FST-1 (2018) Assignment Solved

1 Write a detailed account on the origin of agriculture and civilization

Ans: There s no historical evidence to tell us exactly how agriculture arose. We can only guess what may have
happened. Cultivation of grains may have arisen without any violent break from food gathering. In regions well
stretched with wild grains, enough seeds would get scattered around to produce crops with reaping. Agriculture,
probably, resulted from the understanding that plants could be grown from seeds and that crops had some
relations to the season.

And, probably, the availability of water helped in the process. Cultivation, however, marked a break from the
primitive era, as human beings sopped being dependent on nature and started to control their livelihood and
destiny.

Cultivation necessarily meant permanent or semi-permanent settlements around regions that were climatically
and soil-wise suitable for crop production. These settlements grew into villages with some community life and
leisure. It is natural that the settlements established in regions most suitable for cultivation, developed the fastest.
Thus, we see that in this period, from about 4000 B.C to 1500 B.C the four great civilizations of Egypt,
Mesopotamia, India and China came into existence in the wide river valleys of the Nile, the Tigris, the Euphrates,
the Indus and the Hwang Ho respectively. The Indus valley civilization of which we are nthe descendants is dated
between 2700 B.C to 1750 B.C.

Growth of Cities – The people of those tomes came to understand very well the advantage offered by the river for
food production. They also came to revise that if the river could be systematically used through natural and
artificial irrigation food production could be increased manifold.

However, this could be achieved best, not by one village alone but by several villages getting together. Further,
barter trade led to some places being identified as meeting places for the exchanges. Convenient sites were
chosen for goods and exchanging grains of cloth or spices or shopping for better tools and implements made by
expert artisans.

Some evidence suggests that cities were founded by bringing together population of several villages. The growth
of cities led to rise of an administrative class who could organize and coordinate production and exchange but did
not take part in it directly.

We find that the growth of cities was helped by another feature of this new mod of production Ma started
producing much more that he could consume locally. There all people in agricultural societies did not have to be
agriculturists. They could produce other goods and even excel in music or dance. The surplus could be used to
support craftsmen who made the agricultural implements and storage vessels, masons who built shelters,
wheelwrights who made pottery, and others who made carts.

There were still others who worked as administrators and priests, and who were not directly involved in the
process of production. These groups of peoples came to live in the cities.

The population of cities used to be supported, as today, by agriculture in the neighbouring as well as distant
villages. This resulted in a division between villages and cities between those who produce and those who
supported production through work of other kinds; those who worked with their hands and administrators and
priests who mainly used their mental skills.

This division had a very definite effect on the development of techniques and science. For the first time,
specialization of occupations and professions had taken place. As there was enough food available society could
support even those who could not produce. Such people had leisure to think to improve their crafts to create art
and beauty and to develop abilities to lead society through institutions of religion and administration.

The surplus also had to be transported by land, river and sea in exchange of other necessities of life and even
luxury goods. This provided tremendous impetus for the development transport, such as rafts, boats and small
ships, which brought about new dimensions of trade, cultural contact and exchange of techniques and science
among different societies.

2 What have been the impediments of growth of Science in India?

Ans: After the end of eighteenth century, Indian society had become very complex. Hence it is difficult to discuss
even one aspect of science, as it arose from this society and contributed to it, without over-simplifying. In fact the
British were able to subjugate this country, and make it their colony, on the basis of science, technology and
industry which has helped there. The question that naturally arises is what the difference between Europe of
sixteenth century and India of that period was. Basically, the difference in two societies was in their social
structure, n the degree of the hold of religious orthodoxy, and the intellectual atmosphere. Another reason was
that those worked with their hands out-dated knowledge never had to test it on the touchstone of practice. Either
the kingdom fought wars or settled down to long periods of peace. It seems natural to think that in such a society
there was no glamour to develop new products or new processes. Social stability and stagnation can easily go
hand in hand. The rich had no need for change; the poor had no power to bring about change.

