Elasticity and elastic waves

Department of Earth Sciences

Uppsala University
Outline

Theory of elasticity and elastic waves

1. Stress and strain
2. Elastic constants
3. Equations of motion
4. Propagation of elastic waves
5. Surface waves

Seismology
1. Focal mechanisms – double couple source model
2. Magnitude and seismic moment
3. The energy released by earthquakes
4. Imaging the Earth’s internal structure
Stress and Strain
The theory of elasticity relates the forces applied to the external surface of a body to the
resulting changes in size and shape.

STRESS ‒ force per unti area

‒ normal and shear (tangential)
‒ unit: Nm-2 or Pa The stresses can be written in tensor form as:
𝜎𝜎 = {𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖} , i,j = x, y, z – 9 stress components

𝜎𝜎 = 𝐴𝐴𝐹𝐹 σ xx σ xy σ xz 
  Shear stress
σ = σ yx σ yy σ yz  components
σ σ σ 
 zx zy zz 
Normal stress
components

Stresses on parallelepiped in equilibrium:

𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝜎𝜎𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 the total moment must be

zero
Stress and Strain

STRAIN ‒ measure of deformation of a solid due to stress (dimensionless)

Example: stress acts in x direction only on an elastic string

𝑥𝑥 δ𝑥𝑥
0 L M
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
εxx = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑢 δ𝑥𝑥 + δ𝑢𝑢
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
0 L’ M’
𝐿𝐿′ 𝑀𝑀′ − 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
=
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿

δ𝑥𝑥+δ𝑢𝑢 −δ𝑥𝑥 δ𝑢𝑢

= =
δ𝑥𝑥 δ𝑥𝑥
𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢
δ𝑥𝑥 0 , exx =
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
Stress and Strain

When a body is deformed, displacements (U)

of its points are dependent on (x,y,z), and
consist of:

• Translation (blue arrows below)

• Deformation (red arrows)

𝜕𝜕𝑈𝑈𝑖𝑖
Elementary strain is : εij =
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
Elastic constants
Rocks usually rupture at strains ~10-3 – 10-4

Hooke's law ‒ for small strains,

any strain is proportional to the
stress that produces it :
σij = Cijkl εkl,
Cijkl – elastic constant or modulus

The strains involved in seismic waves are usuallyless then

10-8 except very near the source, so that Hooke’s law holds

In our Cartesian coordinate system our 9 components of stress, σij, are each related to 9
components of strain, εij, by 81 coefficients.

Symmetry of the tensors these reduce to 21 coefficients.

Stress and Strain
Strain Components
𝜕𝜕𝑈𝑈𝑖𝑖
Elementary strain : εij =
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

 Anti-symmetric combinations of eij above yield simple rotations of the body without
changing its shape:

1 𝜕𝜕𝑈𝑈𝑧𝑧 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
e.g., ( − ) yields rotation about the 'y' axis.
2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
So, the case of = is called pure shear strain (no rotation)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

 The changes in dimensions given by the normal strains (i=j), result in volume changes
when a body is stressed. The relative volume change during deformation is called the
dilatation:
∆ = ∇ ⋅ U = ε xx + ε yy + ε zz
Elastic constants
Further, for and isotropic media, the stress/strain relation is described by only 2 coefficients:

λ, μ ‒ Lamé’s constants

 For normal stress/strain:

(i=j, where i,j = x,y,z) σ ij = λ∆δ ij + 2 µε ij

∆ = ∇ ⋅ U = ε xx + ε yy + ε zz
 For shear components:
(i≠j) σ ij = 2 µε ij

 These equations are often expressed as a matrix equation:

Elastic constants

𝟐𝟐
• Bulk modulus (k = λ + μ) and Shear modulus (μ) - quantify the material’s resistance
𝟑𝟑
to changes in volume and to shearing deformation, respectively.

Serway and Jewett, 2007.

