Chapter 3

Transport Layer

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Transport Layer 3-1

Chapter 3: Transport Layer
our goals:
❖ understand ❖ learn about Internet
principles behind transport layer protocols:
transport layer ▪ UDP: connectionless
services: transport
▪ multiplexing, ▪ TCP: connection-oriented
demultiplexing reliable transport
▪ reliable data transfer ▪ TCP congestion control
▪ flow control
▪ congestion control

Transport Layer 3-2

Chapter 3 outline
3.1 transport-layer 3.5 connection-oriented
services transport: TCP
3.2 multiplexing and ▪ segment structure
demultiplexing ▪ reliable data transfer
3.3 connectionless ▪ flow control
transport: UDP ▪ connection
management
3.4 principles of reliable
data transfer 3.6 principles of
congestion control
3.7 TCP congestion control

Transport Layer 3-3

Transport services and protocols
application
transport
❖ provide logical network
data link
communication between physical

app processes running on

lo
different hosts

gi
ca
le
❖ transport protocols run in

nd
end systems

-e
nd
▪ send side: breaks app

tra
ns
messages into segments,

po
rt
passes to network layer application
▪ rcv side: reassembles transport
network
segments into messages, data link
physical
passes to app layer
❖ more than one transport
protocol available to apps
▪ Internet: TCP and UDP Transport Layer 3-4
Transport vs. network layer
❖ network layer: household
logical 12 kids analogy:
in Ann’s house sending
communication letters to 12 kids in Bill’s
between hosts house:
❖ transport layer: ❖ hosts = houses
logical ❖ processes = kids
communication ❖ app messages = letters in
envelopes
between processes ❖ transport protocol = Ann
▪ relies on, enhances, and Bill who demux to
network layer in-house siblings
services ❖ network-layer protocol =
postal service

Transport Layer 3-5

Internet transport-layer protocols
application

❖ reliable, in-order transport

network

delivery (TCP)
data link
physical
network

▪ congestion control network data link

lo
data link physical

gi
▪ flow control
physical

ca
network

le
data link

nd
▪ connection setup
physical

-e
n
d
network

unreliable, unordered

tra
❖
data link

ns
physical

delivery: UDP

po
network

rt
data link

▪ no-frills extension of
physical
network
data link application
“best-effort” IP physical
network
data link
transport
network

services not available: physical data link

❖ physical

▪ delay guarantees
▪ bandwidth guarantees

Transport Layer 3-6

Chapter 3 outline
3.1 transport-layer 3.5 connection-oriented
services transport: TCP
3.2 multiplexing and ▪ segment structure
demultiplexing ▪ reliable data transfer
3.3 connectionless ▪ flow control
transport: UDP ▪ connection
management
3.4 principles of reliable
data transfer 3.6 principles of
congestion control
3.7 TCP congestion control

Transport Layer 3-7

Multiplexing/demultiplexing
multiplexing at
handle data from multiple
sender: demultiplexing at
use header info to deliver
receiver:
sockets, add transport header received segments to
(later used for correct
demultiplexing) socket
application

application P1 P2 application socket

P3 transport P4
process
transport network transport
network link network
link physical link
physical physical

Transport Layer 3-8

How demultiplexing works
❖ host receives IP 32 bits
datagrams source port # dest port #
▪ each datagram has source
IP address, destination IP other header fields
address
▪ each datagram carries one
transport-layer segment application
▪ each segment has source, data
destination port number (payload)
❖ host uses IP addresses &
port numbers to direct TCP/UDP segment format
segment to appropriate
socket
Transport Layer 3-9
 Connectionless demultiplexing
❖ recall: created socket has
host-local port #:
DatagramSocket mySocket1
= new DatagramSocket(12534);
❖ when host receives
UDP segment:
▪ checks destination port
# in segment
▪ directs UDP segment to
socket with that port #
❖ recall: when creating
datagram to send into
UDP socket, must specify
▪ destination IP address
▪ destination port #
IP datagrams with same
dest. port #, but different
source IP addresses
and/or source port
numbers will be directed
to same socket at dest
Transport Layer 3-10
Connectionless demux:
example
DatagramSocket
DatagramSocket serverSocket = new
DatagramSocket DatagramSocket
mySocket2 = new mySocket1 = new
DatagramSocket (6428); DatagramSocket
(9157); application (5775);
application application
P1
P3 P4
transport
transport transport
network
network link network
link physical link
physical physical

source port: 6428 source port: ?

dest port: 9157 dest port: ?

source port: 9157 source port: ?

dest port: 6428 dest port: ?
Transport Layer 3-11
 Connection-oriented demux
❖ TCP socket identified ❖ server host may
by 4-tuple: support many
▪ source IP address simultaneous TCP
▪ source port number sockets:
▪ dest IP address ▪ each socket identified by
▪ dest port number its own 4-tuple
❖ demux: receiver uses ❖ web servers have
all four values to direct different sockets for
segment to each connecting client
appropriate socket ▪ non-persistent HTTP will
have different socket for
each request

Transport Layer 3-12

 Connection-oriented demux:
example
application
application P4 P5 P6 application
P3 P2 P3
transport
transport transport
network
network link network
link physical link
physical physical
server: IP
address B

host: IP source IP,port: B,80 host: IP

address A dest IP,port: A,9157 source IP,port: C,5775 address C
dest IP,port: B,80
source IP,port: A,9157
dest IP, port: B,80
source IP,port: C,9157
dest IP,port: B,80
three segments, all destined to IP address: B,
dest port: 80 are demultiplexed to different sockets Transport Layer 3-13
 Connection-oriented demux:
example
threaded server
application
application application
P4
P3 P2 P3
transport
transport transport
network
network link network
link physical link
physical physical
server: IP
address B

host: IP source IP,port: B,80 host: IP

address A dest IP,port: A,9157 source IP,port: C,5775 address C
dest IP,port: B,80
source IP,port: A,9157
dest IP, port: B,80
source IP,port: C,9157
dest IP,port: B,80

Transport Layer 3-14

Chapter 3 outline
3.1 transport-layer 3.5 connection-oriented
services transport: TCP
3.2 multiplexing and ▪ segment structure
demultiplexing ▪ reliable data transfer
3.3 connectionless ▪ flow control
transport: UDP ▪ connection
management
3.4 principles of reliable
data transfer 3.6 principles of
congestion control
3.7 TCP congestion control

