International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 30 (2005) 359 – 371

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijhydene

Review of bipolar plates in PEM fuel cells: Flow-field designs

Xianguo Li∗ , Imran Sabir
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, N2L 3G1

Received 7 April 2004; received in revised form 11 August 2004; accepted 2 September 2004
Available online 23 November 2004

Abstract
The polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cell is a promising candidate as zero-emission power source for transport
and stationary cogeneration applications due to its high efficiency, low-temperature operation, high power density, fast start-
up, and system robustness. Bipolar plate is a vital component of PEM fuel cells, which supplies fuel and oxidant to reactive
sites, removes reaction products, collects produced current and provides mechanical support for the cells in the stack. Bipolar
plates constitute more than 60% of the weight and 30% of the total cost in a fuel cell stack. For this reason, the weight,
volume and cost of the fuel cell stack can be reduced significantly by improving layout configuration of flow field and use of
lightweight materials. Different combinations of materials, flow-field layouts and fabrication techniques have been developed
for these plates to achieve aforementioned functions efficiently, with the aim of obtaining high performance and economic
advantages. The present paper presents a comprehensive review of the flow-field layouts developed by different companies
and research groups and the pros and cons associated with these designs.
䉷 2004 International Association for Hydrogen Energy. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: PEM fuel cell; Bipolar plate; Flow field; Flow channels

1. Introduction
The polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC)
is one of the most widely researched fuel cell technolo-
gies because it offers several advantages for transport and
a number of other applications. Its low-temperature oper-
ation, high power density, fast start-up, system robustness,
and low emissions have ensured that the majority of motor
manufacturers are actively pursuing PEMFC research and
development. Already in Europe with demonstration buses
and passenger vehicles in California, for example, a first
market introduction of fuel cell vehicles will be seen in the
near future. However, there are still technical barriers to be
overcome before fuel cell vehicles reach a significant mar-
ket penetration [1–3].
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 519 888 4567/X 6843;
fax: +1 519 888 6197.
E-mail address: x6li@uwaterloo.ca (X. Li).
During the past two decades, the research and develop-
ment of the PEMFC with a Nafion䉸 membrane as elec-
trolyte have received much attention. Much research has
focussed on single cells of PEMFC or their components,
such as novel membrane electrolytes, catalysts and structure,
electrochemical reaction mechanisms and kinetics, as well
as electrode materials and preparation. This has resulted in
a number of alternatives to Nafion䉸 membrane technology
with low load, high utilization catalyst yielding significantly
higher power density than was available few years back. Im-
provements in cell design and manufacturing have further
increased power, while reducing manufacturing costs, which
is essential if the fuel cell is to compete with the internal
combustion engine.
For a given membrane/electrode assembly (MEA), the
power density of a fuel cell stack can be significantly in-
creased by reducing the profile of the bipolar plates. A key
prerequisite for many power applications is the production
of compact and lightweight PEMFC stacks, which may be

0360-3199/$30.00 䉷 2004 International Association for Hydrogen Energy. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2004.09.019
360 X. Li, I. Sabir / International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 30 (2005) 359 – 371

achieved with appropriate selection of materials. Bipolar

plate design as a whole, and flow channel layout configura-
tion, in particular, are potential areas of research for making
this alternative clean power source compatible to its coun-
terparts [4–6]. Challenges remain, however, that include re-
ducing the weight, volume and cost of the fuel cell stack
with the present goal being to develop a 50 kW stack system
weighing less than 133 l and a cost of $35/kW (DOE). The
dominance of the bipolar plates (BPPs) in a PEMFC stacks
is illustrated in Fig. 1. The objective of this review article is
to present a comprehensive overview of the state-of-the-art
technology for the BPPs in PEMFCs and the current and
future direction of the R&D activities that aim at the reduc-
tion in the weight, volume and cost of BPPs with improved
performance and lifetime.

2. Biopolar plates

As discussed earlier, BPPs account for the bulk of the

stack, hence it is desirable to produce plates with the small-
est possible dimensions permissible (<3 mm in thickness)
[US Department of Energy (DOE), 8]. With the bipolar plate
arrangement for current collection each of the MEAs (mem-
brane electrode assembly) is interspersed between two fluid-
impermeable, electrically conductive plates, commonly re-
ferred to as the anode and the cathode plates, respectively.
When the reactant flow channels are formed on the anode
and cathode plates, the plates are normally referred to as
fluid flow-field plates. When the flow channels are formed
on both side of the same plate, one side serves as the an-
ode plate and the other side as the cathode plate to the ad-
jacent cell, and the plate is called bipolar (separator) plate,
as shown in Fig. 2. In this stack design, cooling is accom-
plished with accommodating separate cooling plates after a
few cells in series. It is more often that one of the reactants
flows on one side of such a plate, while a cooling fluid flows
on the other side of the same plate in order to remove the
waste heat generated in the cell, and these plates collectively
have to keep the fuel, oxidant and cooling fluid apart, pre-
venting them from mixing with each other, otherwise safety
concerns and hazardous situations may arise.