Elastic constants
Young's modulus, E (measure of stiffnes of an elastic medium - analogous to the proportionality
constant in Hooke's Law F = -k x) and Poisson's ratio, σ (lateral deformation under longitudinal
load)
Before deformation
After deformation

An experiment for
determining Young's
modulus and h
F

Poisson's ratio
A
h- ∆h l

l+∆l

Thus having found E and σ, 1 σ 1

µ= E ; λ= E
Lamé's constants can be computed as: 2(σ + 1) 1 + σ 1 − 2σ
Equations of motion
Case when stresses are not in equilibrium and act on a face having an area (dy, dz) and affect
the volume (dx dy dz) – then net forces per unit volume in the directions of the x-axis are:

(Newton’s 2nd Law of motion)

∂ 2U x ∂σ xx ∂σ xy ∂σ xz
ρ = + +
∂t 2
∂x ∂y ∂z
Using Hooke’s Law to replace stresses with strains and then expressing strains in terms of
displacements:
∂ 2U x ∂∆
ρ = ( λ + µ ) + µ∇ 2
Ux
∂t 2
∂x

where ∂Ux ∂Uy ∂Uz

∆ = ∇ ⋅ U = ε xx + ε yy + ε zz = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂ 2U
ρ 2 = (λ + µ )∇∆ + µ∇ 2U
∂t
Equations of motion

Differential equation describing ∂ 2U

ρ 2 = (λ + µ )∇∆ + µ∇ 2U
the displacement U of the small ∂t
cell as its volume approaches zero = (λ + 2 µ )∇(∇ ⋅ U ) − µ∇x∇xU

Assuming that vector U is divergence free (shear wave), i.e. 𝛻𝛻 � 𝑼𝑼 = 0 and

using the identity ∇x∇xU ≡ 0 = ∇(∇ ⋅ U ) − ∇ 2U it follows:

∂ 2U
ρ 2 = µ∇ 2U
∂t

Which is a wave equation representing a wave propagating with a speed of:

µ
vS =
ρ
Equations of motion
Assuming that U is free of rotation (compressional wave) and using the same identity,

i.e. ∇x∇xU ≡ 0 = ∇(∇ ⋅ U ) − ∇ U we obtain:

2

∂ 2U
ρ 2 = (λ + 2µ )∇ 2U
∂t

Which is a wave equation representing a wave propagating with a speed of:

λ + 2µ
vP =
ρ
Equations of motion

λ + 2µ µ λ, μ > 0 → Vp > Vs
vP = vS =
ρ ρ

For solid crust and mantle of the Earth λ = μ , therefore Vp = 3 · Vs

Vp Vs ρ
Examples of seismic (km/s) (km/s) (kg/m3)
velocities and physical
properties of different Fresh water at 25oC 1.509 0.0 1000
materials and rocks are Granite 5.1 2.79 2665
given by Press (1966) in (at 10 bars)
the “Handbook of Physical Eclogite 7.31 4.26 3441
Properties” (at 10 bars)
(S.P. Clark, Ed.).
Dunite 7.0 4.01 3264
(at 10 bars)
Propagation of elastic waves

∂ 2 u (λ + 2 µ ) ∂ 2 u 2 ∂ u
2
= = vP 2 The displacement u in the propagation direction x
∂t 2 ρ ∂x 2 ∂x
moves with the P-wave velocity and the
∂ 2v µ ∂ 2v 2 ∂ v
2
= = vS 2 displacement v (and w), perpendicular to the
∂t 2 ρ ∂x 2 ∂x
propagation direction move with the S-wave
∂2w µ ∂2w 2 ∂ w
2
velocity.
= = vS
∂t 2 ρ ∂x 2 ∂x 2

For a plane wave

propagating along the x-axis
- no variation of particle x

motion along the y- and z-

directions P-wave

y
Plane waves
S-wave travelling
in positive x-
z direction.
Propagation of elastic waves

SV: Shear waves with displacement in the

Source Receiver
vertical x − z plane. Surface

SH: Shear waves with displacement in the P

horizontal x − y plane.
SH
SV

Although we could choose any two

orthogonal polarisations in the plane of
the shear wave displacements,
using SV and SH is particularly convenient
Propagation of elastic waves

The concept of rays - calculating travel times of particular waves through an

inhomogeneous medium using Snell's law

at an interface separating two homogeneous media the ratio between the sine of
the incidence angle and the velocity for a given ray is constant, equal to the ray
parameter, p:

sin i
p=
v

Mode conversion ‒ in general a P wave incident at an interface generates both P and S

waves. Similarly, S wave would in general generate both P and S wave
Propagation of elastic waves

The ray path of a P-wave in a medium with velocity increasing linearly with depth.

