between 10
and 12 weeks (Barbalho et al., 2017; Fiatarone et al., 1994; Ramirez-
Campillo et al., 2016). Therefore, the aim of the present study was to
compare the effects of HVRT performed with CS or following a tradi-
tional protocol on functionality and quality of life in older women.
It was hypothesized that high-speed resistance training performed
with CS would be associated with greater improvements in functional
performance and quality of life in older women than high-speed re-
sistance training completed under a TS configuration.
2. Methods
To compare the effects of 12 weeks of high-speed resistance training on
functional performance and quality of life in elderly women using either a
TS or a CS configuration, three groups of subjects were randomly formed.
A block-design randomization sequence was generated electronically at
https://www.randomizer.org and concealed until interventions were as-
signed. This procedure was established according to the “CONSORT”
statement (http://www.consort-statement.org). A graphical description of
the randomization process is illustrated in Fig. 1. One group of women was
deemed the control group (CG, n = 17; age, 66.5 ± 5.4 years; age range,
60–83 years; body mass, 64.0 ± 8.1 kg; height, 147.9 ± 5.3 cm; body
mass index 29.4 ± 4.1, kg·m−2; resting heart rate,
−1
74.0 ± 9.7 beats·min ; systolic blood pressure, 148.4 ± 18.3 mm Hg;
diastolic blood pressure, 76.2 ± 9.0 mm Hg). A second group completed a
12-week high-speed resistance training program, with three sets per
Fig. 1. CONSORT diagram of recruitment and randomization process.
Abbreviations: CG: control group; CSG: cluster-set group; TSG: traditional-set group.
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Experimental Gerontology 110 (2018) 216–222
exercise, under a CS configuration (CSG, n = 15; age, 67.6 ± 5.4 years;
age range, 61–77 years, body mass, 70.2 ± 9.3 kg; height,
151.7 ± 4.5 cm; body mass index 30.6 ± 4.2 kg·m−2; resting heart rate,
70.2 ± 8.3 beats·min−1; systolic blood pressure, 152.0 ± 15.7 mm Hg;
diastolic blood pressure, 78.7 ± 9.1 mm Hg). A third group underwent
the same high-speed resistance training program as the CSG but under a
TS configuration (TSG, n = 20; age, 68.0 ± 5.3 years; age range,
60–78 years; body mass, 64.2 ± 6.8 kg; height, 149.5 ± 5.3 cm; body
mass index, 28.8 ± 3.4 kg·m−2; resting heart rate,
71.8 ± 10.0 beats·min−1; systolic blood pressure, 141.8 ± 17.3 mm Hg;
diastolic blood pressure, 74.8 ± 8. 7 mm Hg).
2.1. Subjects
Initially, 92 older women of Hispanic descent were considered for
participation in the study. Subjects with similar (1276 ± 626 MET/
min/week) physical activity levels were recruited, and women from the
three groups were periodically asked (i.e., three times per week) to
notate their habitual physical activity levels throughout the interven-
tion. Participants met the following inclusion criteria: (a) healthy by
self-report (i.e., completion of the revised physical activity readiness
questionnaire for older adults); (b) free (by self-report) of a history of
heart disease, osteoarthritis, severe visual impairment, neurological
disease, pulmonary disease requiring the use of oxygen, uncontrolled
hypertension, hip fracture, or lower extremity joint replacement in the
past 6 months, and no current participation in structured resistance
training exercise or previous participation in resistance training in the
past 6 months. Subjects taking medications considered to affect de-
pendent variables (e.g., conjugated estrogen) were excluded from the
study. To be included in the final analyses, participants who met the
inclusion criteria also needed to complete ≥90% of all training sessions
(≥33 of 36 sessions) and attend all assessment sessions. Of the 92
women initially considered for inclusion in the study, 4 were excluded
due to a history of heart disease, 4 due to a preexisting diagnosis of
osteoarthritis, and 2 due to a history of hip fracture. Additionally, 8
women did not attend all baseline measurement sessions. Therefore, 74
women were finally included and randomly divided into the CG, CSG
R. Ramirez-Campillo et al.
and TSG. However, 8 women from the CG did not attend all measure-
ment sessions after the intervention, and 14 women from both the CSG
and the TSG did not attend ≥90% of all training sessions due to “lack of
time” or “lack of motivation”. Therefore, 52 older women were in-
cluded in the final analyses.