2.1. Functions

BPPs being one of the most important components in
PEMFC stacks must perform a number of functions well
simultaneously in order to achieve good stack performance
and lifetime. BPPs supply the reactant gases through the
flow channels to the electrodes and serve the purpose of
electronically connecting one cell to another in the elec-
trochemical cell stack. These plates also provide structural
support for the thin and mechanically weak MEAs and
means to facilitate water management within the cell. In
the absence of dedicated cooling plates, the BPPs also fa-
cilitate heat management. Plate topologies and materials
Fig. 1. Mass distribution in a 33 kW PEMFC stacks [7].
facilitate these functions. Topologies can include straight,
serpentine, or interdigitated flow fields, internal manifold-
ing, internal humidification, and integrated cooling. There-
fore, optimal design must be sought for the BPPs because
the above functions have conflicting requirements on the
BPP design.
 X. Li, I. Sabir / International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 30 (2005) 359 – 371
Fig. 2. Stack components of fuel cell [9].
2.2. Requirements
The essential requirements for BPPs, in respect to physic-
ochemical characteristics, are uniform distribution of the
reactant gases over the respective active electrode surface
to minimize the concentration overpotential; high values of
electronic conductivity for current collection; high mechan-
ical strength for stack integrity; impermeability to reactant
gases for safe operation; resistance to corrosion in severe
cell environment for long lifetime; cheap materials, easy and
automated fabrication for low cost.
2.3. Channel cross-section
The fluid flow channels are typically rectangular in cross-
section, even though other configurations such as trape-
zoidal, triangular, semi-circular, etc. have been explored
[10]. The flow channel dimensions range from a fraction of
1 about 2 mm in width and depth as a low limit for a rea-
sonable fluid pressure loss due to friction losses. The most
common methods of fabricating fluid flow channels on the
BPPs require the engraving or milling of flow channels into
the surface of the BPPs. After molding the plates at high
temperature and pressure, the gas distribution channels are
machined, generally in a parallel flow configuration.
Simulation results for values of channel depth, width and
land width have also been reported close to 1.5, 1.5, and
0.5 mm, respectively. Decreasing land width will increase
hydrogen concentration at the anode, and triangular and
hemispherical cross-sections have land width close to zero
[11]. In practice these design suggestions have limitations
too, for example triangular or near zero land width design
might crush the MEA at high pressure contact areas that
hampers the current collection.
3. Flow-field layout design
One of the main obstacles to large-scale commercializa-
tion of fuel cells is the gas flow fields and BPPs, includ-
ing the development of low-cost lightweight construction
materials, optimal design and fabrication methods and their
361
Fig. 3. Pin-type flow-field [16,17].
impact on PEMFC performance (i.e., energy efficiency and
power density) [12]. As much as 50% increase in the output
power density has been reported [13,14] just by appropri-
ate distribution of gas flow fields alone. In spite of all the
industrial R&D efforts, the time-effective design and opti-
mization of the gas flow fields and BPPs remain one of the
important issues for the cost reduction and performance im-
provement of PEM fuel cells.
As to the geometrical configurations of the gas flow fields,
a variety of different designs are known and the conventional
designs typically comprise either pin, straight or serpentine
designs of flow-field channels, as summarized in [15]. Fuel
cell developers have used alternative designs, such as
1. pin-type flow field,
2. series-parallel flow field,
3. serpentine flow field,
4. integrated flow fields,
5. interdigitated flow field,
6. flow-field designs made from metal sheets.
3.1. Pin-type flow field
Examples of the pin-type flow fields are illustrated by
Reiser and Sawyer [16] and Reiser [17] , and an example is
shown in Fig. 3. The flow-field network is formed by many
pins arranged in a regular pattern, and these pins can be in
any shape, although cubical and circular pins are most often
used in practice. Normally, both the cathode and the anode
flow-field plates have an array of regularly spaced cubical
362 X. Li, I. Sabir / International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 30 (2005) 359 – 371
Inlet
Flow-
Channel
Outlet
Rib or Channel Support
Flow Channel
Fig. 4. Straight and parallel flow field and flow channel
cross-section [18].
or circular pins protruding from the plates, and the reactant
gases flow across the plates through the intervening grooves
formed by the pins. The actual fluid flow thus goes through
a network of series and parallel flow paths. As a result, pin-
design flow fields result in low reactant pressure drop. How-
ever, reactants flowing through such flow fields tend to fol-
low the path of least resistance across the flow field, which
may lead to channelling and the formation of stagnant areas,
thus uneven reactant distribution, inadequate product water
removal and poor fuel cell performance. Further, relative
stable recirculation zones may arise behind each pin since
the reactant flow is very slow in such a small flow chan-
nels, and the Reynolds number for the reactant flow remains
small, particularly for the fuel stream Reynolds numbers
may range from a few tens to low hundreds. Reactant con-
centration may be depleted in the stable recirculation zones
as well, decreasing the cell and stack performance. These
issues may become particularly problematic with flow fields
having certain geometric shapes.
3.2. Straight flow field
Pollegri and Spaziante [18] showed a straight flow-field
design, which is further exemplified by General Electric and
Hamilton Standard LANL No. 9-X53-D6272-1 (1980). In
this design, the gas flow-field plate includes a number of