Transport Layer 3-15

UDP: User Datagram Protocol [RFC 768]
❖ “no frills,” “bare bones” ❖ UDP use:
Internet transport ▪ streaming multimedia
protocol apps (loss tolerant, rate
❖ “best effort” service, UDP sensitive)
segments may be: ▪ DNS
▪ lost ▪ SNMP
▪ delivered out-of-order ❖ reliable transfer over
to app
UDP:
❖ connectionless:
▪ add reliability at
▪ no handshaking application layer
between UDP sender,
receiver ▪ application-specific error
recovery!
▪ each UDP segment
handled
independently of
others Transport Layer 3-16
UDP: segment header
length, in bytes of
32 bits UDP segment,
source port # dest port # including header

length checksum
why is there a
❖ UDP?
no connection
application establishment (which can
data add delay)
(payload)
❖ simple: no connection
state at sender, receiver
❖ small header size
UDP segment format ❖ no congestion control:
UDP can blast away as
fast as desired
Transport Layer 3-17
UDP checksum
Goal: detect “errors” (e.g., flipped bits) in
transmitted segment

sender: receiver:
❖ treat segment contents, ❖ compute checksum of
including header fields, received segment
as sequence of 16-bit ❖ check if computed
integers checksum equals checksum
❖ checksum: addition field value:
(one’s complement
sum) of segment ▪ NO - error detected
contents ▪ YES - no error detected.
❖ sender puts checksum But maybe errors
value into UDP nonetheless? More later
checksum field ….
Transport Layer 3-18
Internet checksum: example
example: add two 16-bit integers
1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

wraparound 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1

sum 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
checksum 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1

Note: when adding numbers, a carryout from the most

significant bit needs to be added to the result

Transport Layer 3-19

Chapter 3 outline
3.1 transport-layer 3.5 connection-oriented
services transport: TCP
3.2 multiplexing and ▪ segment structure
demultiplexing ▪ reliable data transfer
3.3 connectionless ▪ flow control
transport: UDP ▪ connection
management
3.4 principles of reliable
data transfer 3.6 principles of
congestion control
3.7 TCP congestion control

Transport Layer 3-20

Principles of reliable data
transfer
❖ important in application, transport, link layers
▪ top-10 list of important networking topics!

❖ characteristics of unreliable channel will determine

complexity of reliable data transfer protocol (rdt)
Transport Layer 3-21
Principles of reliable data
transfer
❖ important in application, transport, link layers
▪ top-10 list of important networking topics!

❖ characteristics of unreliable channel will determine

complexity of reliable data transfer protocol (rdt)
Transport Layer 3-22
Principles of reliable data
transfer
❖ important in application, transport, link layers
▪ top-10 list of important networking topics!

❖ characteristics of unreliable channel will determine

complexity of reliable data transfer protocol (rdt)
Transport Layer 3-23
Reliable data transfer: getting started

rdt_send(): called from above, deliver_data(): called by

(e.g., by app.). Passed data to rdt to deliver data to upper
deliver to receiver upper layer

send receive
side side

udt_send(): called by rdt, rdt_rcv(): called when packet

to transfer packet over arrives on rcv-side of channel
unreliable channel to receiver

Transport Layer 3-24

Reliable data transfer: getting started
we’ll:
❖ incrementally develop sender, receiver sides of
reliable data transfer protocol (rdt)
❖ consider only unidirectional data transfer
▪ but control info will flow on both directions!
❖ use finite state machines (FSM) to specify
sender, receiver
event causing state transition
actions taken on state transition
state: when in this
“state” next state state state
uniquely determined 1 event
by next event
2
actions

Transport Layer 3-25

rdt1.0: reliable transfer over a reliable
channel
❖ underlying channel perfectly reliable
▪ no bit errors
▪ no loss of packets
❖ separate FSMs for sender, receiver:
▪ sender sends data into underlying channel
▪ receiver reads data from underlying channel

Wait for rdt_send(data) Wait for rdt_rcv(packet)

call from call from extract (packet,data)
above packet = make_pkt(data) below deliver_data(data)
udt_send(packet)

sender receiver

Transport Layer 3-26

rdt2.0: channel with bit errors
❖ underlying channel may flip bits in packet
▪ checksum to detect bit errors
❖ the question: how to recover from errors:
▪ acknowledgements (ACKs): receiver explicitly tells
sender that pkt received OK
▪ negative acknowledgements (NAKs): receiver explicitly
tells sender that pkt had errors
▪ sender retransmits
How do humans recover
pkt on receipt from
of NAK
❖ new mechanisms in rdt2.0 “errors” (beyond rdt1.0):
▪ error detection
during
▪ receiver feedback: conversation?
control msgs (ACK,NAK)
rcvr->sender

Transport Layer 3-27

rdt2.0: channel with bit errors
❖ underlying channel may flip bits in packet
▪ checksum to detect bit errors
❖ the question: how to recover from errors:
▪ acknowledgements (ACKs): receiver explicitly tells
sender that pkt received OK
▪ negative acknowledgements (NAKs): receiver explicitly
tells sender that pkt had errors
▪ sender retransmits pkt on receipt of NAK
❖ new mechanisms in rdt2.0 (beyond rdt1.0):
▪ error detection
▪ feedback: control msgs (ACK,NAK) from receiver to
sender

Transport Layer 3-28

rdt2.0: FSM specification
rdt_send(data)
sndpkt = make_pkt(data, checksum) receiver
udt_send(sndpkt)
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) &&
isNAK(rcvpkt)
Wait for Wait for rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) &&
call from ACK or udt_send(sndpkt) corrupt(rcvpkt)
above NAK
udt_send(NAK)

rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) && isACK(rcvpkt)

Wait for
Λ
call from
below
sender
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) &&
notcorrupt(rcvpkt)
extract(rcvpkt,data)
deliver_data(data)
udt_send(ACK)

Transport Layer 3-29

rdt2.0: operation with no errors
rdt_send(data)
snkpkt = make_pkt(data, checksum)
udt_send(sndpkt)
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) &&
isNAK(rcvpkt)
Wait for Wait for rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) &&
call from ACK or udt_send(sndpkt) corrupt(rcvpkt)
above NAK
udt_send(NAK)

rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) && isACK(rcvpkt)

Wait for
Λ call from
below

rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) &&
notcorrupt(rcvpkt)
extract(rcvpkt,data)
deliver_data(data)
udt_send(ACK)

Transport Layer 3-30

rdt2.0: error scenario
rdt_send(data)
snkpkt = make_pkt(data, checksum)
udt_send(sndpkt)
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) &&
isNAK(rcvpkt)
Wait for Wait for rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) &&
call from ACK or udt_send(sndpkt) corrupt(rcvpkt)
above NAK
udt_send(NAK)

rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) && isACK(rcvpkt)

Wait for
Λ call from
below

rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) &&
notcorrupt(rcvpkt)
extract(rcvpkt,data)
deliver_data(data)
udt_send(ACK)

