SOCIOLOGY

READING MATERIAL/MONOGRAPH

INSTITUTIONS:
INTRODUCTION

Certain human functions are essential to the survival of the individual and the group. One
essential function is control of the process of reproduction. A society must ensure a continuous
supply of societal members and must provide these new members with a nurturing environment.

Other essential functions include maintenance of law and order in society. All human societies
have had to perform these functions. To make sure that reproduction proceeds in an orderly
fashion and that infants are well taken care of until they are able to be independent, every society
has some kind of family institution.

To make sure that every member can support himself, every society has some kind of economic
institution. To make sure that the young of each generation are taught, what is important in their
society, every society makes provision for supplying an education through the educational
institution. Similarly, every society provides for some kind of religious experience through its
religious institution.

Meaning of Institutions:

In Sociology, recognized usage and procedures are known as institutions. These come up as
social expedients in the interest of harmony. They operate as the springs and shock absorbers in
the social mechanism. It is the recognized and established rules, usage and traditions. There exist
to discipline and control individual behavior.

Institutions are the established ways of doing things. Institution is an abstract thing which refers
to those rules and regulations, norms and values which come into being through social
interaction and subsequently regulate the behavior pattern of the members of the society. The

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established ways of doing things not only bring unity among the members of the society but also
help the members to predict the behavior of others.

Each institution has a member of folkways, mores and laws which all members of society are
expected to follow to make their life in society easier. These folkways, mores and laws, vary
from society to society because institutional forms themselves are different. All individuals
follow these norms to some extent.

If each individual lives in his own way and did only his “own thing,” we would soon face utter
chaos. Without some means of steady support, parents might abandon their infants or let them
die, for we cannot be sure that parental love is an instinct and is not rather a responsibility taught
by the family institution.

If there were no organized ways of obtaining a livelihood, competition and conflicts would be so
fierce that many people would not survive. The law of the jungle would prevail if there were no
institutions that maintained order. In other words, institutions enable societies to keep
functioning. Institutions are the foundations or pillars of society.

Institutions are also interdependent. The family institution supports the other institutions and is in
turn supported by them. The condition of the economy in our society determines whether we can
obtain a good job and establish our family. The Government may decide whether we finish
college or go into the armed services instead.

It is important to remember that institutions are simply, abstract concepts of organized habits and
standardized ways of doing things. We cannot see institutions. What we can see are families,
schools, banks, temples, hospitals etc. But these would be nothing but empty symbols without
one vital ingredient: individual. The behaviour of individuals gives institutions their form and
institutions give form to individual behaviour.

The concept of institution is an important one in the social sciences. Unfortunately, however, it
has been used in different ways, and its meaning has become ambiguous.

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Some writers use the term “institutions” when referring to large social groups, reserving the term
“associations” for small groups. The distinction is then only one of size. But no one knows how
large a group must be to become an institution; furthermore, used in this way, the term adds little
to our understanding of social structure.

Some writers use “institution” for any constellation of cultural traits, collected around some
functions or set of functions. Thus, for example, we might refer to all customs associated with
teaching the young as the institution of education, to those related to worship as the institution of
religion, and to those related to ruling in all of its forms as Government.

According to Maclver, “an institution is a set of formal, regular and established procedures,
characteristic of a group or number of groups that perform a similar function within a society. In
short, an institution is an organized way of doing something”.

Barnes defines social institution as “the social structure and machinery through which human
society organizes, directs and executes the multifarious activities required to satisfy human
needs”. The simple language social institutions are the established ways through which the social
interaction among the individuals are structured, regulated and controlled for the purpose of
satisfying human needs.

Sumner said, “An institution consists of a concept (idea, notion, doctrine, interest) and a
structure.” He added, “the structure is a framework or apparatus or perhaps only a number of
functionaries set to cooperate in prescribed ways at a certain conjuncture. The structure holds the
concept and furnishes instrumentalities for bringing it into the words of facts and action in a way
to serve the interests of men in society.” Then he points out that “institutions begin in folkways,
become customs and develop into mores by having attached to them a philosophy of welfare.