It is seen that when Islamic influence entered India in successive waves, it tended not to disturb the life of the
common people who lived in rural communities. We find that at the level of administering the country, and in the
armed forces there was mutual support between the higher strata of the people in two communities. Muslim
kings with Hindu Commanders-in-chief, and Hindu Rajas with Muslims at the head of their armies are known to
have fought and also defended each other. Naturally, there was give and take, and intermingling of cultures. At
the level of religion, there was coexistence between Islam and Hinduism, perhaps, out of necessity, since the
Muslims were in a small minority. They could certainly not afford a confrontation with the vast majority if their
rule was to last in India and was to be extended in the centuries to come. This was also because priests had a great
hold over people and any interference in each other’s affairs would have had serious political consequences. It
could to lead to turmoil so each steered clear of the other. Within two religious systems too, there were no active
controversies and no strong movements of reform. This was perhaps due to the absence of printing. Typically,
when a printed book was presented to Jahangir, he is said to have thrown it away, saying that it was ugly and
unaesthetic as compared to the beautiful calligraphy in which they prided. He little realized or was, perhaps, little
interested in the possibility of enriching people’s life on a large scale through the availability of cheaper books.
This was in contrast to sixteenth century Europe where the availability of printed word greatly helped the spread
of knowledge that created a wider and deeper impact for bringing about social change.

By and large, in India education was limited to religious teaching and the intellectual atmosphere was not in favour
of challenging the established ways of thinking, or of propounding new theories. In such an atmosphere few
accept such new things as sun-centered universe demonstrated by Galileo. For, the new theory change the order
which was believed to have been established by god to give the abode of man a central position in the entre
creation. Indeed, astrology was, perhaps, esteemed enough to let astronomy go on! Alchemy still held some
promise of converting base metals to gold, however mysteriously or irrationally, to allow dabbling in chemical
techniques! The reign of the orthodoxy with its belief in eternal or revealed truths never allowed free thinking and
imaginative adventure of ideas. To put it in another way, the learned that fixed ideas which they did not need to
change. And those whose social status was low and who were exploited by the feudal order had no access to
learning. In Europe, comprehensive books of Arab authors like Howi, Liber Continens by Al-razi, tnhe canon of Ibn
Sina and the Colliget of Averroes (all medical treaties) were used as text books in the seventeenth century. All
these books were available in India and could have been used, but were not. The exciting advances made in
science during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in Europe, such as the works of Copernicus, Galileo and
even Newton did not attract widespread attention since they were not close to the hearts of such scholarship as
existed in India at that time. Due to this indifferences and neglect and the other factors mentioned earlier, we lost
the race.

3 Discuss the salient aspects of structure of Sun and the various activities going on in it.
Ans: Our sun is the closest star to Earth and the source of energy for all life here. The sun has been so important to
humans that it has been celebrated and worshiped since ancient times. Ancient cultures built monuments to the
sun, set up the calendar based on it, and took note of lunar and solar eclipses. The sun gets its name from the
Romans, who called it Sol; this was translated into sun in modern English.

The sun is essentially a huge burning ball of gas in the sky only 100 million or so miles from Earth. The majority of
gas in the sun is hydrogen and helium, and it is so hot that all of these elements exist in the gaseous state. The gas
is held together by gravity, which creates intense heat and pressure in the core. The sun has an interior consisting
of the core, radiative zone, and convective zone. It has a visible surface called the photosphere, then the
chromosphere, which usually isn't visible, and the very outer layer called the corona.

Inner Layers
Let's start at the core of the sun and work our way outward. Like any hot ball of fire in the sky, the sun has an
inner core. This is where fusion occurs. The core is the very center of the sun where fusion occurs. The core has
extremely high temperature and pressure. It is so hot here - 15 million degree Celsius - that nuclear fusion occurs.
In the case of our sun, four hydrogen nuclei are fused into one helium nuclei while releasing a bunch of energy as
photons. The sun produces so much energy that according to NASA, it can melt a block of ice one mile wide by two
miles long in just one second. The core is the hottest part of the sun and the only part of the sun that produces
much energy. The sun cools off as you travel from the core to the outside, with the exception of the
chromosphere.

The next layer of the sun is the radiative zone, the layer of the sun directly above the core. This zone, as you can
probably guess, emits radiation, and the radiation from the core diffuses out from here. It may take photons
millions of years to get out. The next layer as we work our way outward is the convective zone. In this layer,
photons produced by fusion in the core make their way to the surface of the sun through convection.