separate parallel flow channels connected to the gas inlet and
exhaust headers, which are parallel to the edges of the plate.
An example is shown in Fig. 4 with the flow channel cross-
sectional shape. When air is used as the oxidant, it is found
that low and unstable cell voltages occur after extended
Fig. 5. Variation of configuration in straight or parallel flow field
design [19].
periods of operation, because of cathode gas flow distribu-
tion and cell water management. As the fuel cell operated
continuously, the water formed at the cathode accumulates
in the flow channels adjacent to the cathode, the channels
become wet, and the water thus tends to cling to the bot-
tom and the sides of the channels. The water droplets also
tend to coalesce and form larger droplets. A force, which in-
creases with the size and number of the droplets, is required
to move the droplets through the channel and out of the
cell. Since the number and size of the water droplets in the
parallel channels are likely different, the reactant gas then
flows preferentially through the least obstructed channels.
Water thus tends to collect in the channels in which little or
no gas is passing. Accordingly, stagnant areas tend to form
at various areas throughout the plate. Hence, the poor cell
performance arises from the inadequate water drainage and
poor gas flow distribution on the cathode side. This problem
is similar to the one that occurs in the pin-type flow field, as
discussed earlier. Few more examples of straight or parallel
flow-field design are shown in Figs. 5–7.
Another problem associated with this design is that the
straight and parallel channels in the BPPs tend to be rel-
atively short and have no directional changes. As a con-
sequence, the reactant gas has a very small pressure drop
along these channels, and the pressure drop in the stack dis-
tribution manifold and piping system, which is normal to
the BPPs, tends to be large in comparison. This inadequate
pressure loss distribution results in non-uniform flow distri-
bution of reactant gases among various active cells in the
stack, usually the first few cells near the manifold inlet have
more flow than those towards the end portion of the inlet
 X. Li, I. Sabir / International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 30 (2005) 359 – 371
Fig. 6. Straight or parallel flow field [19].
Fig. 7. Example of straight or parallel flow field design [19].
manifold. One possible solution is to artificially place some
restrictions at the inlet and the exit of these parallel flow
channels to increase the pressure drop in the channels and
hence improve the flow distribution among the active cells.
However, this complicates the design and fabrication, thus
the cost. A further problem with this design is the possi-
ble and often-arisen non-uniform distribution of a compres-
sive load carried across the fuel cells within the stack when
the flow channels on the anode and the cathode plates are
363
aligned in parallel to allow for the concurrent and counter-
current flow arrangements for the fuel and oxidant stream.
The contact area, as defined by the overlap of the ribs on the
anode and the cathode plates, depends on the manufacturing
tolerances affecting the width of the ribs, the smoothness of
the rib surface, the exact location of the ribs, rib-edge ma-
chining and assembly alignments (plate to plate), etc. The
variation in the contact areas of the ribs results in variation
in the local stress and the associated cell strain. A minimum
local stress is necessary to maintain minimum electrical (as
well as thermal) contact resistance, whereas a significantly
high local stress may lead to the damage and premature
failure of cell components. To ensure uniform compression
load across the cell, it is necessary to have even distribution
of both parallel and perpendicular contact areas (i.e., cross
flow and co-flow arrangements).
3.2.1. Modified versions
Johnson et al. [20] proposed a design with pressure gra-
dients within the channels, such that the resistance to reac-
tant flow differs along the length of the adjacent channels
as shown in Figs. 8 and 9. Prior to flow field designs with
linear, parallel, uniform channels, there may be no signifi-
cant local pressure differential between adjacent channels.
However, by appropriately varying flow resistance in the
channels, pressure differentials may desirably be increased
in such flow fields. This improved version of straight or par-
allel flow channels performs better than the one mentioned
before, even though the pressure drop may not be as much
as that achieved by serpentine layout.
The flow-field layout by Yang et al. [21] introduced re-
strictions between the inlet of the manifold and inlet of the
straight channels which in turn contribute towards pressure
differential without using long, tortuous channels as shown
in Fig. 10. Essentially the flow restriction is accomplished
through the use of fuel inlet tubes, which pass through the
frame member and connect the fuel inlet manifold to the
fuel channel inlets and similarly on the oxidant side. The
cross-sectional or flow areas of inlet tubes are such that they
create a flow restriction and, therefore, a pressure differen-
tial required to drive reaction products out of the reactive
area.
3.3. Serpentine flow field
In an attempt to tackle the problems with straight chan-
nels, Spurrier et al. [22] and Granata and Woodle [23] de-
scribed a modified serpentine gas flow field across the plate
surface, as shown schematically in Fig. 11. The channels
are generally linear and arranged parallel to one another, but
skewed to the edge of the plate, while the spaced slots allow
cross-channel flow of the reactant gas in a staggered man-
ner, which creates a multiple of mini-serpentine flow paths
transverse to the longitudinal gas flow along the channels.
Thus, adjacent pairs of the channels are interconnected by
the spaced slots. The flow channels on the anode and cathode
364 X. Li, I. Sabir / International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 30 (2005) 359 – 371