Transport Layer 3-31

rdt2.0 has a fatal flaw!
what happens if handling duplicates:
ACK/NAK corrupted? ❖ sender retransmits
❖ sender doesn’t know current pkt if ACK/NAK
what happened at corrupted
receiver!
❖ sender adds sequence
❖ can’t just retransmit: number to each pkt
possible duplicate
❖ receiver discards (doesn’t
deliver up) duplicate pkt
stop and
sender sends one
wait
packet,
then waits for receiver
response
Transport Layer 3-32
rdt2.1: sender, handles garbled ACK/NAKs
rdt_send(data)
sndpkt = make_pkt(0, data, checksum)
udt_send(sndpkt) rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) &&
( corrupt(rcvpkt) ||
Wait for Wait for
ACK or isNAK(rcvpkt) )
call 0 from
NAK 0 udt_send(sndpkt)
above
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt)
&& notcorrupt(rcvpkt) rdt_rcv(rcvpkt)
&& isACK(rcvpkt) && notcorrupt(rcvpkt)
&& isACK(rcvpkt)
Λ
Λ
Wait for Wait for
ACK or call 1 from
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) && NAK 1 above
( corrupt(rcvpkt) ||
isNAK(rcvpkt) ) rdt_send(data)

udt_send(sndpkt) sndpkt = make_pkt(1, data, checksum)

udt_send(sndpkt)

Transport Layer 3-33

 rdt2.1: receiver, handles garbled ACK/NAKs
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) && notcorrupt(rcvpkt)
&& has_seq0(rcvpkt)
extract(rcvpkt,data)
deliver_data(data)
sndpkt = make_pkt(ACK, chksum)
udt_send(sndpkt)
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) && (corrupt(rcvpkt) rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) && (corrupt(rcvpkt)
sndpkt = make_pkt(NAK, chksum) sndpkt = make_pkt(NAK, chksum)
udt_send(sndpkt) udt_send(sndpkt)
Wait for Wait for
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) && 0 from 1 from rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) &&
not corrupt(rcvpkt) && below below not corrupt(rcvpkt) &&
has_seq1(rcvpkt) has_seq0(rcvpkt)
sndpkt = make_pkt(ACK, chksum) sndpkt = make_pkt(ACK, chksum)
udt_send(sndpkt) udt_send(sndpkt)
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) && notcorrupt(rcvpkt)
&& has_seq1(rcvpkt)

extract(rcvpkt,data)
deliver_data(data)
sndpkt = make_pkt(ACK, chksum)
udt_send(sndpkt)

Transport Layer 3-34

rdt2.1: discussion
sender: receiver:
❖ seq # added to pkt ❖ must check if
❖ two seq. #’s (0,1) will received packet is
suffice. Why? duplicate
❖ must check if
▪ state indicates
whether 0 or 1 is
received ACK/NAK expected pkt seq #
corrupted
❖ note: receiver can not
❖ twice as many states
know if its last
▪ state must ACK/NAK received
“remember” whether
“expected” pkt should OK at sender
have seq # of 0 or 1
Transport Layer 3-35
rdt2.2: a NAK-free protocol

❖ same functionality as rdt2.1, using ACKs only

❖ instead of NAK, receiver sends ACK for last pkt
received OK
▪ receiver must explicitly include seq # of pkt being
ACKed
❖ duplicate ACK at sender results in same action as
NAK: retransmit current pkt

Transport Layer 3-36

 rdt2.2: sender, receiver fragments
rdt_send(data)
sndpkt = make_pkt(0, data, checksum)
udt_send(sndpkt) rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) &&
( corrupt(rcvpkt) ||
Wait for Wait for
ACK isACK(rcvpkt,1) )
call 0 from
above 0 udt_send(sndpkt)
sender FSM
fragment rdt_rcv(rcvpkt)
&& notcorrupt(rcvpkt)
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) && && isACK(rcvpkt,0)
(corrupt(rcvpkt) || Λ
has_seq1(rcvpkt)) Wait for receiver FSM
0 from
udt_send(sndpkt) below fragment
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) && notcorrupt(rcvpkt)
&& has_seq1(rcvpkt)
extract(rcvpkt,data)
deliver_data(data)
sndpkt = make_pkt(ACK1, chksum)
udt_send(sndpkt) Transport Layer 3-37
rdt3.0: channels with errors and loss

new assumption: approach: sender waits

underlying channel “reasonable” amount of
can also lose packets time for ACK
(data, ACKs) ❖ retransmits if no ACK
▪ checksum, seq. #, received in this time
ACKs, retransmissions ❖ if pkt (or ACK) just delayed
will be of help … but (not lost):
not enough ▪ retransmission will be
duplicate, but seq. #’s
already handles this
▪ receiver must specify
seq # of pkt being
ACKed
❖ requires countdown timer
Transport Layer 3-38
rdt3.0 sender
rdt_send(data)
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) &&
sndpkt = make_pkt(0, data, checksum) ( corrupt(rcvpkt) ||
udt_send(sndpkt) isACK(rcvpkt,1) )
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) start_timer Λ
Λ Wait for Wait
for timeout
call 0from
ACK0 udt_send(sndpkt)
above
start_timer
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt)
&& notcorrupt(rcvpkt) rdt_rcv(rcvpkt)
&& isACK(rcvpkt,1) && notcorrupt(rcvpkt)
stop_timer && isACK(rcvpkt,0)
stop_timer
Wait Wait for
timeout for call 1 from
udt_send(sndpkt) ACK1 above
start_timer rdt_rcv(rcvpkt)
rdt_send(data) Λ
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) &&
( corrupt(rcvpkt) || sndpkt = make_pkt(1, data, checksum)
isACK(rcvpkt,0) ) udt_send(sndpkt)
start_timer
Λ

Transport Layer 3-39

 rdt3.0 in action
sender receiver sender receiver
send pkt0 pkt0 send pkt0 pkt0
rcv pkt0 rcv pkt0
ack0 send ack0 ack0 send ack0
rcv ack0 rcv ack0
send pkt1 pkt1 send pkt1 pkt1
rcv pkt1 X
ack1 send ack1 loss
rcv ack1
send pkt0 pkt0
rcv pkt0 timeout
ack0 send ack0 resend pkt1 pkt1
rcv pkt1
ack1 send ack1
rcv ack1
send pkt0 pkt0
(a) no loss rcv pkt0
ack0 send ack0

