Gutenberg's press

Johannes Gutenberg's work on the printing press began in approximately

1436 when he partnered with Andreas Dritzehn—a man he had previously
instructed in gem-cutting—and Andreas Heilmann, owner of a paper mill.
[
However, it was not until a 1439 lawsuit against Gutenberg that an official record
exists; witnesses' testimony discussed Gutenberg's types, an inventory of metals
(including lead), and his type molds .Having previously worked as a professional
goldsmith, Gutenberg made skillful use of the knowledge of metals he had learned
as a craftsman. He was the first to make type from an alloy of lead, tin,
and antimony, which was critical for producing durable type that produced high-
quality printed books and proved to be much better suited for printing than all other
known materials. To create these lead types, Gutenberg used what is considered
one of his most ingenious inventions, a special matrix enabling the quick and precise
molding of new type blocks from a uniform template. His type case is estimated to
have contained around 290 separate letter boxes, most of which were required for
special characters, ligatures, punctuation marks, etc.

Gutenberg is also credited with the introduction of an oil-based ink which was more
durable than the previously used water-based inks. As printing material he used both
paper and vellum (high-quality parchment).

In the Gutenberg Bible, Gutenberg made a trial of colored printing for a few of the
page headings, present only in some copies. A later work, the Mainz Psalter of 1453,
presumably designed by Gutenberg but published under the imprint of his
successors Johann Fust and Peter Schöffer, had elaborate red and blue printed
initials.

This woodcut from 1568 shows the left

printer removing a page from the press
while the one at right inks the text-
blocks. Such a duo could reach 14,000
hand movements per working day,
printing around 3,600 pages in the
process
Circulation of information and ideas
The printing press was also a factor in the establishment of a community
of scientists who could easily communicate their discoveries through the
establishment of widely disseminated scholarly journals, helping to bring on
the scientific revolution] Because of the printing press, authorship became more
meaningful and profitable. It was suddenly important who had said or written what,
and what the precise formulation and time of composition was. This allowed the
exact citing of references, producing the rule, "One Author, one work (title), one
piece of information" (Giesecke, 1989; 325). Before, the author was less important,
since a copy of Aristotle made in Paris would not be exactly identical to one made in
Bologna. For many works prior to the printing press, the name of the author has
been entirely lost.

Because the printing process ensured that the same information fell on the same
pages, page numbering, tables of contents, and indices became common, though
they previously had not been unknown. The process of reading also changed,
gradually moving over several centuries from oral readings to silent, private
reading] The wider availability of printed materials also led to a drastic rise in the
adult literacy rate throughout Europe The printing press was an important step
towards the democratization of knowledge. Within fifty or sixty years of the invention
of the printing press, the entire classical canon had been reprinted and widely
promulgated throughout Europe (Eisenstein, 1969; 52). Now that more people had
access to knowledge both new and old, more people could discuss these works.
Furthermore, now that book production was a more commercial enterprise, the
first copyright laws[were passed to protect what we now would call intellectual
property rights[By the late 1930s or early 1940s, printing presses had increased
substantially in efficiency: a model by Platen Printing Press was capable of
performing 2,500 to 3,000 impressions per hour.

Other inventions in this field include the following:

 Color printing Electronic publishing

 Computer printer Offset printing
 Desktop publishing Composing stick
 Newspaper
The emergence of the new media branch in the 17th century
has to be seen in close connection with the spread of the
printing press from which the publishing press derives it
name.
Date Newspaper Language Note
Relation aller Fürnemmen
1605 und gedenckwürdigen German World's first newspaper[1]
Historien
1609 Avisa Relation oder Zeitung German
Courante uyt Italien,
1618[4] Dutch Defunct 1664
Duytslandt, &c.
From issue 24 in 1666, the paper was
]
1665 Oxford Gazette English printed inLondon and renamed London
Gazette;[8] still published
1785 The Times English Still published
1817 The Scotsman English Still published

A wide variety of material has been published in newspapers,

including editorial opinions, criticism, persuasion and op-eds; obituaries;
entertainment features such as crosswords, sudoku and horoscopes; weather news
and forecasts; advice, foodand other columns; reviews of movies, plays and
restaurants;classified ads; display ads, editorial cartoons and comic strips.