Apart from routine daily tasks of the three groups included in the
study, the CSG and the TSG underwent a high-speed resistance training
program (i.e., three sessions per week over 12 weeks). All participants
were carefully informed about the experimental procedures and pos-
sible risks and benefits associated with participation in the study, and
each signed an informed consent document before any of the tests were
performed. The study was conducted in accordance with the latest
version of the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the ethics
committee of the responsible department. The sample size was com-
puted according to the changes observed in peak muscle power per-
formance (Δ = 155 W; SD = 25) in a group of older adults subjected to
the same high-speed resistance training program applied in this study
(Henwood et al., 2008). A statistical power analysis revealed that eight
participants per group would yield a power of 80% and α = 0.05.
2.2. Testing procedures
Protocols that had been previously used in several studies assessing
musculoskeletal function in older people (Ramirez-Campillo et al.,
2014, 2016, 2017) were used in this study. Testing procedures were
applied to all groups at baseline (T1) and after 12 weeks of training
(T2). The subjects followed a familiarization session of 90 min before
testing to reduce the effects of any differences in learning. The stan-
dardized tests were completed in two sessions separated by at least
48 h. In the first testing session, body mass, standing height, resting
heart rate and blood pressure were assessed, and the patients under-
went an 8-foot up-and-go test and a sit-to-stand test. In the second
session, quality of life and walking velocity were assessed among the
women. All tests were administered at the same location, in the same
order, at the same time of day (i.e., 10:00–13:00 h), and by the same
investigator, whom was blinded to the training group of the partici-
pants. Women were asked to wear the same athletic clothing during
each testing session and were motivated to give their maximum effort
during performance testing.
2.3. Anthropometric and metabolic measures
Standing height (m) and body mass (kg) were assessed according to
international standards for anthropometric assessment. To evaluate
height and body mass, a stadiometer/mechanical scale (SECA, model
220, Hamburg, Germany) with precisions of 0.1 cm and 0.1 kg, re-
spectively, was used. These parameters were assessed before any phy-
sical performance test. Subjects were tested while wearing light
clothing (shoes were removed). Body mass index (BMI) was calculated
(kg·m−2). Before resting heart rate and blood pressure measurements,
subjects rested quietly for 10 min in a comfortable chair, and then, the
two measurements were made with an automatic heart rate/blood
pressure measuring device (Omron Healthcare Inc., Vernon Hills, IL,
USA), with 1 min between measurements, following a previously de-
scribed protocol for older women (Rossow et al., 2014).
2.4. 10-m walking speed test
Subjects were instructed to perform three maximum-effort walking
for 10-m. Participants were instructed to walk as fast as possible,
without running. The time was measured to the nearest 0.01 s using
single-beam infrared photoelectric cells (Ergotester, Globus, Codogne,
Italy). The starting position was standardized to a still split standing
position with the toe of the preferred foot forward and behind the
starting line. Participants started the test when they were ready. The
photoelectric signal was positioned at 10-m and set ~0.7 m above the
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Experimental Gerontology 110 (2018) 216–222
floor (i.e., hip level) to capture trunk movement rather than a false
trigger from a limb. Subjects performed the three trials separated by
3 min of rest on an indoor wooden track. The best result was chosen for
analysis.
2.5. The 8-foot up-and-go test (UG)
The test consisted of standing up from a chair, walking 2.44 m, and
turning and returning to the initial seated position. The test was ad-
ministered according to previously described instructions (Ramirez-
Campillo et al., 2014). Subjects performed three trials, with 3 min of
rest between them, on an indoor wooden track. The best result was
chosen for analysis.
2.6. Sit-to-stand test (STS)
The test consisted of standing up from a chair and returning to the
initial seated position, completing as many repetitions as possible in
30 s. The test was administered according to previously described in-
structions (Ramirez-Campillo et al., 2014). Subjects performed two
trials with at least 4 min of rest between them. The best result was
chosen for analysis.
2.7. Quality of life—the menopause-specific quality of life questionnaire
(MENQOL)
Subjects completed the MENQOL during a structured interview,
with a validated Spanish version of the questionnaire for older women
(Blumel et al., 2000). The MENQOL has 30 questions divided into four
areas of well-being: vasomotor, psychosocial, physical, and sexual. Each
question explores the intensity of a perceived symptom, quantified with
an integer rating scale between 0 (no discomfort) and 7 (great dis-
comfort). The mean score for each area was used for analysis.
