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TECHNICAL NOTE
Head losses and friction factors of steady turbulent flows in plastic pipes
A. Freire Diogo* and Fábia A. Vilela
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Coimbra, Pólo II, Coimbra, Portugal
(Received 3 February 2012; final version received 17 January 2013)
Many hydraulic engineering applications, which were once limited to the use of traditional materials, are progressively
executed using prefabricated plastic pipes, particularly in the case of larger diameters. There is relatively little information
specifically on the laws of flow resistance in plastic tubes, or that has been obtained directly for these materials. In this work,
head losses and friction factors were determined experimentally in turbulent steady water flows established in conduits made
of different plastics. Several pressure pipes, governed by gravity and forced, with nominal diameters until 110 mm, were
used with Reynolds numbers ranging from 4E3 to approximately 6E5. Pairs of values, friction factor vs. Reynolds number,
were computed and plotted using logarithmic scales. The layout of the points seems to be generally well represented by the
Colebrook-White equation, for each relative roughness. Important absolute roughness variations for the different pipes were
found by trend analysis. Blasius and Scimemi empirical formulas for smooth pipes were also plotted and also showed a
satisfactory agreement with the experimental data, for Re up to 1E5 and a little less than 1E6, respectively.
Keywords: head losses in plastic pipes; steady flow in pressure conduits; friction factor; turbulent flow; flow resistance
For smooth pipes, which is generally the case of processes, with new plastic materials and prefabricated
plastic pipes conveying water, the rigorous experimental pipes being produced and low friction values are reported
determination of k (which is close to zero) is difficult and specifically for these pipes.
very probably needs to be accomplished by trend Plastic pipes, particularly those made of PVC or
analysis, given that fully rough pipe regimes may only polyethylene, were initially used mostly in the hydraulic
occur for extraordinarily large Re numbers that are not engineering applications for small diameters, mainly
easily established in the laboratory , and are not easily because the larger sizes were much more expensive. As the
obtained in the majority of practical applications. Values plastic industry developed, however, prices tended to fall.
of 0.002 mm to 0.004 mm (Lencastre 1996) or larger Larger diameters that had been usually made of concrete
(Novais-Barbosa 1986) are often reported for polyethy- or other materials are now being increasingly made of
lene and PVC pipes and used in the engineering practice, plastic, in many practical applications, thanks to more
but the influence of manufacturing processes or the age of competitive prices.
the material is rarely considered. An experimental research study of steady full-bore
Several researchers reported that the observed friction water flows in plastic pipes was conducted, based on
factors and the corresponding head losses in water flows experimental data obtained in the Laboratory of
conveyed by plastic pipes are sometimes lower (generally Hydraulics, Water Resources and Environment of
only slightly) than those obtained by considering the null Coimbra University. Several experiments were performed
roughness in the Colebrook-White equation. This was in the context of a Master’s thesis completed in 2009
reported by Levin (1972), for extremely smooth plastic (Vilela 2009). This paper reports, interprets and discusses
internal coatings of a 20 m long force main conduit, the results of this research.
with an internal diameter of about 210 mm, and with
respect to large Re numbers, by Bagarello et al. (1995)
who conducted tests in small low-density polyethylene Analysis and empirical methods
pipes, 100 m long and nominal diameters of 16, 20 and The Colebrook-White formula is explicit for U, or k, but
25 mm, by Cardoso et al. (2008) for low density implicit for J, or D, and a numerical iterative method is
polyethylene pipes with 15 m length and small internal required to determine the roots of the corresponding
diameters of 12.9, 16.1, 17.4, and 19.7 mm, and, equation. The successive approximations method pro-
according to Bernouth and Wilson (1989), by Norum posed in Quintela (2000), for instance, is intuitive and has
(1984) and Urbina (1976), for small polyethylene pipes a rapid convergence. The lack of explicitness of the
with internal diameters between 8.9 mm and 21 mm, as formula for J (or f) was perhaps the major drawback in the
well as by Paraqueima (1977), with PVC and early years of its application and this was overcome with
polyethylene pipes of 17.6 mm and of 15.5 mm internal the arrival of digital calculators and microcomputers in
diameters, respectively. the 1970s and 80s. The Moody diagram (Moody 1944)
A friction law that would give noticeably lower with f vs. Re plotted in logarithmic scales and k/D
values does not seem possible, according to the as a parameter became widespread; it allows the
theoretical basis of the method as well as to the known visualization of the three types of turbulent flow for
turbulence model of Prandtl, associated with the widely commercial pipes (smooth-pipe flow, transitionally rough,
disseminated Nikuradse experiments (Nikuradse and fully rough) and the corresponding direct calculation
1932,1933) and the corresponding Karman-Prandtl of f (and J). Several explicit approximations were also
equations (Prandtl 1942) and the numerous measurements proposed, of which Moody (1947) and Haaland (1983),
that were mostly carried out in the second part of the last among others, are examples frequently cited. A review of
century with respect to the velocity profiles and the several alternatives, including those mentioned above, is
experimental constants obtained with (or for) the given in Romeu et al. (2002), and Yildirim (2009).