Newspapers typically meet four criteria:

Publicity: Its contents are reasonably accessible to the public.

Periodicity: It is published at regular intervals.

Currency: Its information is up to date.

Universality: It covers a range of topics.

Magazine
The Gentleman's Magazine, first published in 1731, in London, is considered to
have been the first general-interest magazine. Edward Cave, who edited The
Gentleman's Magazineunder the pen name "Sylvanus Urban", was the first to
use the term "magazine", on the analogy of a military storehouse of
varied materiel, originally derived from the Arabicmakhazin "storehouses".[1]

The oldest consumer magazine still in print is The Scots Magazine, which was first
published in 1739, though multiple changes in ownership and gaps in publication
totaling over 90 years weaken that claim. Lloyd's List was founded in Edward Lloyd’s
England coffee shop in 1734; it is still published as a daily business newspaper.

Magazines, periodicals, glossies or serials are publications, generally published

on a regular schedule, containing a variety of articles, generally financed
by advertising, by a purchase price, by pre-paid magazine subscriptions, or all three.
Magazines can be distributed through the mail; through sales
by newsstands, bookstores or other vendors; or through free distribution at selected
pick up locations.

The various elements that contribute to the production of magazines vary widely.
Core elements such as publishing schedules, formats and target audiences are
seemingly infinitely variable. Typically, magazines which focus primarily on current
events, such as Newsweek or Entertainment Weekly, are published weekly or
biweekly.

Most magazines are available in the whole of the country in which they are
published, although some are distributed only in specific regions or cities. Others are
available internationally, often in different editions for each country or area of the
world, varying to some degree in editorial and advertising content but not entirely
dissimilar.
FILMS
With the development of celluloid film for still photography, it became possible to
directly capture objects in motion in real time. An 1878 experiment by English
photographer Eadweard Muybridge in the United States using 24 cameras produced
a series of stereoscopic images of a galloping horse, is arguably the first "motion
picture," though it was not called by this name.[5] This technology required a person
to look into a viewing machine to see the pictures which were separate paper prints
attached to a drum turned by a handcrank. The pictures were shown at a variable
speed of about 5 to 10 pictures per second, depending on how rapidly the crank was
turned. Commercial versions of these machines were coin operated.

By the 1880s the development of the motion picture camera allowed the
individual component images to be captured and stored on a single reel, and
led quickly to the development of a motion picture projector to shine light through the
processed and printed film and magnify these "moving picture shows" onto a screen
for an entire audience. These reels, so exhibited, came to be known as "motion
pictures". Early motion pictures were static shots that showed an event or action with
no editing or other cinematic techniques.

Ignoring Dickson's early sound experiments (1894), commercial motion pictures

were purely visual art through the late 19th century, but these innovative silent
films had gained a hold on the public imagination. Around the turn of the 20th
century, films began developing a narrative structure by stringing scenes together to
tell narratives. The scenes were later broken up into multiple shots of varying sizes
and angles. Other techniques such as camera movement were realized as effective
ways to portray a story on film. Rather than leave the audience in silence, theater
owners would hire a pianist or organist or a full orchestra to play music fitting the
mood of the film at any given moment. By the early 1920s, most films came with a
prepared list of sheet music for this purpose, with complete film scores being
composed for major productions.

The rise of European cinema was interrupted by the outbreak of World War I when
the film industry in United States flourished with the rise of Hollywood, typified most
prominently by the great innovative work of D.W. Griffith in The Birth of a
Nation (1914) and Intolerance (1916) . However in the 1920s, European filmmakers
such as Sergei Eisenstein, F. W. Murnau, and Fritz Lang,in many ways inspired by
the meteoric war-time progress of film through Griffith, along with the contributions
of Charles Chaplin, Buster Keaton and others, quickly caught up with American film-
making and continued to further advance the medium. In the 1920s, new technology
allowed filmmakers to attach to each film a soundtrack of speech, music and sound
effects synchronized with the action on the screen. These sound films were initially
distinguished by calling them "talking pictures", or talkies.