(b) packet loss

Transport Layer 3-40
 rdt3.0 in action
sender receiver
sender receiver send pkt0 pkt0
send pkt0 pkt0 rcv pkt0
ack0 send ack0
rcv pkt0
send ack0 rcv ack0
ack0 send pkt1 pkt1
rcv ack0 rcv pkt1
send pkt1 pkt1
rcv pkt1 send ack1
ack1 ack1
send ack1
X
loss timeout
resend pkt1 pkt1
timeout rcv pkt1
resend pkt1 pkt1 rcv ack1 pkt0 (detect duplicate)
rcv pkt1 send pkt0 send ack1
(detect duplicate) ack1
ack1 send ack1 rcv ack1 rcv pkt0
rcv ack1 ack0 send ack0
pkt0 send pkt0 pkt0
send pkt0 rcv pkt0
rcv pkt0 ack0 (detect duplicate)
ack0 send ack0 send ack0

(c) ACK loss (d) premature timeout/ delayed ACK

Transport Layer 3-41

Performance of rdt3.0
❖ rdt3.0 is correct, but performance stinks
❖ e.g.: 1 Gbps link, 15 ms prop. delay, 8000 bit packet:
L 8000 bits
Dtrans = R = = 8 microsecs
109 bits/sec

▪ U sender: utilization – fraction of time sender busy sending

▪ if RTT=30 msec, 1KB pkt every 30 msec: 33kB/sec thruput

over 1 Gbps link
❖ network protocol limits use of physical resources!
Transport Layer 3-42
 rdt3.0: stop-and-wait operation
sender receiver
first packet bit transmitted, t = 0
last packet bit transmitted, t = L / R

first packet bit arrives

RTT last packet bit arrives, send ACK

ACK arrives, send next

packet, t = RTT + L / R

Transport Layer 3-43

Pipelined protocols
pipelining: sender allows multiple, “in-flight”,
yet-to-be-acknowledged pkts
▪ range of sequence numbers must be increased
▪ buffering at sender and/or receiver

❖ two generic forms of pipelined protocols:

go-Back-N, selective repeat
Transport Layer 3-44
 Pipelining: increased utilization
sender
first packet bit transmitted, t = 0
last bit transmitted, t = L / R
RTT
ACK arrives, send next
packet, t = RTT + L / R
receiver
first packet bit arrives
last packet bit arrives, send ACK
last bit of 2nd packet arrives, send ACK
last bit of 3rd packet arrives, send ACK
3-packet pipelining increases
utilization by a factor of 3!
Transport Layer 3-45
Pipelined protocols: overview
Go-back-N:
❖ sender can have up to
N unacked packets in
pipeline
❖ receiver only sends
cumulative ack
▪ doesn’t ack packet if
there’s a gap
❖ sender has timer for
oldest unacked packet
▪ when timer expires,
retransmit all unacked
packets
Selective Repeat:
❖ sender can have up to N
unack’ed packets in
pipeline
❖ rcvr sends individual ack
for each packet
❖ sender maintains timer
for each unacked packet
▪ when timer expires,
retransmit only that
unacked packet
Transport Layer 3-46
Go-Back-N: sender
❖ k-bit seq # in pkt header
❖ “window” of up to N, consecutive unack’ed pkts allowed

❖ ACK(n): ACKs all pkts up to, including seq # n - “cumulative

ACK”
▪ may receive duplicate ACKs (see receiver)
❖ timer for oldest in-flight pkt
❖ timeout(n): retransmit packet n and all higher seq # pkts in
window
Transport Layer 3-47
GBN: sender extended FSM
rdt_send(data)
if (nextseqnum < base+N) {
sndpkt[nextseqnum] = make_pkt(nextseqnum,data,chksum)
udt_send(sndpkt[nextseqnum])
if (base == nextseqnum)
start_timer
nextseqnum++
}
Λ else
refuse_data(data)
base=1
nextseqnum=1
timeout
start_timer
Wait udt_send(sndpkt[base])
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) udt_send(sndpkt[base+1])
&& corrupt(rcvpkt) …
udt_send(sndpkt[nextseqnum-1])
rdt_rcv(rcvpkt) &&
notcorrupt(rcvpkt)
base = getacknum(rcvpkt)+1
If (base == nextseqnum)
stop_timer
else
start_timer
Transport Layer 3-48
GBN: receiver extended FSM
default
udt_send(sndpkt) rdt_rcv(rcvpkt)
&& notcurrupt(rcvpkt)
Λ && hasseqnum(rcvpkt,expectedseqnum)
expectedseqnum=1 Wait extract(rcvpkt,data)
sndpkt = deliver_data(data)
make_pkt(expectedseqnum,ACK,chksum) sndpkt = make_pkt(expectedseqnum,ACK,chksum)
udt_send(sndpkt)
expectedseqnum++

ACK-only: always send ACK for correctly-received

pkt with highest in-order seq #
▪ may generate duplicate ACKs
▪ need only remember expectedseqnum
❖ out-of-order pkt:
▪ discard (don’t buffer): no receiver buffering!
▪ re-ACK pkt with highest in-order seq #
Transport Layer 3-49
 GBN in action
sender window (N=4) sender receiver
012345678 send pkt0
012345678 send pkt1
send pkt2 receive pkt0, send ack0
012345678
send pkt3 Xloss receive pkt1, send ack1
012345678
(wait)
receive pkt3, discard,
012345678 rcv ack0, send pkt4 (re)send ack1
012345678 rcv ack1, send pkt5 receive pkt4, discard,
(re)send ack1
ignore duplicate ACK receive pkt5, discard,
(re)send ack1
pkt 2 timeout
012345678 send pkt2
012345678 send pkt3
012345678 send pkt4 rcv pkt2, deliver, send ack2
012345678 send pkt5 rcv pkt3, deliver, send ack3
rcv pkt4, deliver, send ack4
rcv pkt5, deliver, send ack5

Transport Layer 3-50

Selective repeat
❖ receiver individually acknowledges all correctly
received pkts
▪ buffers pkts, as needed, for eventual in-order
delivery to upper layer
❖ sender only resends pkts for which ACK not
received
▪ sender timer for each unACKed pkt
❖ sender window
▪ N consecutive seq #’s
▪ limits seq #s of sent, unACKed pkts

Transport Layer 3-51

Selective repeat: sender, receiver windows

Transport Layer 3-52

Selective repeat
sende
datar from above:
❖ if next available seq # in
window, send pkt
timeout(n):
❖ resend pkt n, restart
timer
ACK(n) in [sendbase,sendbase+N]:
❖ mark pkt n as received
❖ if n smallest unACKed
pkt, advance window
base to next unACKed
seq #
receiver
pkt n in [rcvbase, rcvbase+N-1]
❖ send ACK(n)
❖ out-of-order: buffer
❖ in-order: deliver (also
deliver buffered, in-order
pkts), advance window to
next not-yet-received
pkt
pkt n in [rcvbase-N,rcvbase-1]
❖ ACK(n)
otherwise:
❖ ignore
Transport Layer 3-53
 Selective repeat in action
sender window (N=4) sender receiver
012345678 send pkt0
012345678 send pkt1
send pkt2 receive pkt0, send ack0
012345678
send pkt3 Xloss receive pkt1, send ack1
012345678
(wait)
receive pkt3, buffer,
012345678 rcv ack0, send pkt4 send ack3
012345678 rcv ack1, send pkt5 receive pkt4, buffer,
send ack4
record ack3 arrived receive pkt5, buffer,
send ack5
pkt 2 timeout
012345678 send pkt2
012345678 record ack4 arrived
012345678 rcv pkt2; deliver pkt2,
record ack5 arrived
012345678 pkt3, pkt4, pkt5; send ack2

Q: what happens when ack2 arrives?