This zone is dominated by convection currents that carry the energy produced through fusion in the sun's core
outward to the surface. Convection current is when hot gas rises next to hot gas falling, which causes movement
or currents. This energy is carried by photons which can take 200,000 years to from core to the surface of Sun. It
then takes 8 minutes for those photons to travel to Earth and provide us energy.

The Solar Atmosphere

The visible solar atmosphere consists of three regions: the photosphere, the chromospheres, and the solar corona.
Most of the visible (white) light comes from the photosphere, this is the part of the Sun we actually see.
The chromosphere and corona also emit white light, and can be seen when the light from the photosphere is
blocked out, as occurs in a solar eclipse. The sun emits electromagnetic radiation at many other wavelengths as
well. Different types of radiation (such as radio, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays) originate from different parts
of the sun. Scientists use special instruments to detect this radiation and study different parts of the solar
atmosphere.
The solar atmosphere is so hot that the gas is primarily in a plasma state: electrons are no longer bound to atomic
nuclei, and the gas is made up of charged particles (mostly protons and electrons). In this charged state, the solar
atmosphere is greatly influenced by the strong solar magnetic fields that thread through it. These magnetic fields
and the outer solar atmosphere (the corona) extend out into interplanetary space as part of the solar wind.

Solar Activity
The Sun is not a quiet place, but one that exhibits sudden releases of energy. One of the most frequently observed
events are solar flares: sudden, localized, transient increases in brightness that occurs in active regions
near sunspots. They are usually most easily seen in H-alpha and X-rays, but may have effects in the entire
elecromagnetic spectrum. The X-ray brightness from a large flare often exceeds the X-ray output from the rest of
the Sun. Another type of event, the coronal mass ejection, typically disrupts helmet streamers in the solar corona.
As much as 1e13 (10,000,000,000,000) kilograms of material can be ejected into the solar wind. Coronal mass
ejections propagate out in the solar wind, where they may encounter the Earth and influence geomagnetic
activity. Coronal mass ejections are often (but not always) accompanied by prominence eruptions, where the cool,
dense prominence material also erupts outward.
All of these forms of solar activity are believed to be driven by energy release from the solar magnetic field. How
the energy release occurs and the relationship between different types of solar activity, is one of the many puzzles
facing solar physicists today. The amount of solar activity on the Sun is not constant, and is closely related to the
typical number of sunspots that are visible. The number of sunspots and the levels of solar activity vary with an 11
year period known as the solar cycle.

4 Describe the modern methods employed for the exploration of natural resources.
Ans: Modern mineral exploration has been driven largely by technology. Many mineral discoveries since the 1950s
can be attributed to geophysical and geochemical technologies developed by both industry and government. Even
though industrial investment in in-house exploration research and development in the United States decreased
during the 1990s, new technologies, such as tomographic imaging (developed by the medical community) and GPS
(developed by the defense community), were newly applied to mineral exploration. Research in basic geological
sciences, geophysical and geochemical methods, and drilling technologies could improve the effectiveness and
productivity of mineral exploration. These fields sometimes overlap, and developments in one area are likely to
cross-fertilize research and development in other areas.
Geological Methods
Underlying physical and chemical processes of formation are common to many metallic and nonmetallic ore
deposits. A good deal of data is lacking about the processes of ore formation, ranging from how metals are
released from source rocks through transport to deposition and post-deposition alteration. Modeling of these
processes has been limited by significant gaps in thermodynamic and kinetic data on ore and gangue (waste)
minerals, wall-rock minerals, and alteration products. With the exception of proprietary data held by companies,
detailed geologic maps and geochronological and petrogenetic data for interpreting geologic structures in and
around mining districts and in frontier areas that might have significant mineral deposits are not available. These
data are critical to an understanding of the geological history of ore formation. A geologic database would be
beneficial not only to the mining industry but also to land-use planners and environmental scientists. In many
instances, particularly in arid environments where rocks are exposed, detailed geologic and alteration mapping
has been the key factor in the discovery of major copper and gold deposits.