Fig. 10. Straight channels flow field with restrictions [21].

Fig. 8. Modified straight flow channels design [20].

Fig. 11. Serpentine flow field by Spurrier et al. [22].

plates are skewed in opposite directions in such a manner

Fig. 9. Straight flow channel design for pressure variation along
the length [20].
that exact co-flow arrangement is avoided, and some cross
flow and some nearly co-flow configuration are achieved.
So, it is claimed that this design can improve reactant flow
distribution across the electrode surface of the fuel cells,
and produce a uniform distribution of stack compression
loading on each fuel cell within the stack. In reality, this
design may incur high reactant pressure loss with potential
 X. Li, I. Sabir / International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 30 (2005) 359 – 371
Fig. 12. Single serpentine flow channel design [24].
formation of stagnant areas due to the cross channel flow
by the spaced slots as shown in Fig. 11b.
To resolve the problem of water flooding resulting from
the inadequate water removal from the cells, Watkins et al.
[14] proposed using a continuous fluid-flow channel that
had an inlet at one end and an outlet at the other, and typ-
ically followed a serpentine path. A schematic diagram is
shown in Fig. 12. Such a single serpentine flow field forces
the reactant flow to traverse the entire active area of the
corresponding electrode thereby eliminating areas of stag-
nant flow. However, this channel layout results in a rela-
tively long reactant flow path, hence a substantial pressure
drop and significant concentration gradients from the flow
inlet to outlet. In addition, the use of a single channel to
collect all the liquid water produced from the electrode re-
action may promote flooding of the single serpentine, es-
pecially at high current densities. Hence, for higher current
density operation, especially when air is used as the oxidant
or with very large gas flow field plates, Watkins et al. [13]
pointed out that several continuous separate flow channels
might be used in order to limit the pressure drop and thus
minimize the parasitic power required to pressurize the air,
which can be as much as over 30% of the stack power out-
put. This design, shown schematically in Fig. 13, ensures
adequate water removal by the gas flow through the chan-
nel, and no stagnant area formation at the cathode surface
due to water accumulation. Watkins et al. [13] reported that
under the same experimental conditions, the output power
from the cell could be increased by almost 50% with this
new type of flow-field plates. Although multiple serpentine
flow-field designs of this type reduce the reactant pressure
drop relative to single serpentine designs, the reactant pres-
sure drop through each of the serpentines remains relatively
high due to the relatively long flow path of each serpen-
tine channel, thus the reactant concentration changes signif-
icantly from the flow inlet region to the exit region for each
active cell.
365
Fig. 13. Multiple serpentine flow channels [25].
Although reactant pressure losses through the flow dis-
tribution fields increase the parasitic load and the degree of
difficulty for hydrogen recirculation, they are actually help-
ful for the removal of product water in vapour form. Assum-
ing ideal gas behaviour, the total reactant gas pressure PT
= Pvap + Pgas , where Pvap and Pgas are the partial pres-
sure of the water vapour and reactant gas in the reactant gas
stream, respectively. Then the molar flow rate of the water
vapour and the reactant (either hydrogen or oxygen) is re-
lated as follows:
Ṅvap Pvap Pvap
= = . (1)
Ṅgas Pgas PT − Pvap
Hence, the total pressure loss along a flow channel will
increase the amount of water vapour that can be carried and
taken away by a given amount of the reactant gas flow if
the relative humidity is maintained. This approach can be
used to enhance water removal by both oxidant and fuel
streams. In fact, a sufficient pressure loss in the anode flow
channels can even draw water through the membrane from
the cathode side, and remove the excess water by the anode
stream, so that the fuel cell performance at high current
operations can be improved significantly, as demonstrated
by Voss and Chow [19].
Eq. (1) also indicates that an increase in the water vapour
partial pressure can enhance the ability of the reactant gas
stream to remove water, and the water vapour pressure is
limited by the saturation pressure determined by the gas
stream temperature. Hence, liquid water can flood the ser-
pentine channels and the electrodes after the cathode gas
stream has been saturated. However, if the reactant gas tem-