Transport Layer 3-54

 sender window receiver window

Selective repeat: (after receipt) (after receipt)

dilemma 0123012
0123012
pkt0
pkt1 0123012
0123012 pkt2 0123012
example: 0123012 pkt3
0123012

❖ seq #’s: 0, 1, 2, 3 0123012

X

❖ window size=3 pkt0 will accept packet

with seq number 0
(a) no problem
❖ receiver sees no
difference in two receiver can’t see sender side.
scenarios! receiver behavior identical in both cases!
something’s (very) wrong!
❖ duplicate data
accepted as new in 0123012 pkt0

(b) 0123012 pkt1 0123012

0123012 pkt2 0123012
X 0123012
Q: what relationship X
between seq # size timeout
retransmit pkt0 X
and window size to 0123012 pkt0
will accept packet
avoid problem in (b)? (b) oops!
with seq number 0

Transport Layer 3-55

Chapter 3 outline
3.1 transport-layer 3.5 connection-oriented
services transport: TCP
3.2 multiplexing and ▪ segment structure
demultiplexing ▪ reliable data transfer
3.3 connectionless ▪ flow control
transport: UDP ▪ connection
management
3.4 principles of reliable
data transfer 3.6 principles of
congestion control
3.7 TCP congestion control

Transport Layer 3-56

TCP: Overview RFCs: 793,1122,1323, 2018, 2581

❖ point-to-point: ❖ full duplex data:

▪ one sender, one ▪ bi-directional data flow
receiver in same connection
❖ reliable, in-order byte ▪ MSS: maximum
steam: segment size
▪ no “message ❖ connection-oriented:
boundaries” ▪ handshaking (exchange
❖ pipelined: of control msgs) inits
sender, receiver state
▪ TCP congestion and before data exchange
flow control set window
size ❖ flow controlled:
▪ sender will not
overwhelm receiver
Transport Layer 3-57
 TCP segment structure
32 bits
URG: urgent data counting
(generally not used) source port # dest port #
by bytes
sequence number of data
ACK: ACK #
valid acknowledgement number (not segments!)
head not
PSH: push data now len used
UAP R S F receive window
(generally not used) # bytes
checksum Urg data pointer
rcvr willing
RST, SYN, FIN: options (variable length) to accept
connection estab
(setup, teardown
commands)
application
Internet data
checksum (variable length)
(as in UDP)

Transport Layer 3-58

TCP seq. numbers, ACKs
outgoing segment from sender
sequence numbers: source port # dest port #
sequence number
▪byte stream “number” of acknowledgement number

first byte in segment’s checksum

rwnd
urg pointer
data window size
acknowledgements: N

▪seq # of next byte

expected from other side sender sequence number space
▪cumulative ACK
Q: how receiver handles sent
ACKed
sent,
not-yet
usable not
but not usable
out-of-order segments ACKed
(“in-flight”)
yet sent

▪A: TCP spec doesn’t say, incoming segment to sender

- up to implementor source port # dest port #
sequence number
acknowledgement number
A rwnd
checksum urg pointer

Transport Layer 3-59

TCP seq. numbers, ACKs
Host A Host B

User
types
‘C’ Seq=42, ACK=79, data = ‘C’
host ACKs
receipt of
‘C’, echoes
Seq=79, ACK=43, data = ‘C’ back ‘C’
host ACKs
receipt
of echoed
‘C’ Seq=43, ACK=80

simple telnet scenario

Transport Layer 3-60

TCP round trip time, timeout
Q: how to set TCP Q: how to estimate RTT?
timeout value? ❖ SampleRTT: measured
time from segment
❖ longer than RTT transmission until ACK
▪ but RTT varies receipt
❖ too short: premature ▪ ignore retransmissions
timeout, ❖ SampleRTT will vary, want
unnecessary estimated RTT “smoother”
retransmissions ▪ average several recent
measurements, not just
❖ too long: slow current SampleRTT
reaction to segment
loss

Transport Layer 3-61

TCP round trip time, timeout
EstimatedRTT = (1- α)*EstimatedRTT + α*SampleRTT

❖ exponential weighted moving average

❖ influence of past sample decreases exponentially
fast
❖ typical value: α = 0.125
RTT: gaia.cs.umass.edu to fantasia.eurecom.fr
(milliseconds)
RTT

sampleRTT
EstimatedRTT

time (seconds) Transport Layer 3-62

TCP round trip time, timeout
❖ timeout interval: EstimatedRTT plus “safety
margin”
▪ large variation in EstimatedRTT -> larger safety margin
❖ estimate
DevRTTSampleRTT deviation
= (1-β)*DevRTT + from EstimatedRTT:
β*|SampleRTT-EstimatedRTT|
(typically, β = 0.25)

TimeoutInterval = EstimatedRTT + 4*DevRTT

estimated RTT “safety margin”

Transport Layer 3-63

Chapter 3 outline
3.1 transport-layer 3.5 connection-oriented
services transport: TCP
3.2 multiplexing and ▪ segment structure
demultiplexing ▪ reliable data transfer
3.3 connectionless ▪ flow control
transport: UDP ▪ connection
management
3.4 principles of reliable
data transfer 3.6 principles of
congestion control
3.7 TCP congestion control

Transport Layer 3-64

TCP reliable data transfer
❖ TCP creates rdt service
on top of IP’s unreliable
service
▪ pipelined segments
▪ cumulative acks let’s initially consider
▪ single retransmission simplified TCP sender:
timer ▪ ignore duplicate acks
❖ retransmissions ▪ ignore flow control,
triggered by: congestion control
▪ timeout events
▪ duplicate acks

Transport Layer 3-65

TCP sender events:
data rcvd from app: timeout:
❖ create segment with ❖ retransmit segment
seq # that caused timeout
❖ seq # is byte-stream ❖ restart timer
number of first data ack rcvd:
byte in segment ❖ if ack acknowledges
❖ start timer if not previously unacked
already running segments
▪ think of timer as for ▪ update what is known
oldest unacked to be ACKed
segment ▪ start timer if there are
▪ expiration interval: still unacked segments
TimeOutInterval