Most metallic ore deposits are formed through the interaction of an aqueous fluid and host rocks. At some point
along the fluid flow pathway through the Earth’s crust, the fluids encounter changes in physical or chemical
conditions that cause the dissolved metals to precipitate. In research on ore deposits, the focus has traditionally
been on the location of metal depositions, that is, the ore deposit itself. However, the fluids responsible for the
deposit must continue through the crust or into another medium, such as seawater, to maintain a high fluid flux.
After formation of a metallic ore deposit, oxidation by meteoric water commonly remobilizes and disperses metals
and associated elements, thereby creating geochemical and mineralogical haloes that are used in exploration. In
addition, the process of mining commonly exposes ore to more rapid oxidation by meteoric water, which naturally
affects the environment. Therefore, understanding the movement of fluids through the Earth, for example,
through enhanced hydrologic models, will be critical for future mineral exploration, as well as for effectively
closing mines that have completed their life cycle (NRC, 1996b).

The focus of research on geological ore deposits has changed with new mineral discoveries and with swings in
commodity prices. Geoscientists have developed numerous models of ore deposits (Cox and Singer, 1992). Models
for ore deposits that, when mined, have minimal impacts on the environment (such as deposits with no acid-
generating capacity) and for deposits that may be amenable to innovative in-situ extraction will be important for
the future. Because the costs of reclamation, closure, post mining land use, and long-term environmental
monitoring must be integrated into mine feasibility studies, the health and environmental aspects of an orebody
must be well understood during the exploration stage. The need for characterizations of potential waste rock and
surrounding wall rocks, which may either serve as chemical buffers or provide fluid pathways for escape to the
broader environment. Baseline studies to determine hydrologic conditions and natural occurrences of potentially
toxic elements in rocks, soils, and waters are also becoming critical. The baseline data will be vital to determining
how mining may change hydrologic and geochemical conditions. Baseline climatologically, hydrological, and
mineralogical data are vital; for example, acid-rock drainage will be greatly minimized in arid climates where
natural oxidation has already destroyed acid-generating sulfide minerals or where water flows are negligible.
A wealth of geologic data has been collected for some mining districts, but the data are not currently being used
because much of the data is on paper and would be costly to convert to digital format. Individual companies have
large databases, but these are not available to the research community or industrial competitors. Ideally,
geological research on ore deposits should be carried out by teams of geoscientists from industry, government,
and academia. Industry geoscientists have access to confidential company databases and a focus on solving
industrial problems; government and academic geoscientists have access to state-of-the-art analytical tools and a
focus on tackling research issues. Currently, geological research activities in the United States are not well
coordinated and are limited primarily to studies of individual deposits by university groups and, to a much lesser
extent, by the USGS. More effective research is being carried out in Australia and Canada by industry consortia
working with government and academia to identify research problems, develop teams with the skills appropriate
to addressing those problems, and pool available funding. Both Canada and Australia have resolved issues of
intellectual property rights in the industry-university programs, but these issues have yet to be resolved in the
United States.
Geochemical and Geophysical Methods
Surface geochemical prospecting involves analyzing soil, rock, water, vegetation, and vapor (e.g., mercury and
hydrocarbons in soil gas) for trace amounts of metals or other elements that may indicate the presence of a buried
ore deposit. Geochemical techniques have played a key role in the discovery of numerous mineral deposits, and
they continue to be a standard method of exploration.
5 How application of scientific knowledge has made agriculture possible in arid zones, dry lands and hills?
Ans: In the arid zone there is considerable scope for growing fruit trees like ber and pomegranate and fuel wood
yielding trees like Acacia (Kikar), Prosopis (Mosquite) and Eucalyptus (Safeda). In such areas, large scale planting of
shelter belts will minimize soil erosion caused by wind. It will also help in the establishment of pastures and
grazing lands. Later on this land can be used for growing pearlmillet and mungbean.
Since water is a limiting factor in dry lands, as much run off as possible should be collected in community owned
ponds, so that the crops can be given life saving irrigation. In dry lands with red soil, deep ploughing helps in
conserving water. In black soils, sowing two crops at a time is possible with surface drainage and good water
management. Leaves and crop management, when mixed with soil improve its texture and water holding capacity.
If crops like pigeonpea and castor have deep roots are cultivated in these regions, the physical condition of the soil
improves further, as the roots of these crops add organic matter. Now that varieties of sorghum, millets,
sunflower, safflower, and mustard, groundnut various pulses and cotton are available which grow within a shorter
time and can withstand scarcity of water, it is possible to diversify what grows in the dry lands. A variety of crops
and cropping patterns allow the farmer to make a proper choice of what to grow in different climate and soil
types. There is a solution to the agricultural problem of the hilly regions. The upper regions of the hills are devoted
to forestry. The next zone is developed for growing fruit trees, perennial fodder grass and legumes. The roots of
legumes fix nitrogen and improve the soil. In the third zone, a mix of crops is raised on terraces constructed with
low cost implements. Earthen dams are constructed with locally available material. They collect enough water to
be utilized for irrigation and fish culture. Poultry, piggery, bee-keeping mushroom cultivation and related activities
create a self sustaining, complete farming system that perfectly blends with the ecosystem.

