Eukaryotic Cell Definition

Eukaryotic cells are cells that contain a nucleus and organelles, and are enclosed by a plasma
membrane. Organisms that have eukaryotic cells include protozoa, fungi, plants and animals.
These organisms are grouped into the biological domain Eukaryota. Eukaryotic cells are larger
and more complex than prokaryotic cells, which are found in Archaea and Bacteria, the other
two domains of life.

Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells

Eukaryotic cells contain a variety of structures called organelles, which perform various
functions within the cell. Examples of organelles are ribosomes, which make proteins,
the endoplasmic reticulum, which sorts and packages the proteins, and mitochondria, which
produce the energy molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP). They also have a true nucleus,
which contains the genetic material DNA and is surrounded by a nuclear envelope. All of the
organelles are stabilized and given physical support through the cytoskeleton, which is also
involved in sending signals from one part of the cell to the other. In eukaryotic cells, the
cytoskeleton is composed mainly of three types of filaments: microtubules, microfilaments, and
intermediate filaments. The gel-like substance that surrounds all the organelles in the cell is
called cytosol.

The figure below shows the structure of a eukaryotic cell; this is an animal cell. The nucleus and
other organelles are shown. The cytosol is the blue substance surrounding all of the organelles.
Together, the cytosol with all organelles besides the nucleus are grouped as cytoplasm.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 Prokaryotic cells lack a defined nucleus, but have a region in the cell, termed the nucleoid,
in which a single chromosomal, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule is located.
 Archaeal membranes have replaced the fatty acids of bacterial membranes with isoprene;
some archaeal membranes are monolayer rather than bilayer.
 Prokaryotes can be further classified based on the composition of the cell wall in terms of
the amount of peptidoglycan present.
 Gram-positive organisms typically lack the outer membrane found in gram-negative
organisms and contain a large amount of peptidoglycan in the cell wall, roughly 90%.
 Gram-negative bacteria have a relatively thin cell wall composed of a few layers of
peptidoglycan.
 Gram-negative bacteria have a relatively thin cell wall composed of a few layers of
peptidoglycan.
Key Terms

 nucleoid: the irregularly-shaped region within a prokaryote cell where the genetic material
is localized
 plasmid: a circle of double-stranded DNA that is separate from the chromosomes, which
is found in bacteria and protozoa
 osmotic pressure: the hydrostatic pressure exerted by a solution across a semipermeable
membrane from a pure solvent

All living organisms can be sorted into one of two groups depending on the fundamental
structure of their cells: the prokaryotes and the eukaryotes. Prokaryotes are organisms made up
of cells that lack a cell nucleus or any membrane-encased organelles. Eukaryotes are organisms
made up of cells that possess a membrane-bound nucleus that holds genetic material as well as
membrane-bound organelles.
Understanding Cells and Cell Membranes
The cell is a fundamental component of our modern definition of life and living things. Cells are
regarded as the basic building blocks of life and are used in the elusive definition of what it
means to be "alive."
Cells keep chemical processes tidy and compartmentalized so individual cell processes do not
interfere with others and the cell can go about its business of metabolizing, reproducing, etc. To
achieve this, cell components are enclosed in a membrane which serves as a barrier between the
outside world and the cell's internal chemistry. The cell membrane is a selective barrier, meaning
that it lets some chemicals in and others out. In so doing it maintains the chemical balance
necessary for the cell to live.
The cell membrane regulates the crossing of chemicals in and out of the cell in three ways
including:
Diffusion (the tendency of solute molecules to minimize concentration and thus move from an
area of higher concentration towards an area of lower concentration until concentrations
equalize)
Osmosis (the movement of solvent across a selective boundary in order to equalize the
concentration of a solute that is unable to move across the boundary)
Selective transport (via membrane channels and membrane pumps)
Prokaryotes
Prokaryotes are organisms made up of cells that lack a cell nucleus or any membrane-encased
organelles. This means the genetic material DNA in prokaryotes is not bound within a nucleus.
In addition, the DNA is less structured in prokaryotes than in eukaryotes: in prokaryotes, DNA is
a single loop while in Eukaryotes DNA is organized into chromosomes. Most prokaryotes are
made up of just a single cell (unicellular) but there are a few that are made of collections of cells
(multicellular).
Scientists have divided the prokaryotes into two groups, the Bacteria, and the Archaea. Some
bacteria, including E Coli, Salmonella, and Listeria, are found in foods and can cause disease;
others are actually helpful to human digestion and other functions. Archaea were discovered to
be a unique life form which is capable of living indefinitely in extreme environments such as
hydrothermal vents or arctic ice.
A typical prokaryotic cell might contain the following parts:
Cell wall: the membrane surrounding and protecting the cell
Cytoplasm: all of the material inside a cell except the nucleus
Flagella and pili: protein-based filaments found on the outside of some prokaryotic cells
Nucleoid: a nucleus-like region of the cell where genetic material is kept
Plasmid: a small molecule of DNA that can reproduce independently
Eukaryotes
Eukaryotes are organisms made up of cells that possess a membrane-bound nucleus (that holds
DNA in the form of chromosomes) as well as membrane-bound organelles. Eukaryotic
organisms may be multicellular or single-celled organisms. All animals are eukaryotes. Other
eukaryotes include plants, fungi, and protists.
A typical eukaryotic cell is surrounded by a plasma membrane and contains many different
structures and organelles with a variety of functions. Examples include the chromosomes (a
structure of nucleic acids and protein which carry genetic information in the form of genes), and
the mitochondria (often described as the "powerhouse of the cell").
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a polymeric molecule essential in various biological roles
in coding, decoding, regulation, and expression of genes. RNA and DNA are nucleic acids, and,
along with lipids, proteins and carbohydrates, constitute the four major macromolecules essential
for all known forms of life. Like DNA, RNA is assembled as a chain of nucleotides, but unlike
DNA it is more often found in nature as a single-strand folded onto itself, rather than a paired
double-strand. Cellular organisms use messenger RNA (mRNA) to convey genetic information
(using the nitrogenous bases of guanine, uracil, adenine, and cytosine, denoted by the letters G,
U, A, and C) that directs synthesis of specific proteins. Many viruses encode their genetic
information using an RNA genome.
Some RNA molecules play an active role within cells by catalyzing biological reactions,
controlling gene expression, or sensing and communicating responses to cellular signals. One of
these active processes is protein synthesis, a universal function where RNA molecules direct the
assembly of proteins on ribosomes. This process uses transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules to
deliver amino acids to the ribosome, where ribosomal RNA (rRNA) then links amino acids
together to form proteins.
RNA, abbreviation of ribonucleic acid, complex compound of high molecular weight that
functions in cellular protein synthesis and replaces DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) as a carrier
of genetic codes in some viruses. RNA consists of ribose nucleotides (nitrogenous bases
appended to a ribose sugar) attached by phosphodiester bonds, forming strands of varying
lengths. The nitrogenous bases in RNA are adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil, which
replaces thymine in DNA.

