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Stress (mechanics)

In continuum mechanics, stress is a physical quantity that expresses the internal


Stress
forces that neighboring particles of a continuous material exert on each other, while
strain is the measure of the deformation of the material. For example, when a solid
vertical bar is supporting an overhead weight, each particle in the bar pushes on the
particles immediately below it. When a liquid is in a closed container under
pressure, each particle gets pushed against by all the surrounding particles. The
container walls and the pressure-inducing surface (such as a piston) push against
them in (Newtonian) reaction. These macroscopic forces are actually the net result of
a very large number of intermolecular forces and collisions between the particles in
those molecules. Stress is frequently represented by a lowercase Greek letter sigma
Residual stresses inside a plastic
(σ).
protractor are revealed by the
Strain inside a material may arise by various mechanisms, such as stress as applied polarized light.
by external forces to the bulk material (like gravity) or to its surface (like contact Common σ
forces, external pressure, or friction). Any strain (deformation) of a solid material symbols
generates an internal elastic stress, analogous to the reaction force of a spring, that SI unit Pascal
tends to restore the material to its original non-deformed state. In liquids and gases, Other units lbf per square inch
only deformations that change the volume generate persistent elastic stress.
(psi)
However, if the deformation is gradually changing with time, even in fluids there
In SI base Pa = kg⋅m−1⋅s−2
will usually be some viscous stress, opposing that change. Elastic and viscous
units
stresses are usually combined under the namemechanical stress.
Dimension M L−1 T−2
Significant stress may exist even when deformation is negligible or non-existent (a
common assumption when modeling the flow of water). Stress may exist in the
absence of external forces; such built-in stress is important, for example, in
prestressed concrete and tempered glass. Stress may also be imposed on a material
without the application of net forces, for example by changes in temperature or
chemical composition, or by external electromagnetic fields (as in piezoelectric and
magnetostrictive materials).
Mechanic stress
The relation between mechanical stress, deformation, and the rate of change of
deformation can be quite complicated, although a linear approximation may be
adequate in practice if the quantities are small enough. Stress that exceeds certain strength limits of the material will result in
permanent deformation (such asplastic flow, fracture, cavitation) or even change its crystal structure and chemical composition.

In some branches of engineering, the term stress is occasionally used in a looser sense as a synonym of "internal force". For example,
in the analysis of trusses, it may refer to the total traction or compression force acting on a beam, rather than the force divided by the
area of its cross-section.

Contents
History
Overview
Simple stress
General stress
Stress analysis
Alternative measures of stress
See also
References
Further reading

History
Since ancient times humans have been consciously aware of stress inside materials.
Until the 17th century, the understanding of stress was largely intuitive and
empirical; and yet it resulted in some surprisingly sophisticated technology, like the
composite bow and glass blowing.[1]

Over several millennia, architects and builders, in particular, learned how to put Roman-era bridge in Switzerland
together carefully shaped wood beams and stone blocks to withstand, transmit, and
distribute stress in the most effective manner, with ingenious devices such as the
capitals, arches, cupolas, trusses and the flying buttresses of Gothic cathedrals.

Ancient and medieval architects did develop some geometrical methods and simple
formulas to compute the proper sizes of pillars and beams, but the scientific
understanding of stress became possible only after the necessary tools were invented
in the 17th and 18th centuries: Galileo Galilei's rigorous experimental method, René
Descartes's coordinates and analytic geometry, and Newton's laws of motion and
equilibrium and calculus of infinitesimals.[2] With those tools, Augustin-Louis
Inca bridge on the Apurimac River
Cauchy was able to give the first rigorous and general mathematical model for stress
in a homogeneous medium. Cauchy observed that the force across an imaginary
surface was a linear function of its normal vector; and, moreover
, that it must be a symmetric function (with zero total momentum).

The understanding of stress in liquids started with Newton, who provided a differential formula for friction forces (shear stress) in
parallel laminar flow.

Overview

Definition
Stress is defined as the force across a "small" boundary per unit area of that boundary, for all orientations of the boundary.[3] Being
derived from a fundamental physical quantity (force) and a purely geometrical quantity (area), stress is also a fundamental quantity,
like velocity, torque or energy, that can be quantified and analyzed without explicit consideration of the nature of the material or of its
physical causes.