They are then made more definite and specific with respect to the rules, prescribed acts and the
apparatus to be used.” In his discussion Sumner implies that an institution has a degree of
permanence. It should be added that it also in integrated with the other institutions of the society.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTITUTIONS:

We can understand the concept of social institution more precisely through its characteristics
which are discussed as under.

1. Cluster of Social Usage:

Institutions are composed of customs, mores, rules organized into a functioning unit. An
institution is an organization of rules, and behaviour and is manifested through social activity
and its material products. In short, the institution functions as a unit in the cultural system viewed
as a whole.

2. Relative degree of Permanence:

Our beliefs and actions are not institutionalized until they are accepted by others over a period of
time. Once these beliefs and behaviour get recognition they become the yardstick for evaluation
of the beliefs and actions of others. In short, institutions have a degree of permanence.

It doesn’t, however, mean that they don’t change. As new ways of doing things appear and are
found workable, they challenge stability and impel institutions towards change. Thus institutions
function in accordance with cultural norms; however, in comparison with associations they have
the greater degree of permanence.

3. Well-defined Objectives:

Institutions have fairly well defined objectives which are in conformity with the cultural norms.
The institution of marriage has the objective of regulating the network of social relationships and
the members of the society would consciously work for the attainment of the disobjective. For
example, marriage in the same caste or class. Objective has to be differentiated from different
functions to which the members may be unaware of e.g. the function of marriage or gratification
of sex urge and to have children.

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4. Cultural Objects of Utilitarian Value:

Cultural objects help in the attainment of institutional objectives. The cultural artifacts, beliefs
and values system must help the institutions to attain their objectives. Cultural objects of
utilitarian value which are used to accomplish the purposes of the institution are usually involved
– buildings, tools, machinery, furniture and the like.

Their forms and uses become institutionalized. For example, a weapon in our culture is shaped
strictly in accordance with our ideas of efficiency, with few decorations, and those are dictated
by aesthetic considerations. But the weapons of the primitive are decorated with symbols which
are supposed to ensure the help of powers in the effective use of the weapon.

5. Symbols are a Characteristic Feature of Institution:

A symbol may be defined as anything which depicts something else. Symbols may be either
material or non-material in form. The institutions can have permanency, identity and solidarity if
they have some symbols. The members of that institution feels quite closer to each other by
sharing the common symbols.

6. Institution has Definite Traditions:

Each institution has a fairly definite tradition, oral or written. Such tradition refers to the purpose,
attitude and the behaviour of the members. The tradition attempts to bring together individuals
into functioning whole through established behaviour, common symbols and objectives. The
traditions when become rigid, take the shape of the ritual.

7. Institutions are Transmitters of the Social Heritage:

Social institutions are the great conservers and transmitters of the social heritage. It is in the
institutions that individual learns basic values of the life. The child initially plays a role of
general receptivity in the basic and multi-functional institution of the family and in this way
receives the largest share of the social heritage. In his initial helpless state, culture is passed onto
him by his family.

As he learns to adapt himself to the expectations of his parents and siblings, he acquires many of
the important elements of culture, which his elders have learned the same way in their time. He

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learns what is expected of him during the different stages of his life in the family. In this way, he
is the personal conservator of an important part of the social heritage.

Other institutions play a more specialized role in the preservation of the social heritage. Next to
the family, the school is the most important institutional mechanism engaged in preserving and
handing on the knowledge, skills and techniques of the culture. In the field of sacred learning,
the educational and trans missive function is performed by religious institution. The very life of
the institution depends upon the continuity of the generations, with each slowly taking its
responsible part and gradually handing its accumulated knowledge on the next.

8. Institutions are Resistant to Social Change:

As patterned forms of behaviour, social institutions are more resistant to social change than
behaviour where such uniformity and regularity do not apply. Institutional behaviour is by
definition behaviour invested with social sanctions and structures to carry out these sanctions.

It is natural that behaviour of this kind would be more resistant to social change than behaviour
that has neither sanctions nor structures. Social institutions are thus, by their very nature,
conservative elements in the social structure. They tend to hold firmly to the patterned behaviour
of the past and to resist basic modifications therein.