The next major step in the development of cinema was the introduction of so-called
"natural" color. While the addition of sound quickly eclipsed silent film and theater
musicians, color was adopted more gradually as methods evolved making it more
practical and cost effective to produce "natural color" films. The public was relatively
indifferent to color photography as opposed to black-and-white,[citation needed] but as
color processes improved and became as affordable as black-and-white film, more
and more movies were filmed in color after the end of World War II, as the industry in
America came to view color as essential to attracting audiences in its competition
with television, which remained a black-and-white medium until the mid-1960s. By
the end of the 1960s, color had become the norm for film makers.

Since the decline of the studio system in the 1960s, the succeeding decades saw
changes in the production and style of film. Various New Wave movements
(including the French New Wave, Indian New Wave, Japanese New Wave and New
Hollywood) and the rise of film school educated independent filmmakers were all part
of the changes the medium experienced in the latter half of the 20th century. Digital
technology has been the driving force in change throughout the 1990s and into the
2000s.

FILMS IN INDIA
During the early twentieth century cinema as a medium gained popularity across
India's population and its many economic sections.[11] Tickets were made affordable
to the common man at a low price and for the financially capable additional comforts
meant additional admission ticket price.[11]Audiences thronged to cinema halls as this
affordable medium of entertainment was available for as low as an anna (4 paisa) in
Bombay.[11] The content of Indian commercial cinema was increasingly tailored to
appeal to these masses.[11] Young Indian producers began to incorporate elements
of India's social life and culture into cinema.[14] Others brought with them ideas from
across the world.[14] This was also the time when global audiences and markets
became aware of India's film industry.[14]
Ardeshir Irani released Alam Ara, the first Indian talking film, on 14 March
1931.] Following the inception of 'talkies' in India some film stars were highly sought
after and earned comfortable incomes through acting.[13] As sound technology
advanced the 1930s saw the rise of music in Indian cinema with musicals such
as Indra Sabha and Devi Devyani marking the beginning of song-and-dance in
India's films.[13] Studios emerged across major cities such as Chennai, Kolkata, and
Mumbai as film making became an established craft by 1935, exemplified by the
success of Devdas, which had managed to enthrall audiences nationwide.
[15]
Bombay Talkiescame up in 1934 and Prabhat Studios in Pune had begun
production of films meant for the Marathi language audience.[15] Filmmaker R. S. D.
Choudhury produced Wrath (1930), banned by theBritish Raj in India as it depicted
actors as Indian leaders, an expression censored during the days of the Indian
independence movement.[13]

The Indian Masala film—a slang used for commercial films with song, dance,
romance etc.—came up following the second world war.[15] South Indian cinema
gained prominence throughout India with the release of S.S. Vasan's Chandralekha.
[15]
During the 1940s cinema in South Indiaaccounted for nearly half of India's cinema
halls and cinema came to be viewed as an instrument of cultural revival.
[15]
The partition of India following its independence divided the nation's assets and a
number of studios went to the newly formed Pakistan.[15] The strife of partition would
become an enduring subject for film making during the decades that followed.[15]
Following independence the cinema of India was inquired by the S.K. Patil
Commission.[16] S.K. Patil, head of the commission, viewed cinema in India as a
'combination of art, industry, and showmanship' while noting its commercial value.
[16]
Patil further recommended setting up of a Film Finance Corporation under
the Ministry of Finance.[17] This advice was later taken up in 1960 and the institution
came into being to provide financial support to talented filmmakers throughout India.
[17]
The Indian government had established a Films Division by 1949 which eventually
became one of the largest documentary film producers in the world with an annual
production of over 200 short documentaries, each released in 18 languages with
9000 prints for permanent film theaters across the country.[

Radio
Radio is the transmission of signals by modulation of electromagnetic
waves with frequenciesbelow those of visible light.[1] Electromagnetic
radiation travels by means of oscillatingelectromagnetic fields that pass through the
air and the vacuum of space. Information is carried by systematically changing
(modulating) some property of the radiated waves, such
asamplitude, frequency, phase, or pulse width. When radio waves pass an electrical
conductor, the oscillating fields induce an alternating current in the conductor. This
can be detected and transformed into sound or other signals that carry information.

Invention
The meaning and usage of the word "radio" has developed in parallel with
developments within the field and can be seen to have three distinct phases:
electromagnetic waves and experimentation; wireless communication and technical
development; and radio broadcasting and commercialization. Many individuals—
inventors, engineers, developers, businessmen - contributed to produce the modern
idea of radio and thus the origins and 'invention' are multiple and controversial. Early
radio could not transmit sound or speech and was called the "wireless telegraph".