equations (see, for instance, Novais-Barbosa 1986, Long Another approach, prior to the Prandtl’s school,
et al. 1993 and McKeon et al. 2005). Based on some indicated the use of empirical resistance laws that can
previously available experimental records for plastics be associated to different degrees of scientific support.
pipes, Lamont (1970) recommends the use of the It is known that by using dimensional analysis,
Karman-Prantl equation for fully smooth pipes or any particularly the Vaschy-Buckingham theorem, it may
exponential formula that approximates this curve, and be proved that f depends exclusively on Re for laminar
recognizes that additional experiments are required and turbulent smooth-pipe flow (i.e. the flow through
particularly for large PVC pipes due to a possible pipes that are practically smooth or that have some
waviness of the internal surface that may occur (or not) roughness comprised in the viscous sublayer, and then
sometimes with this material, producing an equivalent with the same behavior, according to the Nikuradse and
roughness. However, recent decades have seen a rapid Colebrook results). The empirical Blasius equation
development of the plastics industry and manufacturing proposed in 1913, which is normally considered as a
416 A.F. Diogo and F.A. Vilela
good approximation for the smooth-pipe regime up to which, for a temperature T close to 208 Celsius,
Re ¼ 105, considers approximately matches the coefficients of the Scimemi
equation for fibrocement (with K ¼ 64.3).
Also frequently considered in uniform turbulent flow of
f ¼ 0:3164Re 20:25 ð3Þ water in pressure conduits, for a wide range of materials,
normally at ambient temperature, (Novais-Barbosa 1986,
Assuming a generic form Quintela 2000)are the empirical formulas of Hazen-
Williams established in 1902,
f ¼ aReb ð4Þ
U ¼ 0:849CRh0:63 J 0:54 ð8Þ
as proposed in Bernouth and Wilson (1989), where a
and b are constants, and substituting the expressions for
and Manning proposed in 1891 (sometimes designated as
f and Re
Gauckler-Manning-Strickler formula, 1867 –1891 – 1923):
standard water temperature of 20 degrees Celsius): (see for instance the data and formulae presented in
Lamont 1954).
f ¼ 0:223Re 20:214 ð11Þ
The constants a and b can also be obtained from the Experiments performed
coefficients in Equation (5). Three experimental installations with four types of plastic
According to the shape of the Colebrook-White pipes and several diameters were used in the Laboratory
equation curves, for each fixed k/D, represented in the of Hydraulics, Water Resources and Environment
Moody Diagram, the slope of the curves for smooth-pipes (LHRHA) of the Department of Civil Engineering of
and (Novais-Barbosa 1986, Quintela 2000) regimes is not Coimbra University, and are schematically represented in
constant with Re (as for a straight line), and the plastic Figures 1 to 3. The tests were performed using: (i) two
pipes do not behave as hydraulically smooth for all Re old PVC pipes, with internal diameters 17.35 mm and
numbers, since their roughness in not null. As for the other 21.75 mm (old LHRHA equipment Armfield Fluid
materials, in these regimes the slope of the lines decreases Friction Apparatus Model C6 – Armfield undated), over
as Re increases, to various degree, depending on the a straight length of 2 m; (ii) a high-density polyethylene
turbulent region that has been reached, which shows a pipe, with an internal diameter of 53.6 mm (nominal
decreasing influence of Re. Any approximation of the 63 mm), over a straight length of 6.5 m; (iii) a low-
resistance law that is represented by a straight line must density polyethylene pipe, of 94.5 mm (nominal 110 mm)
then be limited between fixed boundaries of Re numbers diameter, 32.35 m long, over a line of 20.35 m; and, (iv) a
Figure 1. Schema of the pipes tested, circuits and equipment used in the first experimental setup (drawn based on the Armfield sheet for
the equipment Fluid Friction Apparatus Model C6 – Armfield undated).
Figure 2. Schematic circuit and used equipment for the testing of the 63 mm HDPE pipe.