Following the basic premises of continuum mechanics, stress is a macroscopic concept. Namely, the particles considered in its
definition and analysis should be just small enough to be treated as homogeneous in composition and state, but still large enough to
ignore quantum effects and the detailed motions of molecules. Thus, the force between two particles is actually the average of a very
large number of atomic forces between their molecules; and physical quantities like mass, velocity, and forces that act through the
bulk of three-dimensional bodies, like gravity, are assumed to be smoothly distributed over them.[4]:p.90–106 Depending on the
context, one may also assume that the particles are large enough to allow the averaging out of other microscopic features, like the
grains of a metal rod or the fibers of a piece of wood.
Quantitatively, the stress is expressed by the Cauchy traction vector T defined as the
traction force F between adjacent parts of the material across an imaginary separating
surface S, divided by the area of S.[5]:p.41–50 In a fluid at rest the force is perpendicular
to the surface, and is the familiar pressure. In a solid, or in a flow of viscous liquid, the
force F may not be perpendicular to S; hence the stress across a surface must be
regarded a vector quantity, not a scalar. Moreover, the direction and magnitude generally
depend on the orientation ofS. Thus the stress state of the material must be described by
a tensor, called the (Cauchy) stress tensor; which is a linear function that relates the
normal vector n of a surface S to the stress T across S. With respect to any chosen
coordinate system, the Cauchy stress tensor can be represented as a symmetric matrix of
3×3 real numbers. Even within a homogeneous body, the stress tensor may vary from
place to place, and may change over time; therefore, the stress within a material is, in
general, a time-varyingtensor field.

The stress across a surface


element (yellow disk) is the force
Normal and shear stress
that the material on one side (top
In general, the stress T that a particle P applies on another particle Q across a surface S ball) exerts on the material on the
can have any direction relative to S. The vector T may be regarded as the sum of two other side (bottom ball), divided
components: the normal stress (compression or tension) perpendicular to the surface, by the area of the surface.
and the shear stress that is parallel to the surface.

If the normal unit vectorn of the surface (pointing from Q towards P) is assumed fixed, the normal component can be expressed by a
single number, the dot product T · n. This number will be positive ifP is "pulling" on Q (tensile stress), and negative if P is "pushing"
against Q (compressive stress) The shear component is then the vectorT − (T · n)n.

Units
The dimension of stress is that of pressure, and therefore its coordinates are commonly measured in the same units as pressure:
namely, pascals (Pa, that is, newtons per square metre) in the International System, or pounds per square inch (psi) in the Imperial
system. Because mechanical stresses easily exceed a million Pascals, MPa, which stands for megapascal, is a common unit of stress.

Causes and effects


Stress in a material body may be due to multiple physical causes, including external influences and internal physical processes. Some
of these agents (like gravity, changes in temperature and phase, and electromagnetic fields) act on the bulk of the material, varying
continuously with position and time. Other agents (like external loads and friction, ambient pressure, and contact forces) may create
stresses and forces that are concentrated on certain surfaces, lines, or points; and possibly also on very short time intervals (as in the
impulses due to collisions). In general, the stress distribution in the body is expressed as piecewise
a continuous function of space and
time.

Conversely, stress is usually correlated with various effects on the material, possibly including changes in physical properties like
birefringence, polarization, and permeability. The imposition of stress by an external agent usually creates some strain (deformation)
in the material, even if it is too small to be detected. In a solid material, such strain will in turn generate an internal elastic stress,
analogous to the reaction force of a stretched spring, tending to restore the material to its original undeformed state. Fluid materials
(liquids, gases and plasmas) by definition can only oppose deformations that would change their volume. However, if the
deformation is changing with time, even in fluids there will usually be some viscous stress, opposing that change.