Development from a laboratory demonstration to a commercial entity spanned

several decades and required the efforts of many practitioners. In 1878, David E.
Hughes noticed that sparks could be heard in a telephone receiver when
experimenting with his carbon microphone. He developed this carbon-based detector
further and eventually could detect signals over a few hundred yards. He
demonstrated his discovery to the Royal Society in 1880, but was told it was merely
induction, and therefore abandoned further research.

Experiments, later patented, were undertaken by Thomas Edison and his employees
of Menlo Park.[3] Edison applied in 1885 to the U.S. Patent Office for his patent on
an electrostatic coupling system between elevated terminals. The patent was
granted as U.S. Patent 465,971 on December 29, 1891. The Marconi
Company would later purchase rights to the Edison patent to protect them legally
from lawsuits.[4]
In 1893, in St. Louis, Missouri, Nikola Tesla made devices for his experiments
with electricity. Addressing the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia and
the National Electric Light Association, he described and demonstrated the
principles of his wireless work. The descriptions contained all the elements that
were later incorporated into radio systems before the development of the vacuum
tube He initially experimented with magnetic receivers, unlike the coherers (detecting
devices consisting of tubes filled with iron filings which had been invented
by Temistocle Calzecchi-Onesti atFermo in Italy in 1884) used by Guglielmo
Marconi and other early experimenters. A demonstration of wireless telegraphy took
place in the lecture theater of the Oxford University Museum of Natural History on
August 14, 1894, carried out by Professor Oliver Lodge and Alexander Muirhead.
During the demonstration a radio signal was sent from the neighboring Clarendon
laboratory building, and received by apparatus in the lecture theater.

In 1895 Alexander Stepanovich Popov built his first radio receiver, which contained
acoherer. Further refined as a lightning detector, it was presented to the Russian
Physical and Chemical Society on May 7, 1895. A depiction of Popov's lightning
detector was printed in the Journal of the Russian Physical and Chemical Society the
same year. Popov's receiver was created on the improved basis of Lodge's receiver,
and originally intended for reproduction of its experiments.
Telephone

Before the invention of electromagnetic telephones, there were mechanical devices

for transmitting spoken words over a greater distance than that of normal speech.
The very earliest mechanical telephones were based on sound transmission through
pipes or other physical media. Speaking tubes long remained common, including a
lengthy history of use aboard ships, and can still be found today.

A different device, the tin can telephone, or 'lover's phone', has also been known for
centuries. It connected two diaphragms with a taut string or wire which transmitted
sound by mechanical vibrations from one to the other along the wire, and not by
amodulated electrical current. The classic example is the children's toy made by
connecting the bottoms of two paper cups, metal cans, or plastic bottles with string.

Electrical devices
The telephone emerged from the creation of, and successive improvements to
the electrical telegraph. In 1804 Catalan polymath and scientist Francisco Salvá i
Campillo constructed an electrochemical telegraph.[1] An electromagnetic
telegraph was created byBaron Schilling in 1832. Carl Friedrich Gauß and Wilhelm
Weber built another electromagnetic telegraph in 1833 in Göttingen.

The first commercial electrical telegraph was constructed by Sir William Fothergill
Cooke and entered use on the Great Western Railway in Britain. It ran for 13 miles
from Paddington station to West Drayton and came into operation on April 9, 1839.

Another electrical telegraph was independently developed and patented in

the United States in 1837 by Samuel Morse. His assistant, Alfred Vail, developed
the Morse code signaling alphabet with Morse. America's first telegram was sent by
Morse on January 6, 1838, across two miles of wiring.
During the second half of the 19th century inventors tried to find ways of sending
multiple telegraph messages simultaneously over a single telegraph wire by using
different modulated audio frequencies for each message. These inventors
included Charles Bourseul, Thomas Edison, Elisha Gray, and Alexander Graham
Bell. Their efforts to develop acoustic telegraphy in order to significantly reduce the
cost of telegraph messages led directly to the invention of the telephone, or 'the
speaking telegraph'.