With the help of above description of the features of institutions we come to the conclusion that
institutions are vary essential for the purpose of having an established way of living and unity
among the constituent members. Social institutions are thus social patterns that establish the
organized behaviour of human beings in the performance of basic social functions.

TYPES OF INSTITUTIONS:

Institutions may be classified in several ways. Sumner has classified institutions into two main
types.

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1. Crescive Institutions such as property, marriage and religion which originate from mores.
These are unconscious in origin.

2. Enacted institutions such as credit institutions, business institutions which are consciously
organized for definite purposes.

The Basic institutions are those which are regarded as being necessary for the maintenance of
social order in a given society i.e. the Family, the Economic institutions, the Religious
Institutions, the Educational and the Political Institutions are regarded as basic institutions.

The Subsidiary Institutions are complexes of the type which are not regarded as quite so
necessary for the maintenance of social order. For example, recreational ideals and activities
belong to this class.

CHAPIN HAS CLASSIFIED INSTITUTIONS WITH RESPECT TO THEIR

GENERALITY OR RESTRICTIONS IN THE SOCIETY IN WHICH THEY ARE
FOUND.

The cultural elements involved in general institutions are usually “universals” while those
involved in restricted institutions are usually “specialties.” Religion as such is a general
institution, Hinduism is a restricted institution.

Ross mention two types of institutions. (1) Operative Institutions (2) Regulative
Institutions.

1. Operative Institutions are those of which the main function is the organization of patterns
whose practice is actively necessary for the attainment of the objective e.g. the Institution of
Industrialism.

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2. Relative Institutions are organized for the control of customs and other types of behaviour
which are not themselves parts of the regulative institution itself; the Legal Institution is an
example.

FUNCTIONS OF INSTITUTIONS:

There are various important functions of the institutions. Institutions have manifest functions
which are easy to recognize as part of the professed objectives of the institution, and latent
functions which are unintended and may be unrecognized or if recognized, regarded as
byproducts, says Merton. The primary institutions function in manifest manner. The working is
direct and clear. These, however, give rise to the secondary institutions. They function in latent
manner.

1. Institutions Simplify Action for the Individual:

An institution organizes many aspects of behaviour into a unified pattern, thus making more or
less automatic very complex and sometimes long-continued segments of social behaviour. The
participant in an institution is accustomed to pass from one complicated set of behaviour traits to
another towards a recognized goal.

One of the most highly integrated institutions in modern society is Military establishment. The
soldiers learn to pass in orderly fashion from one type of behaviour to another without hesitation
towards the objective of eliminating enemy.

2. Institutions Provide a Means of Social Control:

The institutions are the most important agencies through which the sanctions of the society are
brought to bear on the individual. In other words, institutions play a central part in the process of
social control. All major institutions, the family, the school, the religious institution, the State
inculcate basic values and definitions to the young one. Thus most of the controls that deal with
the basic concerns of life are transmitted through the social institutions.

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3. Institutions Provide a Role and Status for Individuals:

Some people serve in groups devoted to public welfare. Others find a place in business, in the
professions, in public service or in the home. Some shine in sports, others in literature or art. The
institutions to a degree provide for the individual the opportunity for the development of his
peculiar characteristics and determine his role and status.

4. Institutions Provide Order to the Society:

Besides helping individuals to satisfy their basic needs, institutions provide unity to the society.
The law of the jungle would prevail if there were no institutions that maintained order. In other
words, institutions enable societies to keep functioning.

5. Institutions act as Stimulant:

The institutions may stimulate certain individuals to react against it and formulate new patterns
of behavior. Sometimes individual feels the disharmony between the various institutions. He
seeks some way out of the impasse. He must devise some way whereby his urges may be more
fully satisfied. Hence, the institution functions in such cases to stimulate the individual to “break
new roads to freedom.” Thus, institution provides the stimulus which starts a revolt against the
established order.

6. Institutions act as Harmonizing Agencies in the Total Cultural Configuration:

The institutions are not independent, but are related to each other in a cultural system or
configuration. Most of the institutions in the system tend to support one another and the
configuration as a whole. Thus, courtship supports marriage which in turn supports the family,
all three institutions being mutually interdependent.