The relation between stress and its effects and causes, including deformation and rate of change of deformation, can be quite
complicated (although a linear approximation may be adequate in practice if the quantities are small enough). Stress that exceeds
certain strength limits of the material will result in permanent deformation (such as plastic flow, fracture, cavitation) or even change
its crystal structure and chemical composition.
Simple stress
In some situations, the stress within a body may adequately be described by a single number,
or by a single vector (a number and a direction). Three such simple stress situations, that are
often encountered in engineering design, are the uniaxial normal stress, the simple shear
stress, and the isotropic normal stress.[7]

Uniaxial normal stress


A common situation with a simple stress pattern is when a straight rod, with uniform material
and cross section, is subjected to tension by opposite forces of magnitude along its axis. If
the system is in equilibrium and not changing with time, and the weight of the bar can be
neglected, then through each transversal section of the bar the top part must pull on the bottom
part with the same force, F with continuity through the full cross-sectional area, A. Therefore, Glass vase with the
the stress, σ throughout the bar, across any horizontal surface, can be expressed simply by the craquelé effect. The cracks
singly number σ, calculated simply with the magnitude of those forces, F and cross sectional are the result of brief but
area, A. intense stress created when
the semi-molten piece is
briefly dipped in water.[6]

On the other hand, if one imagines the bar being cut along its
length, parallel to the axis, there will be no force (hence no stress)
between the two halves across the cut.

This type of stress may be called (simple) normal stress or uniaxial stress;
specifically, (uniaxial, simple, etc.) tensile stress.[7] If the load is compression on
the bar, rather than stretching it, the analysis is the same except that the force F
and the stress change sign, and the stress is called compressive stress.

Idealized stress in a straight bar with


uniform cross-section.

This analysis assumes the stress is evenly distributed over the entire cross-
section. In practice, depending on how the bar is attached at the ends and how it
was manufactured, this assumption may not be valid. In that case, the value =
F/A will be only the average stress, called engineering stress or nominal stress.
However, if the bar's length L is many times its diameter D, and it has no gross
defects or built-in stress, then the stress can be assumed to be uniformly
distributed over any cross-section that is more than a few times D from both
The ratio may be only an
ends. (This observation is known as theSaint-Venant's principle).
average stress. The stress may be
unevenly distributed over the cross Normal stress occurs in many other situations besides axial tension and
section (m–m), especially near the
compression. If an elastic bar with uniform and symmetric cross-section is bent
attachment points (n–n).
in one of its planes of symmetry, the resulting bending stress will still be normal
(perpendicular to the cross-section), but will vary over the cross section: the
outer part will be under tensile stress, while the inner part will be compressed. Another variant of normal stress is the hoop stress that
occurs on the walls of a cylindricalpipe or vessel filled with pressurized fluid.
Simple shear stress
Another simple type of stress occurs when a uniformly thick layer of elastic
material like glue or rubber is firmly attached to two stiff bodies that are pulled
in opposite directions by forces parallel to the layer; or a section of a soft metal
bar that is being cut by the jaws of a scissors-like tool. Let F be the magnitude of
those forces, and M be the midplane of that layer. Just as in the normal stress
case, the part of the layer on one side ofM must pull the other part with the same
Shear stress in a horizontal bar loaded
force F. Assuming that the direction of the forces is known, the stress across M
by two offset blocks.
can be expressed simply by the single number , calculated simply with the
magnitude of those forces,F and the cross sectional area,A.

However, unlike normal stress, this simple shear stress is directed parallel to the cross-section considered,
rather than perpendicular to it.[7] For any plane S that is perpendicular to the layer, the net internal force
across S, and hence the stress, will be zero.

As in the case of an axially loaded bar, in practice the shear stress may not be uniformly distributed over the layer; so, as before, the
ratio F/A will only be an average ("nominal", "engineering") stress. However, that average is often sufficient for practical
purposes.[8]:p.292 Shear stress is observed also when a cylindrical bar such as a shaft is subjected to opposite torques at its ends. In
that case, the shear stress on each cross-section is parallel to the cross-section, but oriented tangentially relative to the axis, and
increases with distance from the axis. Significant shear stress occurs in the middle plate (the "web") of I-beams under bending loads,
due to the web constraining the end plates ("flanges").

Isotropic stress
Another simple type of stress occurs when the material body is under equal compression or tension in all directions. This is the case,
for example, in a portion of liquid or gas at rest, whether enclosed in some container or as part of a larger mass of fluid; or inside a
cube of elastic material that is being pressed or pulled on all six faces by equal perpendicular forces — provided, in both cases, that
the material is homogeneous, without built-in stress, and that the ef
fect of gravity and other external forces can be neglected.