Invention of the telephone

Credit for the invention of the electric telephone is frequently disputed, and
new controversies over the issue have arisen from time-to-time. Charles
Bourseul, Antonio Meucci, Johann Philipp Reis, Alexander Graham Bell,
and Elisha Gray, amongst others, have all been credited with the
telephone'sinvention. The early history of the telephone became and still remains a
confusing morass of claims and counterclaims, which were not clarified by the huge
mass of lawsuits to resolve the patent claims of many individuals and commercial
competitors. The Bell and Edison patents, however, were forensically victorious and
commercially decisive.

Italian-American inventor and businessman Antonio Meucci has been recognized by

the U.S. Congress for his contributory work on the telephone. In Germany, Johann
Philipp Reis is seen as a leading telephone pioneer who stopped only just short of a
successful device. However, the modern telephone is the result of work done by
many people, all worthy of recognition of their contributions to the field. Bell was,
however, the first to patent the telephone, an "apparatus for transmitting vocal or
other sounds telegraphically".

The Elisha Gray and Alexander Bell controversy considers the question of whether
Bell and Gray invented the telephone independently and, if not, whether Bell stole
the invention from Gray. This controversy is more narrow than the broader question
of who deserves credit for inventing the telephone, for which there are several
claimants.The Canadian Parliamentary Motion on Alexander Graham Bell article
reviews the controversial June 2002 United States congressional resolution recognizing
Meucci's contributions 'in' the invention of the telephone
Television

Television (TV) is a widely used telecommunication medium for

transmitting and receiving moving images that are
either monochromatic("black and white") or color, usually accompanied
by sound. "Television" may also refer specifically to a television
set, television programming or elevision transmission. The word is
derived from mixed Latin and Greek roots, meaning "far sight":

n its early stages of development, television employed a combination

of optical, mechanical and electronic technologies to capture, transmit
and display a visual image. By the late 1920s, however, those
employing only optical and electronic technologies were being explored.
All modern television systems rely on the latter, although the knowledge
gained from the work on electromechanical systems was crucial in the
development of fully electronic television.

American family watching TV, 1958

The first images transmitted electrically were sent by early
mechanical faxmachines, including the pantelegraph, developed in the
late nineteenth century. The concept of electrically powered
transmission of television images in motion was first sketched in 1878
as the telephonoscope, shortly after the invention of the telephone. At
the time, it was imagined by early science fiction authors, that someday
that light could be transmitted over wires, as sounds were.
The idea of using scanning to transmit images was put to actual
practical use in 1881 in the pantelegraph, through the use of
a pendulum-based scanning mechanism. From this period forward,
scanning in one form or another has been used in nearly every image
transmission technology to date, including television. This is the concept
of "rasterization", the process of converting a visual image into a stream
of electrical pulses.
Television was first introduced to the general public at the 1939
World's Fair, the outbreak of World War II prevented it from being
manufactured on a large scale until after the end of the war. True
regular commercial network television programming did not begin in the
U.S. until 1948. During that year, legendary conductor Arturo
Toscanini made his first of ten TV appearances conducting the NBC
Symphony Orchestra, and Texaco Star Theater, starring comedian
Milton, became television's first gigantic hit show.

Television in India
1980s Indian small screen programming started off in the early 1980s.
At that time there was only one national channel Doordarshan, which
was government owned. The Ramayana and Mahabharata (both being
Hindu mythological stories based on religious scriptures of the same
names) were the first major television series produced. This serial
notched up the world record in viewership numbers for a single
program. By the late 1980s more and more people started to own
television sets. Though there was a single channel, television
programming had reached saturation. Hence the government opened
up another channel which had part national programming and part
regional. This channel was known as DD 2 later DD Metro. Both
channels were broadcast terrestrially.
The Internet
The concept of data communication - transmitting data between two
different places, connected via some kind of electromagnetic medium,
such as radio or an electrical wire - actually predates the introduction of
the first computers. Such communication systems were typically limited
to point to point communication between two end devices. Telegraph
systems and telex machines can be considered early precursors of this
kind of communication. The earlier computers used the technology
available at the time to allow communication between the central
processing unit and remote terminals. As the technology evolved new
systems were devised to allow communication over longer distances
(for terminals) or with higher speed (for interconnection of local devices)
that were necessary for the mainframe computer model. Using these
technologies it was possible to exchange data (such as files) between
remote computers. However, the point to point communication model
was limited, as it did not allow for direct communication between any
two arbitrary systems; a physical link was necessary. The technology
was also deemed as inherently unsafe for strategic and military use,
because there were no alternative paths for the communication in case
of an enemy attack.
Following commercialization and introduction of privately run Internet
service providers in the 1980s, and the Internet's expansion for popular
use in the 1990s, the Internet has had a drastic impact on culture and
commerce. This includes the rise of near instant communication by
electronic mail (e-mail), text based discussion forums, and the World
Wide Web. Investor speculation in new markets provided by these
innovations would also lead to the inflation and subsequent collapse of
the Dot-com bubble. But despite this, the Internet continues to grow,
driven by commerce, greater amounts of online information and
knowledge and social networking known as Web 2.0.