2.8. High-speed resistance training protocol
Training was undertaken three times per week (usually between
11:00 and 12:00) based on previous interventions (Ramirez-Campillo
et al., 2014, 2016, 2017). A brief overview of the training program is
shown in Table 1.
Briefly, training consisted of a 10-min warm-up that included
walking and mild stretching, resistance training exercises (i.e., bench
press, standing upper row, biceps curl, leg press, prone leg curl, leg
extension), medicine ball throwing, CMJs, abdominal crunches, and
prone superman exercises (i.e., the aim of the last two was to target core
Table 1
Twelve weeks high-speed resistance training protocol.
Exercisesa Sets × reps Intensity (%1RM)
Bench press 3×8 b
45–75% 1RM
Standing upper row
Biceps curl
Leg press
Prone leg curl
Leg extension
2 kg medicine ball throwing Maximal (throwing distance)
Countermovement jump Maximal (jump height)
Prone superman 3 × 10–12 Moderate
Abdominal crunches 3 × 10–12 Moderate
a
All repetitions were completed using a concentric muscle action as fast as
possible and an eccentric muscle action of 3 s, except for the abdominal crun-
ches and the prone “superman” exercises, were concentric and eccentric muscle
actions were completed using 3 s.
b
The traditional-set group rested for 150 s after each set of eight repetitions,
whereas the cluster-set group used an interest rest redistribution, such that after
two consecutive repetitions, a rest of 30 s was allowed.
R. Ramirez-Campillo et al. Experimental Gerontology 110 (2018) 216–222

Table 2
Baseline and changes in dependent variables after 12 weeks of intervention.
CSG (n = 15) TSG (n = 20) CG (n = 17) ANOVA outcomes

Group F(2, 49), p-value (d) Time F(1, 49), p-value (d) Group × time F(2, 49), p-value (d)

10-m walking speed test (s) F = 3.2, p = 0.06 (0.11) F = 81.9, p < 0.001 (0.63) F = 96.1, p < 0.001 (0.81)
Pre 5.0 ± 0.6 5.2 ± 1.0 5.0 ± 0.7
Post 4.1 ± 0.4 4.9 ± 1.0 5.2 ± 0.8
8-Foot up-and-go test (s) F = 1.2, p = 0.31 (0.05) F = 57.7, p < 0.001 (0.54) F = 18.6, p < 0.001 (0.43)
Pre 7.9 ± 1.6 7.2 ± 1.3 7.5 ± 1.5
Post 6.6 ± 1.4 6.5 ± 1.3 7.6 ± 1.5
Sit-to-stand test (repetitions) F = 1.4, p = 0.25 (0.06) F = 42.3, p < 0.001 (0.46) F = 5.7, p < 0.01 (0.19)
Pre 11.7 ± 2.8 12.5 ± 2.5 11.7 ± 2.2
Post 14.0 ± 3.4 14.3 ± 3.3 12.1 ± 2.4
Vasomotor quality of life (points) F = 1.8, p = 0.18 (0.07) F = 1.9, p = 0.17 (0.04) F = 3.1, p = 0.06 (0.11)
Pre 1.4 ± 1.3 1.8 ± 2.0 2.3 ± 1.9
Post 1.2 ± 1.1 1.5 ± 1.5 2.5 ± 2.0
Psychosocial quality of life (points) F = 3.1, p = 0.06 (0.11) F = 10.6, p < 0.05 (0.18) F = 1.9, p = 0.15 (0.08)
Pre 1.2 ± 0.8 1.8 ± 1.2 1.6 ± 0.9
Post 0.7 ± 0.5 1.5 ± 1.0 1.5 ± 0.9
Physical quality of life (points) F = 0.1, p = 0.89 (0.01) F = 12.7, p < 0.001 (0.21) F = 3.2, p = 0.04 (0.12)
Pre 2.2 ± 0.8 2.4 ± 1.0 1.9 ± 1.0
Post 1.7 ± 0.5 1.7 ± 0.7 1.9 ± 0.8
Sexual quality of life (points) F = 0.6, p = 0.55 (0.02) F = 2.2, p = 0.15 (0.04) F = 0.9, p = 0.41 (0.04)
Pre 4.4 ± 2.7 3.7 ± 2.2 3.4 ± 1.9
Post 4.0 ± 2.4 3.5 ± 2.1 3.4 ± 1.7

CG: control group; CSG: cluster-set configuration group; TSG: traditional-set configuration group.