When the velocity is constant there is no change of the incidence angle and the ray path
is a straight line.

 The case when the velocity is increasing linearly with depth, z:

v( z ) = v 0 + gz

Then from Snell's law we have:

sin i0 sin i ( z )
p= =
v0 v( z )
Surface waves
Rayleigh wave - rolls along the ground (‘ground roll’)

Rayleigh waves result from a combination of P and SV motions, while

Love waves result from SH waves trapped near the surface

Particle motion
consists of elliptical
motion in the vertical
plane and parallel to
the direction of
propagation.

The amplitude decays exponentially with depth

beneath the surface
Surface waves

Surface waves follow paths along the surface of the earth

and are of a lower frequency than body waves.

Love waves - produce entirely horizontal motion

Particle motion in
Love wave is parallel
to the surface and
perpendicular to the
propagation direction

The amplitude decays exponentially with depth

beneath the surface
Surface waves

http://bc.outcrop.org
Surface waves
The velocity at which surface waves depends on their wavelength:

, 2π 2π 2πf ω
v( x, z ) ∝ exp(iκ ( x − ct )) κ= = = =
λ cT c c

Dispersion of surface waves ‒ because at

different wavelength surface waves travel at
different speeds, a surface wave train
disperses (spreads out) as it travels away
from the source
Surface waves

 Characteristic depth of penetration is proportional to wavelength of surface wave

 Long period waves, as they penetrate deeply into the Earth travel at higher velocities;
short period waves travel at slower velocities
Seismology - introduction

The first half of the 20th century a basic understanding of the gross subdivision of the
inner earth was established :
~ 1900 - modern earthquake seismology started to develop
1906 - San Francisco earthquake - observed world wide in America, Japan and Europe
(including the Uppsala seismograph installed in 1904)
1909 - Mohorovicic discovered the crust-mantle interface
1914 - Gutenberg determined the depth to the fluid core
1934- Lehman discovered the inner solid core.

Since the late 1960's seismology has developed dramatically.

• Tomographic techniques – one of the main techniques to constrain the 3-D
distribution of physical properties that affect seismic-wave propagation- provided in
great detail an image of the crust and upper mantle

• During the 1990's - tomographic image of the Earth’s lower mantle

Seismology - introduction

The role of global earthquake seismology is two-fold:

• unravelling the internal structure of the earth

• understanding earthquake source mechanisms including the distribution

in space and time of the rupturing process and seismic risk assessment in
general.
Focal mechanisms - double couple
Earthquake - the release of the accumulated elastic strain energy by the sudden rupture
of the fault

Focal mechanism – describes the deformation in the seismic source region

– can be derived from observing the pattern of ‘first motions’; direction
of slip in an EQ and the orientation of the fault on which it occurs

Tension axis (T),

which reflects
Pressure axis (P), the minimum
The pattern of energy radiated which reflects compressive
during an earthquake with a single the maximum stress direction
compressive
direction of motion on a single stress direction
fault plane may be modelled as
a double couple

The radiation pattern from a strike-slip fault

Focal mechanisms - double couple
Magnitude and seismic moment
 1934, Richter scale (ML „local” scale) – seismic scale used to measure the intensity of an EQ
– determined from the logarithm of the amplitude of waves recorded by seismographs
– originally developed by Richter for earthquakes in California
! “saturation” at ML > 7 due to instrument characteristics and reliance on measuring
only a single, short-period peak height

 Gutenberg and Richter developed two magnitudes for application to distant earthquakes:

mb (body wave)– measured using the first five seconds of a teleseismic (distant) P-wave. The scale
gives a good estimate of the elastic energy release for magnitudes between 3 to 7.

MS (surface wave)– scale for shallow earthquakes using Rayleigh waves in the 20 sec period range.
This scale gives a good estimate of the elastic energy release for magnitudes between 5 to 8.5.
Magnitude and seismic moment

Seismic moment (M0) - a measure of the size of an EQ based on the area of fault rupture, the
average amount of slip, and the force that was required to overcome the friction sticking the rocks
together that were offset by faulting.