6 Make a table showing protein and energy contents of ten common foods.
Ans: Contact for the answer.

7 Deliberate upon the recent technological developments in energy sector giving appropriate examples.
Ans: The enthusiasm for renewable forms of energy has taken something of a battering in recent years, with
government subsidies being cut back and investor sentiment going lukewarm. The widely held opinion is that
there needs to be a wave of technological advances in the renewable energy sector for the industry to get back on
track.
From solar farms to onshore and offshore wind, governments in many developed countries have scaled back many
of their more ambitious renewable energy projects, in favour of more trustworthy – if more polluting – fossil fuels.
However, there is a stark need for sustainable sources of energy to emerge over the coming decade, not least in
the developing parts of the world that lack the natural resources found elsewhere. Throughout Africa there is a
desperate need for energy to power the economies of many countries that have been hampered by overly
expensive oil and gas imports and a lack of modern infrastructure to use them efficiently.

Due to the typical high cost that comes with making technological advances in renewable energy, there has been
little headway by the industry in the continent. Things look to be changing, however, with a number of
investments in recent years that could see renewable energy take off across Africa.
Kenya, for example, has quickly become one of Africa’s most active countries for utilising renewable energy
sources. With almost no investment in the industry in 2009, as much as $1.3bn was pumped into a number of
renewable energy technologies in 2010, and several companies are making strides towards advancing technology
in this country.

Technological advances in renewable energy are something that firms across the world are investing heavily in.
Many firms are convinced that renewable technologies are the future of the energy industry.
Recent research conducted by Harvard University has shown that advances in battery capabilities could lead to
renewable energy technologies becoming more efficient and cheaper. The research states that by using new
batteries, costs can be reduced and more energy can be stored. Such research is helping to spur enthusiasm in the
industry, but private firms are also investing in new technologies.

Currently there are a number of marine technology devices being tested that are capable of harnessing the waves
and tides from oceans, converting them into electricity and transporting it to land. They include wave and tidal
prototypes off the coast of Santoña in Cantabria, Spain and the Orkney Islands in Scotland. Iberdrola plans to use
this technology as part of the world’s first tidal turbine array in the Sound of Islay in Scotland.

The mix of the global energy market in the future will depend on further technological advances, especially in
regards to low carbon energy sources. However, given that the energy sector is extremely intensive in capital,
stable and predictable regulatory frameworks will be necessary to incentivise the investments required by these
new energy projects.