In these situations, the stress across any imaginary internal surface turns out to be equal in magnitude and always directed
perpendicularly to the surface independently of the surface's orientation. This type of stress may be called isotropic normal or just
isotropic; if it is compressive, it is called hydrostatic pressure or just pressure. Gases by definition cannot withstand tensile stresses,
but some liquids may withstand surprisingly large amounts of isotropic tensile stress under some circumstances. seeZ-tube.

Cylinder stresses
Parts with rotational symmetry, such as wheels, axles, pipes, and pillars, are very common in engineering. Often the stress patterns
that occur in such parts have rotational or even cylindrical symmetry. The analysis of suchcylinder stresses can take advantage of the
symmetry to reduce the dimension of the domain and/or of the stress tensor
.

General stress
Often, mechanical bodies experience more than one type of stress at the same time; this is called combined stress. In normal and
shear stress, the magnitude of the stress is maximum for surfaces that are perpendicular to a certain direction , and zero across any
surfaces that are parallel to . When the shear stress is zero only across surfaces that are perpendicular to one particular direction, the
stress is called biaxial, and can be viewed as the sum of two normal or shear stresses. In the most general case, called triaxial stress,
the stress is nonzero across every surface element.
The Cauchy stress tensor

Isotropic tensile stress. Top left: Each


Components of stress in three dimensions face of a cube of homogeneous material
is pulled by a force with magnitudeF,
applied evenly over the entire face
Combined stresses cannot be described by a single vector. Even if the material is
whose area is A. The force across any
stressed in the same way throughout the volume of the body, the stress across
section S of the cube must balance the
any imaginary surface will depend on the orientation of that surface, in a non- forces applied below the section. In the
trivial way. three sections shown, the forces areF
(top right), F (bottom left), and F
However, Cauchy observed that the stress vector across a surface will always (bottom right); and the area ofS is
be a linear function of the surface's normal vector , the unit-length vector that A, A and A , respectively. So the
is perpendicular to it. That is, , where the function satisfies stress across S is F/A in all three cases.

for any vectors and any real numbers . The function , now called the
(Cauchy) stress tensor, completely describes the stress state of a uniformly
stressed body. (Today, any linear connection between two physical vector
quantities is called a tensor, reflecting Cauchy's original use to describe the
"tensions" (stresses) in a material.) In tensor calculus, is classified as second-
order tensor of type (0,2).

Like any linear map between vectors, the stress tensor can be represented in any
chosen Cartesian coordinate systemby a 3×3 matrix of real numbers. Depending
on whether the coordinates are numbered or named , the Illustration of typical stresses (arrows)
matrix may be written as across various surface elements on the
boundary of a particle (sphere), in a
homogeneous material under uniform
or (but not isotropic) triaxial stress. The
normal stresses on the principal axes
are +5, +2, and −3 units.

The stress vector across a surface with normal vector with coordinates is then a matrix product
(where T in upper index is transposition) (look onCauchy stress tensor), that is
The linear relation between and follows from the fundamental laws of conservation of linear momentum and static equilibrium
of forces, and is therefore mathematically exact, for any material and any stress situation. The components of the Cauchy stress
tensor at every point in a material satisfy the equilibrium equations (Cauchy’s equations of motion for zero acceleration). Moreover,
the principle of conservation of angular momentum implies that the stress tensor is symmetric, that is , , and
. Therefore, the stress state of the medium at any point and instant can be specified by only six independent parameters,
rather than nine. These may be written

where the elements are called the orthogonal normal stresses (relative to the chosen coordinate system), and
the orthogonal shear stresses.

Change of coordinates
The Cauchy stress tensor obeys the tensor transformation law under a change in the system of coordinates. A graphical representation
of this transformation law is theMohr's circle of stress distribution.