418 A.F. Diogo and F.A. Vilela
J relative tolerance
Pipe Internal D relative tolerance Q relative tolerance and f maximum n relative tolerance f and Re maximum
diameter and and f and Re maximum and f and Re maximum propagated and Re maximum accumulated
Maximum propagated deviations propagated deviations deviation propagated deviation deviations
tolerance (mm)
DD/D Df/f DRe/Re DQ/Q Df/f DRe/Re DJ/J Df/f Dn/n DRe/Re Df/f DRe/Re
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
PVC 17.35 ^ 0.25 ^1.44 þ 7.4 þ 1.46 ^ 3.0 þ6.3 ^3.0 ^1.0 ^1.0 ^ 2.2 þ 2.2 þ15.3 þ 6.9
2 7.0 2 1.42 25.7 2 2.2 213.2 2 6.4
PVC 21.75 ^ 0.50 ^2.30 þ 12.0 þ 2.35 ^ 4.0 þ8.5 ^4.0 ^1.0 ^1.0 ^ 2.2 þ 2.2 þ22.8 þ 8.8
2 11.0 2 2.25 27.5 2 2.2 218.5 2 8.2
Crystal PVC 35 ^ 0.10 ^0.29 þ 1.4 þ 0.29 ^ 3.0 þ6.3 ^3.0 ^2.0 ^2.0 ^ 2.5 þ 2.6 þ10.0 þ 5.9
Urban Water Journal
o
PVC - Internal diameter 17.35 mm - Water temperature 28 C
0.040
Karman Prandtl Smooth Pipe
Colebrook White k=0.004 mm
Colebrook White k=0.010 mm
Blasius
Scimemi Fibrocement
Experimental
0.020
Friction Factor
0.010
0.005
1.00E+03 1.00E+04 1.00E+05 1.00E+06 1.00E+07
Reynolds Number
Figure 4. Pairs of values (Re, f) observed for the 17.35 mm PVC pipe.
Urban Water Journal 421
o
PVC - Internal diameter 21.75 mm - Water temperature 29 C
0.040
Karman Prandtl Smooth Pipe
Colebrook White k=0.004 mm
Colebrook White k=0.010 mm
Blasius
Scimemi Fibrocement
Experimental
0.020
Friction Factor
0.010
0.005
1.00E+03 1.00E+04 1.00E+05 1.00E+06 1.00E+07
Reynolds Number
Figure 5. Pairs of values (Re, f) observed for the 21.75 mm PVC pipe.
analysis explained in the previous section. The Colebrook- Although being relatively low, the roughness of all
White equation for roughness values of 0.002, 0.004, other tested pipes seems to play an important role for
0.010, 0.030 and 0.050 mm, the Karman-Prandtl equation higher Reynolds numbers and appears to display
for smooth-pipes (k ¼ 0), and the Blasius and new- important differences among the plastic pipes tested.
fibrocement Scimemi empirical formulas are also shown The 63 mm HDPE seems to point to a roughness of
in the logarithmic graph. around 0.010 mm. In spite of the larger Re that was
In all the pipes tested, even though this is less evident possible to achieve when testing this pipe, the uncertainty
for the 63 mm HDPE pipe, the qualitative profile of the in the measurements taken with this pipe (see Figure 7)
plotted points seems to agree in general with the layout of constituted a considerable drawback when attempting to
the Colebrook-White plotted curves, even for relatively reach a more conclusive finding. Old PVC pipes seem to
small Reynolds numbers in the majority of the pipes. For point to a k around 0.004 mm, but no measurements were
instance, the smaller PVC pipes appear to show this conducted very far from the smooth-pipe regime. It
general tendency (Figures 4 and 5). should be observed that these pipes were cleaned fully
Only for the flexible transparent pipe (Figure 6) an before the experiments and that the corresponding
important number of measurements yielded friction measurements were performed under warm temperatures.
factors slightly below the Karman-Prandtl curve for The 110 mm LDPE tested seemed to show substantially
smooth-pipes, but the differences observed were extre- higher roughness than all the other pipes tested (no less
mely small (in general not more than 3% and on average than 0.030 to 0.040 mm). In Figure 8, a limiting line for
about 1%), of little significance, and not conclusive, k ¼ 0.050 mm was noted. However, an important length
especially when compared to the accuracy estimates of the pipe tested exhibited a curve of great radius and,
obtained for the measurements. due to a larger section and to the limitations of the power
422 A.F. Diogo and F.A. Vilela
o
Transparent plasticpipe (Crystal) -Internal diameter 35mm - Water temperature 18 C
0.040
Karman Prandtl Smooth Pipe
Blasius
Scimemi Fibrocement
Experimental
0.020
Friction Factor
0.010
0.005
1.00E+03 1.00E+04 1.00E+05 1.00E+06 1.00E+07
Reynolds Number
Figure 6. Pairs of values (Re, f) observed for the 35 mm transparent plastic pipe.
and capacity of the equipment used, the 110 mm pipe is significantly. A considerable head loss increase seems to
by far the most sensitive among the pipes tested to have occurred recently in the inverted siphon 110 mm
drawing firm conclusions (the maximum total volumetric pipe, after a long period of no flow and the pipe full of
flow rate pumped was about 5.5 liters per second). water.