perature is increased along the flow direction from the inlet
to the outlet of the fuel cell, the capacity of the gas stream
to absorb water also increases. Fletcher et al. [26] described
a stack arrangement where the coolant flow is substantially
parallel to the reactant flow, such that the coolest region
of each cooling layer coincides with the inlet region of the
adjacent reactant layer where the gas stream has the low-
est temperature and water content, and the warmest region
366 X. Li, I. Sabir / International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 30 (2005) 359 – 371
Fig. 14. Flow-field design by Cavalca et al., [27].
of each cooling layer coincides with the outlet region of
the adjacent reactant layer where the reactant gas stream
has the highest temperature and water content. Thus, the
temperature increase along the cooling path is also used
to increase the cathode stream temperature, enhancing the
cathode stream’s capability of absorbing and removing the
reaction product water in the vapour form. However, this
creates an undesirable non-uniform temperature distribution
throughout the cell. Due to the small pressure drop between
the inlet and outlet ports, there are no water droplet block-
ages in the bipolar plates with the serpentine flow geometry,
as used in Ballard PEM Fuel Cells.
Another design by Cavalca et al. [27] exhibits distri-
bution of reactants more uniformly with higher average
reactant concentrations and also pressure drop is low and
prevents formation of stagnant flow areas. This type is
shown in Fig. 14. Here, flow field is divided in several
sections with separate inlet and outlet. Each flow sector has
parallel flow channels, which are further sub-divided into
few sets of channels connected in series. This design gives
combined advantages from pin, straight and serpentine
design.
3.3.1. Modified versions
Serpentine channels are designed to allow some limited
gas movement between adjacent legs of the same chan-
Fig. 15. Serially linked serpentine flow field [28].
nel via the diffusion layer so as to expose the MEA con-
fronting the land of consecutive legs of channel. In this re-
gard, gas can flow from an upstream (high pressure) leg
of the channel to a downstream leg of the same channel
(low pressure) through the diffusion layer under the land.
However, in long channel legs excessive pressure drop can
occur between adjacent legs or between the ends of the
legs. Such excessive pressure drop can in turn result in the
gaseous reactant, short circuiting excessively between adja-
cent legs, rather than flowing through the full length of the
channel.
The layout design suggested by Rock [28] takes care of
the above problem by subdividing the channels into a plu-
rality of serially arranged segments or stages as shown in
Fig. 15. Each of these segments has its own serpentine con-
figuration whose legs are relatively short; as a result, very
little pressure drop exists between adjacent legs and between
the ends of the legs. Another noticeable point here is that
the end of the medial leg closest to the inlet leg of the one
segment (high pressure) is spaced farther from the bridging
section than the end of the medial leg closest to the exit leg
of the same segment to reduce gas bypass into the bridging
section from the one segment.
 X. Li, I. Sabir / International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 30 (2005) 359 – 371 367

Fig. 17. Example of integrated flow-field design [31].

Fig. 16. Reactant gas flow field and cooling fluid flow field built
on the same plate surface [29,30].

3.4. Integrated flow field

Chow et al. [29,30] released a BPP design, which pos-

sesses both reactant gas flow field and cooling flow field on
the same plate surfaces, as shown in Fig. 16. The gas flow
field directly faces the electrochemically active area of the
adjacent MEA, while the cooling flow field surrounds the
gas flow field. This integrated reactant and coolant flow-field
plate design eliminates the need for a separate cooling layer
in a stack, thus significantly improves the stack power den-
sity [29,30]. In the same spirit, Ernst and Mittleman [31]
described a fluid flow-field plate assembly, which is divided
into a multiple of fluid flow sub-plates, as illustrated in Fig.
17. Each sub-plate is electrically insulated from all other
sub-plates of the same plate assembly, and has its own reac-
tant flow field adjacent to the electrochemically active area
of the nearby MEA. A cooling flow field may be positioned
in-between and around each of the gas flow sub-plates [31].
However, these designs cannot maintain a uniform temper-
ature distribution over the entire fuel cell surface.