As a symmetric 3×3 real matrix, the stress tensor has three mutually orthogonal unit-length eigenvectors and three real
eigenvalues , such that . Therefore, in a coordinate system with axes , the stress tensor is a diagonal
matrix, and has only the three normal components the principal stresses. If the three eigenvalues are equal, the stress is an
isotropic compression or tension, always perpendicular to any surface, there is no shear stress, and the tensor is a diagonal matrix in
any coordinate frame.

Stress as a tensor field


In general, stress is not uniformly distributed over a material body, and may vary with time. Therefore, the stress tensor must be
defined for each point and each moment, by considering an infinitesimal particle of the medium surrounding that point, and taking
the average stresses in that particle as being the stresses at the point.

Stress in thin plates


Man-made objects are often made from stock plates of various materials by
operations that do not change their essentially two-dimensional character, like
cutting, drilling, gentle bending and welding along the edges. The description of
stress in such bodies can be simplified by modeling those parts as two-
dimensional surfaces rather than three-dimensional bodies.

In that view, one redefines a "particle" as being an infinitesimal patch of the


plate's surface, so that the boundary between adjacent particles becomes an
infinitesimal line element; both are implicitly extended in the third dimension,
A tank car made from bent and welded
normal to (straight through) the plate. "Stress" is then redefined as being a
steel plates.
measure of the internal forces between two adjacent "particles" across their
common line element, divided by the length of that line. Some components of
the stress tensor can be ignored, but since particles are not infinitesimal in the third dimension one can no longer ignore the torque
that a particle applies on its neighbors. That torque is modeled as a bending stress that tends to change the curvature of the plate.
However, these simplifications may not hold at welds, at sharp bends and creases (where the radius of curvature is comparable to the
thickness of the plate).

Stress in thin beams


The analysis of stress can be considerably simplified also for thin bars, beams or wires of uniform (or
smoothly varying) composition and cross-section that are subjected to moderate bending and twisting.
For those bodies, one may consider only cross-sections that are perpendicular to the bar's axis, and
redefine a "particle" as being a piece of wire with infinitesimal length between two such cross sections.
The ordinary stress is then reduced to a scalar (tension or compression of the bar), but one must take
into account also a bending stress (that tries to change the bar's curvature, in some direction
perpendicular to the axis) and atorsional stress (that tries to twist or un-twist it about its axis).

Other descriptions of stress


The Cauchy stress tensor is used for stress analysis of material bodies experiencing small deformations
where the differences in stress distribution in most cases can be neglected. For large deformations, also
called finite deformations, other measures of stress, such as the first and second Piola–Kirchhoff stress
For stress
tensors, the Biot stress tensor, and the Kirchhoff stress tensor, are required. modeling, a fishing
pole may be
Solids, liquids, and gases havestress fields. Static fluids support normal stress but will flow under shear
considered one-
stress. Moving viscous fluids can support shear stress (dynamic pressure). Solids can support both shear dimensional.
and normal stress, with ductile materials failing under shear and brittle materials failing under normal
stress. All materials have temperature dependent variations in stress-related properties, and non-
Newtonian materials have rate-dependent variations.

Stress analysis
Stress analysis is a branch of applied physics that covers the determination of the internal distribution of internal forces in solid
objects. It is an essential tool in engineering for the study and design of structures such as tunnels, dams, mechanical parts, and
structural frames, under prescribed or expected loads. It is also important in many other disciplines; for example, in geology, to study
phenomena like plate tectonics, vulcanism and avalanches; and in biology, to understand the anatomy of living beings.

Goals and assumptions


Stress analysis is generally concerned with objects and structures that can be assumed to be in macroscopic static equilibrium. By
Newton's laws of motion, any external forces are being applied to such a system must be balanced by internal reaction forces,[9]:p.97
which are almost always surface contact forces between adjacent particles — that is, as stress.[5] Since every particle needs to be in
equilibrium, this reaction stress will generally propagate from particle, creating a stress distribution throughout the body
.

The typical problem in stress analysis is to determine these internal stresses, given the external forces that are acting on the system.
The latter may be body forces (such as gravity or magnetic attraction), that act throughout the volume of a material;[10]:p.42–81 or
concentrated loads (such as friction between an axle and a bearing, or the weight of a train wheel on a rail), that are imagined to act
over a two-dimensional area, or along a line, or at single point.