As the figures show, the empirical laws of Blasius, up With the exception of the transparent plastic pipe
to Re ¼ 105, and Scimemi, up to Re < 106, which are (which is relatively flexible, but has significant thickness),
extremely easy to apply, appear to be good approximations the modulus of elasticity of the other materials was
for the smooth-pipe regimes in general, and for the whole assumed to be relatively large, i.e. not less than 1GPa for
Re domain of the steady flows that were established in the the polyethylene tubes and 20 GPa for the PVC pipes. The
pipes. pressure was lower than approximately 0.55 MPa for
These experiments suggest that plastic pipes seem to the pressurized conduits and less than about 0.045 MPa for
show the same general tendency as any other smooth the gravity pipes. Thus, the influence of pressure in all the
pipes. But even if this tendency seems to be solidly based diameters tested was not considered. The influence of the
and allows these important basic conclusions, more pressure on the resistance law may be relevant for flexible
accurate experiments and measurements using larger pipes under important static heads, given that even for a
conduits, more powerful installations and equipment, may relatively small increase in diameter, as J varies
yield more conclusive results, particularly in relation to the approximately with an exponent around -5 of the diameter
absolute roughness to be used in the practical applications (shown by applying the continuity equation in the different
of larger pipe sizes. Depending on the type and condition laws), the head loss may be significantly changed.
of the plastic pipe, it is expected that a great variation of
roughness is likely, which may somehow explain several
different results reported on literature. The presence of any Conclusions
layer, such as grease or film on the inside wall arising Continuous head losses per unit pipe length and the
from normal practical use, for instance in the case corresponding friction factors were determined exper-
of wastewater, may change the hydraulic behavior imentally, for several plastic pipes of different character-
Urban Water Journal 423
0.040
Karman Prandtl Smooth Pipe
Colebrook White k=0.002 mm
Colebrook White k=0.010 mm
Colebrook White k=0.030 mm
Blasius
Scimemi Fibrocement
Experimental
0.020
Friction Factor
0.010
0.005
1.00E+03 1.00E+04 1.00E+05 1.00E+06 1.00E+07
Reynolds Number
istics, in straight lengths and with curves of great radius, numbers are deemed to be necessary, principally for larger
for steady turbulent flow of water. Head losses substan- sections.
tively smaller than those resulting from the application of Although the observed changes of n, and Re, with
the Karman-Prandtl equation for smooth-pipes were not normal variations of average water temperature through-
found, for any of the pipes tested. out different seasons of the year in Portugal are fairly
The absolute roughness of plastic pipes seems to vary important (an increase of 11 degrees Celsius between the
substantially according to the type of plastic or the pipe beginning of spring and the summer was observed in the
condition. Even if k was detected relatively small in some laboratory, with a reduction of 22.4% in n), the influence
tested pipes, it appears to have an important role in the of these variations on the turbulent resistance law appears
resistance law, which may be relevant, mainly for the to be attenuated due to the low slope of the f vs. Re curves.
larger sections and large lengths, frequently requiring The friction factor f (and J) appears to vary, at maximum,
precise calculations in practical applications, and/or for with the power 0.25, in modulus, of Re (or n),
relatively high Reynolds numbers. corresponding to the Blasius equation (maximum
In this experimental study, the Colebrook-White reduction of about 6%, for the increase of temperature
equation was confirmed also as a powerful tool for observed). Conversely any slight alteration in the internal
determining continuous head losses for water flowing diameter, caused, for instance, by the fluid-pipe interaction
through pressure plastic pipes in turbulent regimes. For Re that may occur for multiple reasons, especially in a plastic
up to approximately 105 and a little less than 106, however, pipe, severely affects the friction factor computation and
it was found that the empirical formulas of Blasius and the energy line estimation. In addition, the internal
Scimemi for fibrocement may be also used (with good diameter of a plastic pipe may not always be constant
results). Absolute roughness from approximately along its axis, and the cross section shape may change
0.004 mm to 0.040 mm, or more, was determined by owing to external factors. A reduction or increase of just
trend analysis, which somewhat confirms the data 2% in the diameter (0.4 mm in a 20 mm pipe, for instance)
sometimes used in current hydraulic engineering appli- can be expected to introduce a change of around 10% or
cations, but more robust experiments with larger Re more.
424 A.F. Diogo and F.A. Vilela
o
LDPE - Nominal diameter 110 mm - Water temperature 24 C
0.040
Karman Prandtl Smooth Pipe
Colebrook White k=0.004 mm
Colebrook White k=0.050 mm
Blasius
Scimemi Fibrocement
Experimental
0.020
Friction Factor
0.010
0.005
1.00E+03 1.00E+04 1.00E+05 1.00E+06 1.00E+07
Reynolds Number
Figure 8. Pairs of values (Re, f) observed for the 110 mm LDPE pipe.
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