3.5. Interdigitated flow field

For all the above designs of flow fields, the flow channels
are fabricated on the flow distribution plates (or BPPs), or
to the lesser degree, on the porous electrode backing layers,
and they provide continuous flow passages, from the stack
inlet manifold to the exit manifold, while traversing through
the electrode surface of the active areas of the cell. In this
configuration, as schematically shown in Fig. 18, the domi-
nant reactant flow is in the direction parallel to the electrode
surface, and the reactant flow to the catalyst layer, required
Fig. 18. Conventional flow-field design mechanism [32].
for electrochemical reaction and electric power generation,
is predominantly by molecular diffusion through the elec-
trode backing layer. Not only molecular diffusion is a slow
process, easily leading to the occurrence of large concen-
tration gradients across the backing layer and mass transfer
limitation phenomenon for the cell operation, but it is also
368 X. Li, I. Sabir / International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 30 (2005) 359 – 371
Fig. 19. Interdigitated flow-field design [32].
difficult to remove liquid water which exists in the porous
region of the backing layer. This difficulty is compounded
by the fact that typical flow in the flow channels is laminar
due to the small gas velocity and the small flow channel
dimensions. Therefore, interdigitated flow fields have been
explored to provide convection velocity normal to the elec-
trode surface for better mass transfer, and convection flow in
the porous backing layer for enhanced water removal capa-
bility [33]. An interdigitated flow field, as shown in Fig. 19,
consists of dead-ended flow channels built on the flow dis-
tribution plates. The flow channels are not continuous from
the stack inlet manifold to the exit manifold, as the reactant
flow is forced under pressure to go through the porous elec-
trode backing layer to reach the flow channels connected to
the stack exit manifold, thus developing the convection ve-
locity towards the catalyst layer and convection flow in the
backing layer itself. Such flow-field design can remove wa-
ter effectively from the electrode structure, preventing water
flooding phenomenon and providing enhanced performance
at high current density operation. However, a large pressure
loss occurs for the reactant gas flow, especially the oxidant
air stream. The parasitic power required for air compression
may limit the application of this flow-field design to smaller
stack sizes.
The interdigitated flow field is attractive since the reactant
gases are forced to flow into the active layer of the elec-
trodes, where the forced convection (instead of diffusion)
avoids flooding and gas diffusion limitations, thereby ex-
Fig. 20. Improved mass transfer channels (Variable channel cross
section and/or Interdigitated concept) [35].
tending the linear region of the cell potential versus current
density plot. When a fuel cell accumulates too much water
at high current density, about one-third of the electrode sur-
face area is not utilized [34]. To overcome mass transport
limitations in porous electrodes, the diffusive mass transfer
mechanism is changed into a forced convective mass transfer
which causes limiting current density and maximum power
density to increase significantly. This design outperforms
conventional flow-field design, especially on cathode side at
high current densities.
3.5.1. Modified versions
As gases flow in the channels, the reactants are trans-
ferred into the gas diffusion layer, and thus the concentra-
tion of reactant in the flow channels is reduced along the
flow direction. This reduction in concentration can result in
non-uniform reaction across the fuel cell active area. Gurau
et al. [35] proposed a design for improved mass transfer us-
ing interdigitated flow-field design concept (Fig. 20). In this
 X. Li, I. Sabir / International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 30 (2005) 359 – 371
Fig. 21. Gas block mechanism for water removal in interdigitated
flow field [36].
Fig. 22. Biomimetic flow-field concept for bipolar plates [37].
layout the outlet channel volume is less than the inlet chan-
nel volume, whereby the rate at which the fluids flow to the
outlet channel is increased causing improved fluid removal.
Different approaches have been mentioned to achieve such
a phenomenon, such as outlet channel depth can be less than
that of the inlet channel or may vary the width, etc. The
channel width may also be varied so that the land width re-