Any study on future energy developments needs to bear in mind the crucial role of technology. Technological
trends are important not only for technical efficiency in supply and consumption, but also for industrial structures
and for the design of regulatory regimes and policy.
The impact of technology on energy markets has profoundly affected costs and quality of supplying energy
services. One kilowatt-hour of electricity can today be delivered to individual households at a much lower price,
with greater regularity, with less variance in frequency, and often with less harm to the environment than only 2
or 3 decades ago.
Technological progress has enhanced the use of electricity in end uses previously served by direct use of coal,
wood, or petroleum.
New technologies have brought to the market new forms of energy such as nuclear power and solar energy. To
judge by current research and development (R&D) efforts, future energy options may include hydrogen, fuel cells,
improved nuclear power designs, and, not least, improvements in conventional technologies that can drastically
alter their operational characteristics.
Recent technological developments have begun to challenge this pattern. Gas-fired technologies in power
production, for example, the combined-cycle gas turbines, (CCGT) capture economies of scale in comparatively
small units. Both capital costs and environmental attractiveness (including difficulties in finding sites) make them
competitive with, for example, larger coal-fired plants.
Cogeneration of heat and power in modular, small-scale energy systems in the hands of consumers may in the
near future gain in economic attractiveness. Solar and wind power owned and operated by consumers or small-
scale independent producers may also come to challenge the power of electric utilities.
Modern information technology reduces economies of scope (i.e., cost advantage of producing a bundle vs. a
single service) in grid-operated energy systems. Before, economies of scope were important in utilities selling a
bundle of services-electricity, transmission, distribution, measuring, and billing. This could be done more cheaply
by one company, compared to the same services being offered by separate entities.
This is no longer the case. Computer technology has made unbundling of services possible by allowing
coordination between independent commercial actors in closely interconnected systems. Coordination between
competitors requires that large volumes of information be shifted around at low cost.
A trend towards smaller units in energy supply will undermine the dominant position of large and often vertically
integrated energy enterprises. Increases in cogeneration with surplus energy available to the grid will in many
countries call for regulatory changes that will affect the interface between grid owners and independent
producers.

If the trend towards "clean and cheap" small-scale technologies continues at today's rapid pace, this would
represent a major force for radical changes to the structure of the energy sector.
Further development and improvement of existing technologies is also likely to change their relative attractiveness
in terms of both costs and environmental impacts. Clean-coal technology is within reach, and widespread use is
likely over the next decade without adding to the cost of electricity generation.
The costs of solar power and other renewables are coming down rapidly, which could make such technologies
commercially attractive in many end uses at a large scale early in the next century. The most far-reaching
perspective on the horizon today is the possibility that the menu of technologies available in the future could
undermine the firmly held tenet in energy industries that big is beautiful-and cheap.

8 ‘Science and technology do not exist independent of the society, its culture and value system. They are part of
the socio-economic and political framework of a given society’. Analyse this statement by giving suitable
examples.
Ans: Developments in science and technology are fundamentally altering the way people live, connect,
communicate and transact, with profound effects on economic development. To promote tech advance,
developing countries should invest in quality education for youth, and continuous skills training for workers and
managers.

Science and technology are key drivers to development, because technological and scientific revolutions underpin
economic advances, improvements in health systems, education and infrastructure.
The technological revolutions of the 21st century are emerging from entirely new sectors, based on micro-
processors, tele-communications, bio-technology and nano-technology. Products are transforming business
practices across the economy, as well as the lives of all who have access to their effects. The most remarkable
breakthroughs will come from the interaction of insights and applications arising when these technologies
converge.

Through breakthroughs in health services and education, these technologies have the power to better the lives of
poor people in developing countries. Eradicating malaria, a scourge of the African continent for centuries, is now
possible. Cures for other diseases which are endemic in developing countries are also now possible, allowing
people with debilitating conditions to live healthy and productive lives.
Access and application are critical. Service and technology are the differentiators between countries that are able
to tackle poverty effectively by growing and developing their economies, and those that are not. The extent to
which developing economies emerge as economic powerhouses depends on their ability to grasp and apply
insights from science and technology and use them creatively. Innovation is the primary driver of technological
growth and drives higher living standards.
As an engine of growth, the potential of technology is endless, and still largely untapped in Africa and other
developing world regions across the globe. Less developed countries not only lack skilled labour and capital, but
also use these less efficiently. Inputs account for less than half of the differences in per capita income across
nations. The rest is due to the inability to adopt and adapt technologies to raise productivity.
Computing for example, through unlocking infrastructure backlogs and managing integrated supply chains, can
transform economic performance by enabling affordable and accessible services in education and healthcare. The
combination of computers and the Internet, and mobile devices and the “cloud”, has transformed human
experience, empowering individuals through access to knowledge and markets, changing the relationship between
citizens and those in authority, as well as allowing new communities to emerge in virtual worlds that span the
globe.