The ribose sugar of RNA is a cyclical structure consisting of five carbonsand one oxygen. The
presence of a chemically reactive hydroxyl (−OH) group attached to the second carbon group in
the ribose sugar molecule makes RNA prone to hydrolysis. This chemical lability of RNA,
compared with DNA, which does not have a reactive −OH group in the same position on the
sugar moiety (deoxyribose), is thought to be one reason why DNA evolved to be the preferred
carrier of genetic information in most organisms. The structure of the RNA molecule was
described by R.W. Holley in 1965.

RNA Structure

RNA typically is a single-stranded biopolymer. However, the presence of self-complementary

sequences in the RNA strand leads to intrachain base-pairing and folding of the ribonucleotide
chain into complex structural forms consisting of bulges and helices. The three-dimensional
structure of RNA is critical to its stability and function, allowing the ribose sugar and the
nitrogenous bases to be modified in numerous different ways by cellular enzymes that attach
chemical groups (e.g., methyl groups) to the chain. Such modifications enable the formation
of chemical bonds between distant regions in the RNA strand, leading to complex contortions in
the RNA chain, which further stabilizes the RNA structure. Molecules with weak structural
modifications and stabilization may be readily destroyed. As an example, in an initiator transfer
RNA (tRNA) molecule that lacks a methyl group (tRNAiMet), modification at position 58 of the
tRNA chain renders the molecule unstable and hence nonfunctional; the nonfunctional chain is
destroyed by cellular tRNA quality control mechanisms.
RNAs can also form complexes with molecules known as ribonucleoproteins (RNPs). The RNA
portion of at least one cellular RNP has been shown to act as a biological catalyst, a function
previously ascribed only to proteins.
Types And Functions Of RNA

Of the many types of RNA, the three most well-known and most commonly studied
are messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA), which are
present in all organisms. These and other types of RNAs primarily carry out biochemical
reactions, similar to enzymes. Some, however, also have complex regulatory functions in cells.
Owing to their involvement in many regulatory processes, to their abundance, and to
their diverse functions, RNAs play important roles in both normal cellular processes and
diseases.
In protein synthesis, mRNA carries genetic codes from the DNA in the nucleus to ribosomes, the
sites of protein translation in the cytoplasm. Ribosomes are composed of rRNA and protein.
The ribosome protein subunits are encoded by rRNA and are synthesized in the nucleolus. Once
fully assembled, they move to the cytoplasm, where, as key regulators of translation, they “read”
the code carried by mRNA. A sequence of three nitrogenous bases in mRNA specifies
incorporation of a specific amino acid in the sequence that makes up the protein. Molecules of
tRNA (sometimes also called soluble, or activator, RNA), which contain fewer than 100
nucleotides, bring the specified amino acids to the ribosomes, where they are linked to form
proteins.