duce along the channel from the inlet to the dead end, e.g.
the inlet channel can increase in width towards its terminus
and outlet channel can increase in width away from its ter-
minus. This will result in a closer positioning of the inlet and
the outlet channel in the direction of flow of the fluids. This
369
Fig. 23. Configurations for flow fields made by metal sheets [38] .
Fig. 24. Bipolar plate flow-field design from metal sheets [38,39].
reduced land width permits greater mass flow rates as the
concentration of the reactants is decreased. This advantage
can be coupled with improved water removal by decreasing
the outlet channel volume as well as by reducing the depth
of it relative to inlet channel or reducing the outlet channel
length relative to the inlet channel.
For improved water removal, Issacci and Rehg [36] con-
sidered the gas block mechanism for cathode and anode
370 X. Li, I. Sabir / International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 30 (2005) 359 – 371
Fig. 25. Stamped flow-field design on sheet metal [40].
sides in a fuel cell. In this design, they used one or more
porous gas block media at points adjacent to the flow field,
as illustrated in Fig. 21, that have pore size such that water
is sipped off to the outside of the flow field by capillary flow
and the cathode gas is blocked from flowing through the
medium. On the other surface of the plate is channel in fluid
communication with each porous gas block medium [36].
The patented ‘Biomimetic’ BPP technology developed by
MFC (Morgan fuel cell) drew its inspiration from the natural
world [37]. It mimics the structure as seen in animal lungs
and plant tissues to allow the gases to flow through the plate
in a far more efficient way than has never been achieved
before. The Biomimetic plates also have the added advan-
tage of being produced using MFC’s patented ElectroEtch
system, which allows them to be manufactured at a fraction
of the time and cost of conventional methods. Looking at
how animal lungs and plant leaves ‘breathe’, a structure con-
sisting of large distribution channels feeding progressively
to smaller capillaries is the most efficient way to distribute
reactants, as shown in Fig. 22. This structure reduces the
pressure drop found in the industry-standard serpentine de-
sign of flow field and ensures a more even delivery of gas
across the BPP, so that more power can be extracted from
the fuel cell. Initial results are very promising, with tests
already confirming a 16% increase in peak power [37].
3.6. Flow channels from metal sheets
Flow through porous carbon has also been proposed for
improved water management; a better method may be the
use of flow through porous metallic meshes (with high re-
sistance to corrosion) to improve gas distribution on the cell
plane. Proposals have been made to fabricate BPPs from
metals such as titanium, chromium, stainless steel, niobium,
etc. [38–41]. Figs. 23 and 24 illustrate possible configura-
tions for the reactant and cooling flow fields. The plates com-
prise corrosion-resistant thin metal sheets brazed together to
provide a cooling flow field between the sheets and reactant
gas flow fields on the two outside surfaces of the sheets.
Such a BPP design eliminates the need for a separate cool-
ing plate, decreases material usage for stack construction
and reduces the weight and volume of the stack.
Rock [40] proposed a stamped BPP for PEM fuel cells
from a single metallic sheet. The plate has a serpentine
flow field formed on one side and an interdigitated flow
field formed on the opposite side such that a single plate
member is usable as an anode and cathode side flow fields
for adjacent fuel cells (Fig. 25).
4. Conclusions
Bipolar plate is one of the key components in PEM fuel
cell stacks, and it performs a number of essential func-
tions in stack operation, such as reactants supply to the cell
active area, current collection, mechanical support to the
MEA, water management, heat management and maintain-
ing the reactants separate. In practice, PEM fuel cell stack
design often boils down to bipolar plate design, which in
turn is basically the design of flow channels formed on the
two surfaces of the bipolar plates, because the requirements
on carrying out the bipolar plate functions optimally are
 X. Li, I. Sabir / International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 30 (2005) 359 – 371
often met by the appropriate design of flow channels. A va-
riety of flow channel configurations and layouts have been
proposed in different designs, including pins, straight chan-
nels, serpentine channels, integrated channels, interdigitated