Transport Layer 3-66

TCP sender (simplified)
data received from application above
create segment, seq. #: NextSeqNum
pass segment to IP (i.e., “send”)
NextSeqNum = NextSeqNum + length(data)
if (timer currently not running)
Λ start timer
NextSeqNum = InitialSeqNum wait
SendBase = InitialSeqNum for
event timeout
retransmit not-yet-acked segment
with smallest seq. #
start timer
ACK received, with ACK field value y
if (y > SendBase) {
SendBase = y
/* SendBase–1: last cumulatively ACKed byte */
if (there are currently not-yet-acked segments)
start timer
else stop timer
} Transport Layer 3-67
TCP: retransmission scenarios
Host A Host B Host A Host B

SendBase=92
Seq=92, 8 bytes of data Seq=92, 8 bytes of data

Seq=100, 20 bytes of data

timeo

timeo
ACK=100
ut

ut
X
ACK=100
ACK=120

Seq=92, 8 bytes of data Seq=92, 8

SendBase=100 bytes of data
SendBase=120
ACK=100
ACK=120

SendBase=120

lost ACK scenario premature timeout

Transport Layer 3-68
TCP: retransmission scenarios
Host A Host B

Seq=92, 8 bytes of data

Seq=100, 20 bytes of data

ACK=100
timeo

X
ut

ACK=120

Seq=120, 15 bytes of data

cumulative ACK
Transport Layer 3-69
TCP ACK generation [RFC 1122, RFC 2581]
event at receiver TCP receiver action
arrival of in-order segment with delayed ACK. Wait up to 500ms
expected seq #. All data up to for next segment. If no next segment,
expected seq # already ACKed send ACK

arrival of in-order segment with immediately send single cumulative

expected seq #. One other ACK, ACKing both in-order segments
segment has ACK pending

arrival of out-of-order segment immediately send duplicate ACK,

higher-than-expect seq. # . indicating seq. # of next expected byte
Gap detected

arrival of segment that immediate send ACK, provided that

partially or completely fills gap segment starts at lower end of gap

Transport Layer 3-70

TCP fast retransmit
❖ time-out period
often relatively long: TCP fast retransmit
▪ long delay before if sender receives 3
resending lost packet ACKs for same data
❖ detect lost segments (“triple
(“triple duplicate
duplicate ACKs”),
ACKs”),
via duplicate ACKs. resend unacked
▪ sender often sends segment with smallest
many segments seq #
back-to-back
▪ likely that unacked
▪ if segment is lost, segment lost, so don’t
there will likely be wait for timeout
many duplicate ACKs.

Transport Layer 3-71

TCP fast retransmit
Host A Host B

Seq=92, 8 bytes of data

Seq=100, 20 bytes of data
X

ACK=100
timeo

ACK=100
ut

ACK=100
ACK=100
Seq=100, 20 bytes of data

fast retransmit after sender

receipt of triple duplicate ACK
Transport Layer 3-72
Chapter 3 outline
3.1 transport-layer 3.5 connection-oriented
services transport: TCP
3.2 multiplexing and ▪ segment structure
demultiplexing ▪ reliable data transfer
3.3 connectionless ▪ flow control
transport: UDP ▪ connection
management
3.4 principles of reliable
data transfer 3.6 principles of
congestion control
3.7 TCP congestion control

Transport Layer 3-73

TCP flow control applicati
on
application may process
remove data from application
TCP socket buffers ….
TCP socket OS
receiver buffers
… slower than TCP
receiver is delivering
(sender is sending) TCP
code

IP
flow code
receiver controls sender, so
control
sender won’t overflow
receiver’s buffer by transmitting from sender
too much, too fast
receiver protocol stack

Transport Layer 3-74

TCP flow control
❖ receiver “advertises” free
buffer space by including to application process
rwnd value in TCP header
of receiver-to-sender RcvBuffer buffered data
segments
▪ RcvBuffer size set via
socket options (typical rwnd free buffer space
default is 4096 bytes)
▪ many operating systems
autoadjust RcvBuffer TCP segment payloads
❖ sender limits amount of
unacked (“in-flight”) data receiver-side buffering
to receiver’s rwnd value
❖ guarantees receive buffer
will not overflow
Transport Layer 3-75
Chapter 3 outline
3.1 transport-layer 3.5 connection-oriented
services transport: TCP
3.2 multiplexing and ▪ segment structure
demultiplexing ▪ reliable data transfer
3.3 connectionless ▪ flow control
transport: UDP ▪ connection
management
3.4 principles of reliable
data transfer 3.6 principles of
congestion control
3.7 TCP congestion control

Transport Layer 3-76

Connection Management
before exchanging data, sender/receiver “handshake”:
❖ agree to establish connection (each knowing the other willing
to establish connection)
❖ agree on connection parameters

application application

connection state: ESTAB connection state: ESTAB

connection variables:
seq # client-to-server
server-to-client
rcvBuffer size
at server,client
connection Variables:
seq # client-to-server
server-to-client
rcvBuffer size
at server,client

network network

Socket clientSocket = Socket connectionSocket =

newSocket("hostname","port welcomeSocket.accept();
number");
Transport Layer 3-77
Agreeing to establish a connection

2-way handshake:
Q: will 2-way handshake
always work in
Let’s talk
network?
ESTAB ❖ variable delays
OK
ESTAB ❖ retransmitted messages
(e.g. req_conn(x)) due to
message loss
❖ message reordering
choose x
req_conn(x)
❖ can’t “see” other side
ESTAB
acc_conn(x)
ESTAB

Transport Layer 3-78

Agreeing to establish a connection
2-way handshake failure scenarios:

choose x choose x
req_conn(x) req_conn(x)
ESTAB ESTAB
retransmit acc_conn(x) retransmit acc_conn(x)
req_conn(x) req_conn(x)

ESTAB ESTAB
data(x+1) accept
req_conn(x)
retransmit data(x+1)
data(x+1)
connection connection
client x completes server x completes server
client
terminates forgets x terminates req_conn(x) forgets x

ESTAB ESTAB
data(x+1)
half open connection! accept
data(x+1)
(no client!)
Transport Layer 3-79
 TCP 3-way handshake

client state server state

LISTEN LISTEN
choose init seq num, x
send TCP SYN msg
SYNSENT SYNbit=1, Seq=x
choose init seq num, y
send TCP SYNACK
msg, acking SYN SYN RCVD
SYNbit=1, Seq=y
ACKbit=1; ACKnum=x+1
received SYNACK(x)
ESTAB indicates server is live;
send ACK for SYNACK;
this segment may contain ACKbit=1, ACKnum=y+1
client-to-server data
received ACK(y)
indicates client is live
ESTAB