According to the United Nations International Telecommunications Union (UN-ITU), by the end of 2010 there were
an estimated 5.3 billion mobile cellular subscriptions worldwide, including 940 million subscriptions to 3g services.
About 90 percent of the world’s population can access mobile networks, with three-quarters of mobile subscribers
living in developing economies. Cellular technology has allowed Africa to leapfrog the age of fixed line telephony,
bringing affordable access to millions of people.
However, the continued and equitable expansion of Information Communication Technology (ICT) depends on
electricity. The real divide over the next 20 years will be between those who have access to reliable electricity to
power these devices and those who do not.
Other technologies under development are interventions for cognitive enhancement, proton cancer therapy and
genetic engineering. Revolutionary inventions include small underground nuclear power units called nuclear
batteries that will be ultra-safe and maintenance-free; new types of photo-voltaics that will make electricity from
sunlight cheaper than that from coal; and myriad nano-technologies, some of which lower the cost and increase
the reliability of many products – even in the poorest areas of the developing world.
Managing technological revolutions poses challenges. Certain innovations and discoveries will raise fraught bio-
ethical issues, as genetic modification of food crops and cloning of human embryos has already done. There is a
risk that their cost, particularly in the early stages of development, will worsen the present inequality by limiting
access to wealthy individuals. This already happens in health care in certain G7 countries, where the demand for
very high-cost diagnostic equipment and surgical interventions enabling longevity and better quality of life for
older wealthy people overstretches public health care budgets, and lowers service quality in poor neighborhoods.
Finally, resource-intensive technologies, focused on satisfying high consumption demand, like holidays abroad in
costal resorts, wilderness areas, or iconic cities, increase carbon emissions and environmental damage.
To promote technological advances, developing countries should invest in quality education for youth, continuous
skills training for workers and managers, and should ensure that knowledge is shared as widely as possible across
society.

In a world in which the Internet makes information ubiquitous, what counts is the ability to use knowledge
intelligently. Knowledge is the systemically integrated information that allows a citizen, a worker, a manager, or a
finance minister to act purposefully and intelligently in a complex and demanding world. The only form of
investment that allows for increasing returns is in building the stocks and flows of knowledge that a country or
organization needs, an in encouraging new insights and techniques.
Adopting appropriate technologies leads directly to higher productivity, which is the key to growth. In societies
that have large stock and flows of knowledge, virtuous circles that encourage widespread creativity and
technological innovation emerge naturally, and allow sustained growth over long periods. In societies with limited
stocks of knowledge, bright and creative people feel stifled and emigrate as soon as they can, creating a vicious
circle that traps those who remain in a more impoverished space. Such societies stay mired in poverty and
dependency.

The investment climate is crucial, as are the right incentive structures, to guide the allocation of resources, and to
encourage research and development.
Successful countries have grown their ability to innovate and learn by doing, by investing public funding to help
finance research and development in critical areas. Everyone is involved – big and small, public and private, rich
and poor.

The benefits that are certain to flow from technological revolution in an increasingly connected world and
knowledge-intensive world will be seized by those countries and companies that are alive to the rapidly changing
environment, and nimble enough to take advantage of the opportunities. Those that succeed will make substantial
advances in reducing poverty and inequality.
The existing needs of the society in the ancient times guided the generation to progress in science and technology
and it is obviously true. In the early ages needs of society developed use of stones for killing of animals for their
food. Then people in the society feels the need of clothes and houses and get progress in this field also. Later on
metal was discovered for their needs to develop tools and other needs like utensils etc. from them. Then again
there is a need of transportation developed amongst the people of society and they made steam engine, vehicles
etc. following this was the invention of telephone, telegraph, telex, computers etc. on need basis. The science and
technology cater all the “nuts and bolts”, as well as numerous thoughts our society hold. Society itself creates the
surrounding and ambiance for science and technology to either grow fast, or stand still or even decline. Science
and technology do not exist independently on the society, its culture and the value system. They are part of the
socio-economic and political framework of a given society. The motivation for the practical use of science and
technology and its growth comes from the economic needs of the society. The economic designing and policy of a
society ascertain its social programmes and the incentive for scientific growth. However, answers to questions
like: what kind of economic policy will be wrinkled, whether the social programmes will be implemented, and to
what extent, depends on the political and social organizations of society. Thus, science and technology can be
more directly influenced by the general policies and social of a society.