In stress analysis one normally disregards the physical causes of the forces or the precise nature of the materials. Instead, one
assumes that the stresses are related to deformation (and, in non-static problems, to the rate of deformation) of the material by known
constitutive equations.[11]
Methods
Stress analysis may be carried out experimentally, by applying loads to the actual artifact or to scale model, and measuring the
resulting stresses, by any of several available methods. This approach is often used for safety certification and monitoring. However,
most stress analysis is done by mathematical methods, especially during design.

The basic stress analysis problem can be formulated byEuler's equations of motionfor continuous bodies (which are consequences of
Newton's laws for conservation of linear momentum and angular momentum) and the Euler-Cauchy stress principle, together with the
appropriate constitutive equations. Thus one obtains a system of partial differential equations involving the stress tensor field and the
strain tensor field, as unknown functions to be determined. The external body forces appear as the independent ("right-hand side")
term in the differential equations, while the concentrated forces appear as boundary conditions. The basic stress analysis problem is
therefore a boundary-value problem.

Stress analysis for elastic structures is based on the theory of elasticity and infinitesimal strain theory. When the applied loads cause
permanent deformation, one must use more complicated constitutive equations, that can account for the physical processes involved
(plastic flow, fracture, phase change, etc.).

However, engineered structures are usually designed so that the maximum expected stresses are well within the range of linear
elasticity (the generalization of Hooke’s law for continuous media); that is, the deformations caused by internal stresses are linearly
related to them. In this case the differential equations that define the stress tensor are linear, and the problem becomes much easier.
For one thing, the stress at any point will be a linear function of the loads, too. For small enough stresses, even non-linear systems
can usually be assumed to be linear.

Stress analysis is simplified when the physical dimensions and the distribution of
loads allow the structure to be treated as one- or two-dimensional. In the analysis
of trusses, for example, the stress field may be assumed to be uniform and
uniaxial over each member. Then the differential equations reduce to a finite set
of equations (usually linear) with finitely many unknowns. In other contexts one
may be able to reduce the three-dimensional problem to a two-dimensional one,
and/or replace the general stress and strain tensors by simpler models like
uniaxial tension/compression, simple shear, etc.
Simplified model of a truss for stress
Still, for two- or three-dimensional cases one must solve a partial differential analysis, assuming unidimensional
elements under uniform axial tension or
equation problem. Analytical or closed-form solutions to the differential
compression.
equations can be obtained when the geometry, constitutive relations, and
boundary conditions are simple enough. Otherwise one must generally resort to
numerical approximations such as thefinite element method, the finite difference method, and the boundary element method.

Alternative measures of stress


Other useful stress measures include the first and second Piola–Kirchhoff stress tensors, the Biot stress tensor, and the Kirchhoff
stress tensor.

Piola–Kirchhoff stress tensor


In the case of finite deformations, the Piola–Kirchhoff stress tensors express the stress relative to the reference configuration. This is
in contrast to the Cauchy stress tensor which expresses the stress relative to the present configuration. For infinitesimal deformations
and rotations, the Cauchy and Piola–Kirchhoff tensors are identical.

Whereas the Cauchy stress tensor relates stresses in the current configuration, the deformation gradient and strain tensors are
described by relating the motion to the reference configuration; thus not all tensors describing the state of the material are in either
the reference or current configuration. Describing the stress, strain and deformation either in the reference or current configuration
would make it easier to define constitutive models (for example, the Cauchy Stress tensor is variant to a pure rotation, while the
deformation strain tensor is invariant; thus creating problems in defining a constitutive model that relates a varying tensor, in terms of
an invariant one during pure rotation; as by definition constitutive models have to be invariant to pure rotations). The 1st Piola–
Kirchhoff stress tensor, is one possible solution to this problem. It defines a family of tensors, which describe the configuration of
the body in either the current or the reference state.

The 1st Piola–Kirchhoff stress tensor, relates forces in the present configuration with areas in the reference ("material")
configuration.

where is the deformation gradient and is the Jacobian determinant.

In terms of components with respect to anorthonormal basis, the first Piola–Kirchhoff stress is given by

Because it relates different coordinate systems, the 1st Piola–Kirchhoff stress is a two-point tensor. In general, it is not symmetric.
The 1st Piola–Kirchhoff stress is the 3D generalization of the 1D concept ofengineering stress.