Transport Layer 3-80

TCP 3-way handshake:
FSM
closed

Socket connectionSocket =
welcomeSocket.accept();

Λ
Socket clientSocket =
SYN(x) newSocket("hostname","port
number");
SYNACK(seq=y,ACKnum=x+1)
create new socket for SYN(seq=x)
communication back to client
listen

SYN SYN
rcvd sent

SYNACK(seq=y,ACKnum=x+1)
ESTAB ACK(ACKnum=y+1)
ACK(ACKnum=y+1)
Λ

Transport Layer 3-81

TCP: closing a connection
❖ client, server each close their side of connection
▪ send TCP segment with FIN bit = 1
❖ respond to received FIN with ACK
▪ on receiving FIN, ACK can be combined with own FIN
❖ simultaneous FIN exchanges can be handled

Transport Layer 3-82

TCP: closing a connection
client state server state
ESTAB ESTAB
clientSocket.close(
) FINbit=1, seq=x
FIN_WAIT_1 can no longer
send but can
receive data CLOSE_WAIT
ACKbit=1; ACKnum=x+1
can still
FIN_WAIT_2 wait for server send data
close

LAST_ACK
FINbit=1, seq=y
TIMED_WAIT can no longer
send data
ACKbit=1; ACKnum=y+1
timed wait
for 2*max CLOSED
segment lifetime

CLOSED

Transport Layer 3-83

Chapter 3 outline
3.1 transport-layer 3.5 connection-oriented
services transport: TCP
3.2 multiplexing and ▪ segment structure
demultiplexing ▪ reliable data transfer
3.3 connectionless ▪ flow control
transport: UDP ▪ connection
management
3.4 principles of reliable
data transfer 3.6 principles of
congestion control
3.7 TCP congestion control

Transport Layer 3-84

Principles of congestion control
congestion:
❖ informally: “too many sources sending too
much data too fast for network to handle”
❖ different from flow control!
❖ manifestations:
▪ lost packets (buffer overflow at routers)
▪ long delays (queueing in router buffers)
❖ a top-10 problem!

Transport Layer 3-85

Causes/costs of congestion: scenario 1
original data: λ throughput: λout
in
❖ two senders, two
receivers Host A

❖ one router, infinite unlimited shared

buffers output link buffers

❖ output link capacity: R

❖ no retransmission
Host B

R/2

delay
λout

λin R/2 λin R/2

❖ maximum ❖ large delays as arrival rate,
per-connection λin, approaches capacity
throughput: R/2 Transport Layer 3-86
Causes/costs of congestion: scenario 2
❖ one router, finite buffers
❖ sender retransmission of timed-out packet
▪ application-layer input = application-layer output: λin =
λout
▪ transport-layer input includes retransmissions :‘ λin λin

λin : original data

λout
λ'in: original data, plus
retransmitted data

Host A

finite shared output

Host B
link buffers
Transport Layer 3-87
Causes/costs of congestion: scenario 2
R/2
idealization: perfect
knowledge

λout
❖ sender sends only when
router buffers available λin R/2

λin : original data

copy λout
λ'in: original data, plus
retransmitted data

A free buffer space!

finite shared output

Host B
link buffers
Transport Layer 3-88
Causes/costs of congestion: scenario 2
Idealization: known
loss packets can be
lost, dropped at router
due to full buffers
❖ sender only resends if
packet known to be lost
λin : original data
copy λ'in: original data, plus λout
retransmitted data

A no buffer space!

Host B
Transport Layer 3-89
Causes/costs of congestion: scenario 2
Idealization: known R/2

loss packets can be when sending at R/2,

lost, dropped at router some packets are

λout
due to full buffers retransmissions but
asymptotic goodput
❖ sender only resends if is still R/2 (why?)

packet known to be lost λin R/2

λin : original data

λ'in: original data, plus λout
retransmitted data

A free buffer space!

Host B
Transport Layer 3-90
Causes/costs of congestion: scenario 2
Realistic: duplicates R/2
❖ packets can be lost, dropped
at router due to full buffers when sending at R/2,
some packets are

λout
❖ sender times out retransmissions
including duplicated
prematurely, sending two that are delivered!
copies, both of which are λin R/2
delivered
λin
copy
timeout λ'in λout

A free buffer space!

Host B
Transport Layer 3-91
Causes/costs of congestion: scenario 2
Realistic: duplicates R/2
❖ packets can be lost, dropped
at router due to full buffers when sending at R/2,
some packets are

λout
❖ sender times out retransmissions
including duplicated
prematurely, sending two that are delivered!
copies, both of which are λin R/2
delivered

“costs” of congestion:
❖ more work (retrans) for given “goodput”
❖ unneeded retransmissions: link carries multiple copies of
pkt
▪ decreasing goodput

Transport Layer 3-92

Causes/costs of congestion: scenario 3
❖ four senders Q: what happens as λin and λin’
increase ?
❖ multihop paths
A: as red λin’ increases, all arriving
❖ timeout/retransmit blue pkts at upper queue are
dropped, blue throughput → 0
Host A λout
λin : original data Host B
λ'in: original data, plus
retransmitted data
finite shared output
link buffers

Host D
Host C

Transport Layer 3-93

Causes/costs of congestion: scenario 3

C/2
λout

λin’ C/2

another “cost” of congestion:

❖ when packet dropped, any “upstream
transmission capacity used for that packet was
wasted!

Transport Layer 3-94

Approaches towards congestion
control
two broad approaches towards congestion control:

end-end congestion network-assisted

control: congestion control:
❖ no explicit feedback ❖ routers provide
from network feedback to end
❖ congestion inferred systems
from end-system ▪single bit indicating
observed loss, delay congestion (SNA,
❖ approach taken by DECbit, TCP/IP ECN,
TCP ATM)
▪explicit rate for
sender to send at
Transport Layer 3-95
Case study: ATM ABR congestion control

ABR: available bit rate: RM (resource

❖ “elastic service” management) cells:
❖ if sender’s path ❖ sent by sender, interspersed
“underloaded”: with data cells
▪ sender should use ❖ bits in RM cell set by
available bandwidth switches (“network-assisted”)
❖ if sender’s path ▪ NI bit: no increase in rate
congested: (mild congestion)
▪ sender throttled to ▪ CI bit: congestion
minimum indication
guaranteed rate ❖ RM cells returned to sender
by receiver, with bits intact