Social impact
The Internet has enabled entirely new forms of social interaction,
activities, and organizing, thanks to its basic features such as
widespread usability and access. Social networking websites such as
Facebook, Twitter and MySpace have created new ways to socialize
and interact. Users of these sites are able to add a wide variety of
information to pages, to pursue common interests, and to connect with
others. It is also possible to find existing acquaintances, to allow
communication among existing groups of people. Sites
like LinkedIn foster commercial and business connections. YouTube
and Flickr specialize in users' videos and photographs.
In the first decade of the 21st century the first generation is raised with
widespread availability of Internet connectivity, bringing consequences
and concerns in areas such as personal privacy and identity, and
distribution of copyrighted materials. These "digital natives" face a
variety of challenges that were not present for prior generations.
The Internet has achieved new relevance as a political tool, leading
to Internet censorship by some states. The presidential campaign
of Howard Dean in 2004 in the United States was notable for its
success in soliciting donation via the Internet. Many political groups use
the Internet to achieve a new method of organizing in order to carry out
their mission, having given rise to Internet activism.
Many people use the World Wide Web to access news, weather and
sports reports, to plan and book vacations and to find out more about
their interests. People use chat, messaging and e-mail to make and stay
in touch with friends worldwide, sometimes in the same way as some
previously had pen pals. The Internet has seen a growing number
ofWeb desktops, where users can access their files and settings via the
Internet.
Cyberslacking can become a drain on corporate resources; the average
UK employee spent 57 minutes a day surfing the Web while at work,
according to a 2003 study by Peninsula Business Services.[24] Internet
addiction disorder is excessive computer use that interferes with daily
life. Some psychologists believe that Internet use has other effects on
individuals for instance interfering with the deep thinking that leads to
true creativity.[
INTERNET AND MASS MEDIA
The internet is quickly becoming the center of mass media. Everything
is becoming accessible via the internet. Instead of picking up a
newspaper, or watching the 10 o'clock news, people will log onto the
internet to get the news they want, when they want it. Many workers
listen to the radio through the internet while sitting at their desk. Games
are played through the internet.
The Internet and Education: Findings of the Pew Internet & American
Life Project[5] Even the education system relies on the internet. Teachers
can contact the entire class by sending one e-mail. They have web
pages where students can get another copy of the class outline or
assignments. Some classes even have class blogs where students
must post weekly, and are graded on their contributions. The internet
thus far has become an extremely dominant form of media.
Blogs (Web Logs)

Blogging has become a huge form of media. A blog is a website, usually

maintained by an individual, with regular entries of commentary,
descriptions of events, or other material such as graphics or video.
Entries are commonly displayed in reverse chronological order. Many
blogs provide commentary or news on a particular subject; others
function as more personal online diaries. A typical blog combines text,
images, and links to other blogs, web pages, and other media related to
its topic. The ability for readers to leave comments in an interactive
format is an important part of many blogs. Most blogs are primarily
textual, although some focus on art (artlog), photographs (photoblog),
sketchblog, videos (vlog), music (MP3 blog), audio (podcasting) are part
of a wider network of social media. Micro-blogging is another type of
blogging which consists of blogs with very short posts.

Reference

 http://en.wikipedia.org
 http://www.google.co.in/
 http://books.google.co.in/
 name of the books –

Asa Briggs, Peter Burke, Social History of the Media: from

Gutenberg to the Internet
W. Lambert Gardiner : A History of Media