Moment = μ A S

μ = shear modulus
A = LW = area
S = average displacement during rupture
Magnitude and seismic moment

Seismic Moment = µ S A

µ = shear modulus = 3x1011 dyne/cm2 in

continental crust

A = Length x Width = fault area

S = average displacement or slip during fault rupture - estimated from observed surface
displacements or from displacements on the fault plane reconstructed from instrumental or
geodetic modeling
Magnitude and seismic moment
MW - magnitude scale based on seismic moment (Moment magnitude)
- calculated from seismic moment using the relation of Hanks and Kanamori (1979)
- works over a wider range of earthquake sizes
- based on the total moment release of the earthquake

Mw = 2 / 3 * log(Seismic Moment) - 10.73

, where the units of the moment are in dyne-cm.

Based upon the seismic moment the magnitude

of the largest earthquake ever recorded with
modern seismographs, the Chile earthquake
of 1960 had a magnitude Mw =9.4
Magnitude and seismic moment

Magnitude Summary

Magnitude Symbol Wave Period

S or Surface
Local (Richter) ML 0.8 s
Wave*

Body-Wave mb P 1s

Surface-Wave Ms Rayleigh 20 s
Rupture Area,
Moment Mw > 100 s
Slip

*at the distances appropriate for local magnitude, either the S-wave or the
surface waves generally produce the largest vibrations.
The energy released by earthquakes
 the total elastic energy released by an earthquake:

W = σ shear As = 12 (σ shear
before
+ σ shear
after
) As

, where the average shear stress is taken to be the average before and after the earthquake

A large part of the stored elastic energy is converted into frictional heat:

H = σ friction As

, where the frictional shear stress is the minimum stress required to initiate sliding

The difference between W and H makes up the radiated elastic energy, i.e. THE SEISMIC
ENERGY RELEASE, E :
E = W − H = (σ shear − σ friction ) As

σ shear
after
≈ σ friction E = (σ shear − σ friction ) As = 12 ∆σ shear As

 The Chile earthquake of 1960 released approximately 1.1x1019 J of seismic energy.

Imaging the Earth’s internal structure

An interactive educational display

of global seismicity - monitoring
earthquakes in near real-time.

The display is updated every 30

minutes using data from the
National Earthquake Information
Center.

Earthquakes that have occurred

within the last 24 hours are
shown with red circles

The distribution of seismicity over

the past 5 years demonstrates
how earthquakes define the
boundaries of tectonic plates.

Developed by the IRIS Consortium, U.S. Geological Survey, University of Colorado, and Reel Illusions Inc
Imaging the Earth’s internal structure

By studying the
propagation of
waves, we are able
to estimate Earth’s
internal structure.

Seismic raypaths -
used to determine
the Earth structure.

Partial cross section of the Earth showing major layer boundaries, app. P-wave seismic velocities
(Vp), and app. ray path for P- and S-waves from a shallow earthquake to a seismograph at about
18 degrees (~2000 km) distance.
Imaging the Earth’s internal structure

Cross-section through global tomographic model SH12WM13 (Su et al, 1994)

- Shear velocity variations relative to the 1-

D reference model PREM (Dziewonski and
Anderson, 1981); shown are different
crossections (a-d)

- The model is obtained by inverting 27000

long-period seismograms and 14000
travel time observations and is
parameterised laterally by spherical
harmonics, truncated at deg 12 and to
order 13 in Chebyshev polynomials to
describe radial variations.

- The model shows slower-than-average

shear velocities at shallow depths underlying
the major segments of the mid-ocean ridge
system
Imaging the Earth’s internal structure

REFERENCE a model for the average P-

MODEL of and S-velocity in the Earth
the Earth obtained from all the
available travel-time
information

Layer variation in compressional wave speed at (A) 1250 km,

(B) 2000 km, and (C) 2800 km depth. Tomographic imaging
suggests that there is no gradual change in the pattern of
heterogeneity in the mid-mantle to that just above the core-
mantle boundary. The wave-speed varies between ±0.6%
relative to the reference model (van der Hilst and Karason,
1999)