stabilizers) and concluded with a cool-down. A combination of free
weights and machine resistance training exercises was used. Training
sessions for both groups lasted ~60 min and were separated by a
minimum of 48 h. Participants from both resistance training groups
completed three sets (at 45%, 60%, and 75% of their baseline 1RM) of
each resistance training exercise, with eight repetitions for each set. The
cluster-set group also completed eight repetitions per set but with an
interest rest redistribution, such that after two consecutive repetitions,
a rest of 30 s was allowed. All repetitions were completed using a
concentric muscle action as fast as possible and an eccentric muscle
action of 3 s. A metronome was used to assure control of movement
speed during the eccentric portion of the resistance exercises. To ac-
complish the training principle of overload, the resistance was in-
creased when the participants were able to lift ≥1 more than the
planned repetitions for the final set (i.e., 75% 1RM) as previously de-
scribed (Ramirez-Campillo et al., 2014). In this case, the resistance was
increased approximately 1–5% for the three sets performed. Thus, al-
though baseline 1RM values were not adjusted (i.e., no maximal
strength measurements were performed halfway between T1 and T2),
the progressive overload system used allowed the adjustment of
training loads (i.e., weights) in both experimental groups proportion-
ally to their maximal strength adaptations.
In addition, subjects completed three sets of eight repetitions of ball
throwing with a 2-kg medicine ball and three sets of eight repetitions of
CMJs, with maximal concentric effort during both high-speed exercises.
For abdominal crunches and the prone superman exercises, three sets of
10–12 repetitions were completed, using a concentric and eccentric
muscle action of 3-s. Training sessions were performed under the direct
supervision of strength and conditioning coaches to ensure safety and
the maintenance of the exercise protocol. For both training groups a
supervisor-to-subject ratio method of 1:1 was used. The strength and
conditioning coaches were oriented to (a) control training attendance
and administration (i.e., check participants' training logs after each
training session and help them to complete the logs); (b) provide
technical instruction, feedback, and motivation (especially during the
concentric portion of the resistance training exercises) to assure ade-
quate training intensity; (c) provide social and mental support; and (d)
exhibit a supportive attitude and avoid over-expectation. None of the
coaches were aware of the purpose of the study. In order to assess the
occurrence of potential adverse events, perceived muscle soreness was
evaluated during training sessions, testing sessions, and delayed re-
sponses to training and testing sessions, by use of an illustrated 10-point
visual analog scale, as previously suggested (Marginson et al., 2005).
Participants completed a 90° squat in order to assess muscle soreness in
their thigh. Special care was considered to equal volume, intensity, and
attendance to training between CSG and TSG during the 12-week in-
tervention period. The difference between groups was the recovery set
structure. For the TSG, women rested for 150-s after each set of eight
repetitions, whereas the CSG used an interest rest redistribution, such
that after two consecutive repetitions, a rest of 30-s was allowed
(Tufano et al., 2017). In this sense, both groups used the same total
amount of rest during the completion of the repetitions for a given high-
speed resistance exercise.
2.9. Statistical analysis
Data are presented as group mean values ± standard deviations.
Normality and homoscedasticity assumptions for all data before and
after intervention were checked with Shapiro-Wilk and Levene tests,
respectively. Differences between groups at baseline were investigated
using one-way ANOVA test. To establish the effects of the interventions
on health-related outcomes, ANOVA with repeated measures (3 groups
[CG, TSG, and CSG] × 2 time points (pre and post-test)) were per-
formed. Post hoc tests with a Bonferroni-adjusted α were conducted to
identify comparisons that were statistically significant. Effect sizes were
determined by calculating Cohen's d values, classified as trivial (d,
≤0.19), small (d, 0.20–0.49), medium (d, 0.50–0.79), and large effects
(d ≥ 0.80) (Cohen, 1988). Statistical analyses were conducted using
STATISTICA statistical package (Version 8.0; StatSoft, Inc., Tulsa).
Significance level was set at α = 5%. Tests' reliability was determined
using the intra-class correlation coefficient, with threshold set at ≥0.80
(Hopkins, 2000).
3. Results
No injuries occurred in any of the subjects during the completion of
this study. Moreover, although participants described mild levels (< 4)
of muscle soreness after the initial testing and training sessions, none of

219
R. Ramirez-Campillo et al.
them suspended training or their normal daily live activities due to
muscle soreness.