channels and channels formed from sheet metals. These dif-
ferent flow field designs have pros and cons associated with
them which in turn make them suitable for different appli-
cations. Improvements in the design of bipolar plates can
help achieve the set goals of cost and performance for the
commercialization of PEM fuel cell.
Acknowledgements
The financial support of the Centre for Automotive Mate-
rials and Manufacturing (CAMM) and the NSERC is greatly
acknowledged.
References
[1] Costamagna P, Srinivasan S. Quantum jumps in the PEMFC
science and technology from 1960s to the year 2000, Part II.
Engineering, technology development and application aspect.
J Power Sources 2001;102:253–69.
[2] Gamburzev S, Appleby AJ. Recent progress in performance
improvement of PEM fuel cell. J Power Sources 2002;107:
5–12.
[3] Arita M. Technical issues of fuel cell systems for automotive
applications. Yokosuka, Japan: Nissan Motor Co. Ltd.; 2002.
[4] Chalk Steven G, Miller James F, Wagner Fred W. Challenges
for fuel cells in transport applications. J Power Sources
2000;86:40–51.
[5] Barbir F, Gomez T. Efficiency and economics of PEM fuel
cell. Int J Hydrogen Energ 1997;22(10/11):1027–37.
[6] Cacciola G, Antonucci V, Freni S. Technology update and new
strategies on fuel cells. J Power Sources 2001;100:67–79.
[7] Woodman AS, Anderson EB, Jayne KD, Kimble MC,
Development of corrosion-resistant coatings for fuel cell
bipolar plates. AESF SUR/FIN ’99 Proceedings, vol. 6,
p. 21–4.
[8] http://www.eere.doe.gov/vehiclesandfuels.html (USA Depart-
ment of Energy: Office of transportation technologies, page
retrieved on May, 2003).
[9] http://www.Ballard.com (Last retrieved on March, 2004).
[10] Hontanon E. et al. Optimisation of flow field in PEM fuel cell
using CFD techniques. J Power Sources 2000;86:363–8.
[11] Kumar A, Reddy Ramana G. Effect of channel dimensions
and shape in the flow field distributor on the performance of
PEM fuel cells. J Power Sources 2003;113:11–8.
[12] Gamburzev S, Boyer C, Appleby AJ. Proceedings of the fuel
cell seminar, 1998. p. 556–9.
371
[13] Watkins DS, Dircks KW, Epp DG. US Patent No. 5,108,849,
1992.
[14] Watkins DS, Dircks KW, Epp DG. US Patent No. 4,988,583,
1991.
[15] Li X. PEM Fuel Cells. Lecture notes, University of Waterloo,
August 20, 2002.
[16] Reiser CA, Sawyer RD. Solid polymer electrolyte fuel cell
stack water management system. US Patent No. 4,769,297,
1988.
[17] Reiser CA. Water and heat management in solid polymer fuel
cell stack. US Patent No. 4,826,742, 1989.
[18] Pollegri A, Spaziante PM. US Patent No. 4,197,178, 1980.
[19] Voss HH, Chow CY. Coolant flow field plate for
electrochemical fuel cells. US Patent No. 5,230,966, 1993.
[20] Johnson MC, Wilkinson DP, Kenna J, Vanderleeden OR,
Zimmerman J, Tabatabaian M. US Patent No. 6,586,128,
2003.
[21] Yang Jefferson YS, et al., US Patent No. 6,635,378, 2003.
[22] Spurrier FR, Pierce BE, Wright MK. US Patent No. 4,631,239,
1986.
[23] Granata Jr SJ, Woodle BM. US Patent No. 4,684,582, 1987.
[24] Wilkinson DP, Lamont GJ, Voss HH, Schwab C. Embossed
fluid flow field plate for electrochemical fuel cells. US Patent
No. 5,521,018, 1996.
[25] Marvin Russel H, Carlstrom CM. US Patent No. 6,500,580,
2002.
[26] Fletcher NJ, Chow CY, Pow EG, Wozniczka HH, Voss GH,
Wilkinson DP. Canadian Patent No. 2,192,170, 1996.
[27] Cavalca C, Homeyer ST, Walsworth E. US Patent No.
5,686,199, 1997.
[28] Rock Jeffrey Allan. US Patent No. 6,309,773, 2001.
[29] Chow CY, Wozniczka B, Chan JKK. Integrated reactant and
coolant fluid flow field layer for a fuel cell with membrane
electrode assembly. Canadian Patent No. 2,274,974,
1999.
[30] Chow CY, et al. US Patent No. 5,804,326, 1998.
[31] Ernst WD, Mittleman G. US Patent No. 5,945,232, 1999.
[32] Kazim A, Liu HT, Forges P. Modelling of performance of
PEM fuel cell with conventional and interdigitated flow fields.
J Appl Electrochem 1999;29:1409–16.
[33] Wood DL, Yi JS, Nguyen TV. Effect of direct liquid water
injection and interdigitated flow field on the performance
of proton exchange membrane fuel cells. Electrochim Acta
1998;43(24):3795–809.
[34] Yi JS, Nguyen TV. Electrochem Soc Proc 1995;23:66–75.
[35] Gurau V, et al. US Patent No. 6,551,736, 2003.
[36] Issacci F, Rehg TJ. US Patent No. 6,686,084, 2004.
[37] Chapman A, Mellor I. Development of biomimetic flow field
plates for PEM fuel cells. Eighth grove fuel cell symposium,
September 2003, London, UK.
[38] Vitale NG. US Patent No. 5,981,098, 1999.
[39] Neutzler JK. US Patent No. 5,776,624, 1998.
[40] Rock JA. US Patent No. 6,503,653, 2003.
[41] Marianowski LG. US Patent No. 6,261,710, 2001.