If the material rotates without a change in stress state (rigid rotation), the components of the 1st Piola–Kirchhoff stress tensor will
vary with material orientation.

The 1st Piola–Kirchhoff stress is energy conjugate to the deformation gradient.

2nd Piola–Kirchhoff stress tensor


Whereas the 1st Piola–Kirchhoff stress relates forces in the current configuration to areas in the reference configuration, the 2nd
Piola–Kirchhoff stress tensor relates forces in the reference configuration to areas in the reference configuration. The force in the
reference configuration is obtained via a mapping that preserves the relative relationship between the force direction and the area
normal in the reference configuration.

In index notation with respect to an orthonormal basis,

This tensor, a one-point tensor, is symmetric.

If the material rotates without a change in stress state (rigid rotation), the components of the 2nd Piola–Kirchhoff stress tensor remain
constant, irrespective of material orientation.

The 2nd Piola–Kirchhoff stress tensor is energy conjugate to the Green–Lagrange finite strain tensor.

See also
Bending Mohr's circle
Compressive strength Residual stress
Critical plane analysis Shear strength
Kelvin probe force microscope Shot peening
Strain Tensile strength
Strain tensor Thermal stress
Strain rate tensor Virial stress
Stress–energy tensor Yield (engineering)
Stress–strain curve Yield stress
Stress concentration Yield surface
Transient friction loading Virial theorem

References
1. Gordon, J.E. (2003). Structures, or, Why things don't fall down(2. Da Capo Press ed.). Cambridge, MA: Da Capo
Press. ISBN 0306812835.
2. Jacob Lubliner (2008)."Plasticity Theory" (http://www.ce.berkeley.edu/~coby/plas/pdf/book.pdf)Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20100331022415/http://www .ce.berkeley.edu/~coby/plas/pdf/book.pdf)2010-03-31 at the
Wayback Machine. (revised edition). Dover Publications.ISBN 0-486-46290-0
3. Wai-Fah Chen and Da-Jian Han (2007),"Plasticity for Structural Engineers"(https://books.google.com/books?id=E8j
ptvNgADYC&pg=PA46). J. Ross Publishing ISBN 1-932159-75-4
4. Peter Chadwick (1999),"Continuum Mechanics: Concise Theory and Problems"(https://books.google.ca/books?id=
QSXIHQsus6UC&pg=PA95). Dover Publications, series "Books on Physics".ISBN 0-486-40180-4. pages
5. I-Shih Liu (2002), "Continuum Mechanics"(https://books.google.com/books?id=-gWqM4uMV6wC&pg=P
A43).
Springer ISBN 3-540-43019-9
6. (2009) The art of making glass. (http://www.lamberts.de/fileadmin/user_upload/service/downloads/lamberts_broschu
ere_englisch.pdf) Lamberts Glashütte (LambertsGlas) product brochure. Accessed on 2013-02-08.
7. Ronald L. Huston and Harold Josephs (2009), "Practical Stress Analysis in Engineering Design". 3rd edition, CRC
Press, 634 pages. ISBN 9781574447132
8. Walter D. Pilkey, Orrin H. Pilkey (1974),"Mechanics of solids" (https://books.google.com/books?id=d7I8AAAAIAAJ)
(book)
9. Donald Ray Smith and Clifford Truesdell (1993) "An Introduction to Continuum Mechanics after T
ruesdell and Noll".
Springer. (https://books.google.com/books?id=ZcWC7YVdb4wC&pg=P A97) ISBN 0-7923-2454-4
10. Fridtjov Irgens (2008),"Continuum Mechanics"(https://books.google.com/books?id=q5dB7Gf4bIoC&pg=P
A46).
Springer. ISBN 3-540-74297-2
11. Slaughter

Further reading
Chakrabarty, J. (2006). Theory of plasticity (3 ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 17–32.ISBN 0-7506-6638-2.
Beer, Ferdinand Pierre; Elwood Russell Johnston; John T. DeWolf (1992). Mechanics of Materials. McGraw-Hill
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