There were no significant (all p > 0.05, d = 0.01–0.11) baseline
differences between-groups for all dependent variables (Table 2). The
main effects of group, time, and the group × time interaction are
shown in Table 2.
Results revealed significant main effects of test for 10-m walking
speed test, 8-foot up-and-go test, sit-to-stand test, psychosocial quality
of life, and physical quality of life (p < 0.05; d = 0.18–0.63).
Group × test interactions were observed for 10-m walking speed
test, 8-foot up-and-go test, sit-to-stand test, and physical quality of life
(all p < 0.05; d = 0.12–0.81).
For CSG, post hoc analyses revealed significant increases in 10-m
walking speed test (Δ15.1%, d = 1.33), 8-foot up-and-go test (Δ15.1%,
d = 0.79), sit-to-stand test (Δ19.9%, d = 0.61), and physical quality of
life (Δ24.8%, d = 0.65). Additionally, for the TSG, post hoc analyses
showed significant increases in 10-m walking speed test (Δ6.6%,
d = 0.33), 8-foot up-and-go test (Δ8.9%, d = 0.46), and sit-to-stand test
(Δ13.7%, d = 0.56). Moreover, when the TSG were compared, greater
improvements for the CSG were observed in 10-m walking speed test
(p < 0.001; d = 0.85), 8-foot up-and-go test (p < 0.001; d = 0.46),
sit-to-stand test (p < 0.01; d = 0.21), and physical quality of life
(p < 0.05; d = 0.21) (Fig. 2 A, B, C and D, respectively). No pre-post
performance improvements were observed in the CG.
4. Discussion
The aim of the present study was to compare the effects of 12 weeks
of high-speed resistance training on functional performance and quality
of life in elderly women when using either a TS or a CS configuration.
The main results suggest that both training methods led to favorable
Fig. 2. Changes in A) 10 m walking sprint, B) 8-foot up and go test, C) sit-to-stand test, and D) physical quality of life before (white columns) and after (grey columns)
12 weeks of high-speed resistance training in elderly women, using either a traditional-set, cluster-set configuration for the inter-set rest, or a control condition. *:
denote difference compared to the control group in the pre-post change; #: denote difference compared to the traditional-set group in the pre-post change.
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Experimental Gerontology 110 (2018) 216–222
improvements in functional performance (i.e., 10-m walking speed test,
8-foot up-and-go test, and sit-to-stand test) and quality of life. However,
the CS configuration led to greater improvements in functional per-
formance (i.e., 10-m walking speed test, 8-foot up-and-go test, and sit-
to-stand test) and quality of life (i.e., physical quality of life) than the TS
configuration.
Walking is an essential part of daily living, and even a performance
increase of 0.1 m·s−1 in walking speed has been associated with in-
creased survival, especially in older women (Studenski et al., 2011).
Additionally, improvements in this physical capability may reduce the
difficulty with which older women perform their daily living activities,
giving them the possibility of better walking habits and, hence, im-
proved health (Mosallanezhad et al., 2014). In this sense, our results
show that both CSG and TSG improved in the 10-m walking speed test
(d = 1.33 and d = 0.33, respectively), similar to previous high-speed
strength training interventions in older women (Ramirez-Campillo
et al., 2014, 2016, 2017). However, performance in the 10-m walking
speed test was more notably improved in the CSG than in the TSG
(d = 0.85). This improvement in the CSG may be associated with a
greater peak rate of torque development in the hip, knee, and calf
muscle groups (Morcelli et al., 2018), which is commonly observed
after high-speed resistance training in older adults (Izquierdo and
Cadore, 2014). This, in turn, may be associated with greater concentric
movement velocities during CS (Sanchez-Medina and Gonzalez-Badillo,
2011), which significantly induce a greater rate of torque development
(i.e., power output) (Tufano et al., 2016). Gains in walking performance
can be maintained during prolonged periods (i.e., 24 weeks), even if
resistance training is discontinued (Hakkinen et al., 2000); thus, the
benefits of resistance training, especially high-speed resistance training,
can be maintained for long periods of detraining. This feature may be
especially important for older women enrolled in training programs
R. Ramirez-Campillo et al.
that are discontinued during certain times (i.e., summer time holidays;
disease).