Transport Layer 3-96

Case study: ATM ABR congestion
control
RM cell data cell

❖ two-byte ER (explicit rate) field in RM cell

▪ congested switch may lower ER value in cell
▪ senders’ send rate thus max supportable rate on path
❖ EFCI bit in data cells: set to 1 in congested switch
▪ if data cell preceding RM cell has EFCI set, receiver sets
CI bit in returned RM cell
Transport Layer 3-97
Chapter 3 outline
3.1 transport-layer 3.5 connection-oriented
services transport: TCP
3.2 multiplexing and ▪ segment structure
demultiplexing ▪ reliable data transfer
3.3 connectionless ▪ flow control
transport: UDP ▪ connection
management
3.4 principles of reliable
data transfer 3.6 principles of
congestion control
3.7 TCP congestion control

Transport Layer 3-98

TCP congestion control: additive increase
multiplicative decrease
❖ approach: sender increases transmission rate
(window size), probing for usable bandwidth, until
loss occurs
▪ additive increase: increase cwnd by 1 MSS every
RTT until loss detected
▪ multiplicative decrease:additively
cut cwnd in half after loss
increase window size …
…. until loss occurs (then cut window in half)
congestion window size
cwnd: TCP sender

AIMD saw tooth

behavior: probing
for bandwidth

time
Transport Layer 3-99
TCP Congestion Control: details
sender sequence number space
cwnd TCP sending rate:
❖ roughly: send cwnd
bytes, wait RTT for
last byte last byte ACKS, then send
ACKed sent,
not-yet
sent
more bytes
ACKed
(“in-flight”) cwnd
❖ sender limits transmission: rate ~
~
RTT
bytes/sec

LastByteSent- < cwnd

LastByteAcked

❖ cwnd is dynamic, function

of perceived network
congestion
Transport Layer 3-100
TCP Slow Start
Host A Host B
❖ when connection begins,
increase rate
exponentially until first one segme
nt

RTT
loss event:
▪ initially cwnd = 1 MSS two segme
nts
▪ double cwnd every RTT
▪ done by incrementing
cwnd for every ACK four segme
nts
received
❖ summary: initial rate is
slow but ramps up
exponentially fast time

Transport Layer 3-101

 TCP: detecting, reacting to loss
❖ loss indicated by timeout:
▪ cwnd set to 1 MSS;
▪ window then grows exponentially (as in slow start)
to threshold, then grows linearly
❖ loss indicated by 3 duplicate ACKs: TCP RENO
▪ dup ACKs indicate network capable of delivering
some segments
▪ cwnd is cut in half window then grows linearly
❖ TCP Tahoe always sets cwnd to 1 (timeout or 3
duplicate acks)

Transport Layer 3-102

TCP: switching from slow start to CA
Q: when should the
exponential
increase switch to
linear?
A: when cwnd gets
to 1/2 of its value
before timeout.

Implementation:
❖ variable ssthresh
❖ on loss event,
ssthresh is set to 1/2 of
cwnd just before loss
event

Transport Layer 3-103

Summary: TCP Congestion Control
New
New ACK!
new ACK
duplicate ACK ACK!
new ACK
.
cwnd = cwnd + MSS (MSS/cwnd)
dupACKcount++ dupACKcount = 0
cwnd = cwnd+MSS transmit new segment(s), as allowed
dupACKcount = 0
Λ transmit new segment(s), as allowed
cwnd = 1 MSS
ssthresh = 64 KB cwnd > ssthresh
dupACKcount = 0 slow Λ congestion
start timeout avoidance
ssthresh = cwnd/2
duplicate ACK
cwnd = 1 MSS
timeout dupACKcount = 0 dupACKcount++
ssthresh = cwnd/2 retransmit missing segment
cwnd = 1 MSS
dupACKcount = 0
retransmit missing segment New
timeout
ssthresh = cwnd/2
ACK!
cwnd = 1 New ACK
dupACKcount = 0
dupACKcount == 3 cwnd = ssthresh dupACKcount == 3
retransmit missing segment dupACKcount = 0
ssthresh= cwnd/2 ssthresh= cwnd/2
cwnd = ssthresh + 3 cwnd = ssthresh + 3
retransmit missing segment retransmit missing segment
fast
recovery
duplicate ACK
cwnd = cwnd + MSS
transmit new segment(s), as allowed

Transport Layer 3-104

TCP throughput
❖ avg. TCP thruput as function of window size, RTT?
▪ ignore slow start, assume always data to send
❖ W: window size (measured in bytes) where loss occurs
▪ avg. window size (# in-flight bytes) is ¾ W
▪ avg. thruput is 3/4W per RTT
3 W
avg TCP thruput = bytes/sec
4 RTT

W/2

Transport Layer 3-105

TCP Futures: TCP over “long, fat pipes”

❖ example: 1500 byte segments, 100ms RTT,

want 10 Gbps throughput
❖ requires W = 83,333 in-flight segments
❖ throughput in terms of segment loss probability,
L [Mathis 1997]:
1.22 . MSS
TCP throughput =
RTT L

➜ to achieve 10 Gbps throughput, need a loss rate of L

= 2·10-10 – a very small loss rate!
❖ new versions of TCP for high-speed

Transport Layer 3-106

TCP Fairness
fairness goal: if K TCP sessions share same
bottleneck link of bandwidth R, each should
have average rate of R/K

TCP connection 1

bottleneck
router
capacity R
TCP connection 2

Transport Layer 3-107

Why is TCP fair?
two competing sessions:
❖ additive increase gives slope of 1, as throughout increases
❖ multiplicative decrease decreases throughput proportionally
R equal bandwidth share
Connection 2 throughput

loss: decrease window by factor of 2

congestion avoidance: additive increase
loss: decrease window by factor of 2
congestion avoidance: additive increase

Connection 1 throughput R
Transport Layer 3-108
Fairness (more)
Fairness and UDP Fairness, parallel TCP
❖ multimedia apps connections
often do not use TCP ❖ application can open
▪ do not want rate multiple parallel
throttled by connections between two
congestion control
hosts
❖ instead use UDP:
❖ web browsers do this
▪ send audio/video at
constant rate, tolerate ❖ e.g., link of rate R with 9
packet loss existing connections:
▪ new app asks for 1 TCP, gets rate
R/10
▪ new app asks for 11 TCPs, gets R/2

Transport Layer 3-109

Chapter 3: summary
❖ principles behind
transport layer services:
▪ multiplexing,
demultiplexing next:
❖ leaving the
▪ reliable data transfer
network “edge”
▪ flow control (application,
▪ congestion control transport layers)
❖ instantiation, ❖ into the network
implementation in the “core”
Internet
▪ UDP
▪ TCP
Transport Layer 3-110