In accordance with previous findings (Ramirez-Campillo et al.,
2014, 2016, 2017), we found that both high-speed resistance training
methods induced significant improvement in the 8-foot up-and-go test
(d = 0.79 and d = 0.46, respectively) and the sit-to-stand test
(d = 0.61 and d = 0.56, respectively). However, the improvement was
greater in the CSG than in the TSG (d = 0.46 and d = 0.21, respec-
tively), supporting the fact that high-speed resistance training under a
CS configuration may be a better resistance training strategy for in-
creasing functional performance in older women. As previously dis-
cussed, muscle power development may have been especially promoted
with high-speed resistance training programs using the CS versus TS
configuration, which may be particularly true in older participants, as
they are at greater risk of fatigue during high-speed muscle contractions
(Kent-Braun, 2009). Because muscle power is more closely associated
with functional task performance and risk of falling than maximal
strength in older women (Schoene et al., 2013), these observations may
help explain the greater 8-foot up-and-go test and sit-to-stand test
performance changes observed in the CSG than in the TSG. The im-
provements may suggest reduced neuromuscular wasting processes
(Tseng et al., 1995), morphological and neural adaptations in the lower-
limbs (Pinto et al., 2014; Wallerstein et al., 2012), and better survival
(Studenski et al., 2011). Therefore, our results reinforce the notion that
high-speed resistance training can be useful in counteracting the neu-
rological and morphological aging-associated wasting processes
(Cadore and Izquierdo, 2018) and that key daily living functional
performance tasks, can be markedly improved with high-speed re-
sistance training in older women, especially when a CS configuration is
employed.
Regarding quality of life, both training programs lead to its im-
provement. Since functional performance is associated with quality of
life in older people (Woo et al., 2016) and quality of life was improved
in both groups, changes in functional performance may help explain the
quality of life improvements. Some studies have demonstrated that
high-velocity resistance training is effective at improving quality of life
in older adults (Katula et al., 2008; Ramirez-Campillo et al., 2017),
confirming that this program might be applied to counter physical
performance decrements among older women, which might lead not
only to reduced morbidity and mortality but also to better quality of life
among older women. In addition, the present study suggests that the CS
configuration is more effective at improving quality of life than the TS
configuration and, therefore, seems to be a better resistance program
design.
Of note, no injuries occurred during the intervention. Moreover,
participants described only mild levels (< 4) of muscle soreness after
the initial training sessions. These observations agree with previous
findings, where injuries from high-speed resistance training are un-
common (Ramirez-Campillo et al., 2014, 2016, 2017) and only of
minor-intensity when they actually occur (Uusi-Rasi et al., 2003),
which did not preclude individuals from partaking in the training or
normal daily activities. This contrast with the common falls among
older adults, especially older females, which can cause severe injuries
and even death (Eddy, 1972), while the costs of rehabilitation represent
a major public health issue (Ding et al., 2016). Therefore, current re-
sults demonstrate that high-speed resistance training are not only ef-
fective to improve functional performance and quality of life in elderly
females, but are also safe. These findings are important to consider by
the medical and allied health professionals in order to include more
advanced resistance training approaches for older adults.
A possible limitation of the present study was the absence of more
physiological measurements, which may have helped in better under-
standing the underlying mechanisms of high-speed resistance training-
induced adaptations under the CS and TS configurations. Moreover,
further studies should aim to replicate current results with greater
samples sizes of older females, and also older males, including long-
221
Experimental Gerontology 110 (2018) 216–222
term follow-up. In addition, future studies should be conducted re-
garding the feasibility of such exercise program, as well as the parti-
cipant's perceptions of these programs. Further, more research is
needed to elucidate the optimal combination of current exercise inter-
vention into a mixed training approach, including aerobic exercise,
balance, and other meaningful training techniques for older adults.
However, several strengths should also be acknowledged, such as the
novel training approach and the use of standardized protocols and va-
lidated tests of physical function.
In conclusion, both the CS and TS configurations during high-speed
resistance training interventions are effective at improving functional
performance and quality of life in older women; however, a high-speed
resistance training program under a CS configuration leads to greater
improvements than that under a TS configuration.
4.1. Practical applications
A high-speed resistance training intervention under a CS config-
uration is an effective, safe, and efficient strategy to achieve significant
and clinically relevant improvements in functional capacity relevant to
daily life activities and the quality of life of older women. These results
should be considered when designing appropriate and better resistance
training programs for older adults.
Conflict of interest
The authors have no conflicts of interests.
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