7. Institutions Display Tension between Stability and Change:

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Workable ways of doing things, repeated over and over, tend to become rigid forms. This is why
mere habits become institutions. Looked at from this point of view, institutions tend to maintain
stability and the status quo. But as new ways of doing things appear and are found workable,
they challenge stability and impel institutions towards change.

Function of the institutions also changes, since they are not static. Like any other part of culture,
they change through time, Alteration in one institution invariably reverbate throughout the
institutional structure of society. With changes is one set of norms bringing in them, make
changes in others.

The expanding area of State activity, Industrialization and the urbanization has squeezed the
function of the primary institutions in certain respects, while the Secondary institutions are on
the expansion.

Differences between Institution and Association:

Sometimes confusion arises between institutions and associations because the same term, in a
different context, may mean either one of the other. But there is a much more important
distinction to be made between institutions and associations. The differences between institution
and association are as follows:

1. Association represents human aspect. An association is a group of people organized for the
pursuit of a specific purpose. Institutions, on the other hand, are the rules of procedure. Family is
an association organized for the preparation of children, while marriage is its main institution.

Political party is an institution, State is an association. Thus, association represents human

aspect, while an institution is a social condition of conduct and behavior.

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2. An institution is considered as a ‘form of procedure’. It has no form and is abstract. On the
other hand, association is considered as “an organised group”. It is a group of people organised
for the purpose of fulfilling a need or needs. It has form and it is concrete.

3. Institutions grow, while associations are formed deliberately.

4. Association indicates membership, while institution indicates procedure of work.

5. Every association bears a particular name, while every institution is based on cultural symbol.

6. An institution is an organized procedure, an association is organised group.

7. Institutions fulfill all the primary and basic need of people. But association is a group of
people organized for the pursuit of some specific purposes.

8. The rules of an institution are based on informal mean of social control such as customs,
traditions etc., while the laws of association are formed on the basis of formal means of social
control.

In spite of the differences between the two, it may be noted that no institution can function
without an association. Institutions are impossible without associations One simple test can help
us to understand the difference between institutions and associations. As association has a
location. On the other hand an institution does not have a location. For example, an university
can be located (in space); education cannot.

Association:

MEANING OF ASSOCIATION:

An association is a group of people organized for a particular purpose or a limited number of

purposes. To constitute an association there must be, firstly, a group of people; secondly, these
people must be organized one, i.e., there must be certain rules for their conduct in the groups,

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and thirdly, they must have a common purpose of a specific nature to pursue. Thus, family,
church, trade union, music club all are the instances of association.

Associations may be formed on several bases, for example, on the basis of duration, i.e.
temporary or permanent like Flood Relief Association which is temporary and State which is
permanent; or on the basis of power, i.e. sovereign like state, semi-sovereign like university and
non-sovereign like club, or on the basis of function, i.e. biological like family, vocational like
Trade Union or Teachers’ Association, recreational like Tennis Club or Music Club,
Philanthropic like charitable societies.

Some of the definitions of association are mentioned below:

According to Maclver, “An organization deliberately formed for the collective pursuit of some
interest or set of interest, which the members of it share, is termed as association.

Ginsberg writes, “An association is a group of social beings related to one another by the fact
that they posses or have instituted in common an organization with a view to securing specific
end or specific ends:”

G. D. H. Cole says, “By an association I mean any group of persons pursuing a common
purpose by a course of corporative action extending beyond a single act and for this purpose
agreeing together upon certain methods of procedure, and laying down, in however, rudimentary
a form, rule for common action.”

ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF ASSOCIATION:

Essential elements of an association are as follows:

(1) It is a concrete form of Organization:

Association is a group of persons collected together with some particular aim. It is, thus, a
concrete group which can be seen; while at work. Thus, in contrary to society’ Association is a
concrete form of organization of human beings.

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(2) It is established:

Like community, association does not grow spontaneously. It has no natural growth and it does
not grow itself. They are created by men to satisfy some motive or cause Rules and regulations
are formed to run a particular kind of association and the member of the association run it on the
basis of these rules and regulations.

There, we find a ‘code of conduct’ to be followed by the office-bearers and other members of the
association. Moreover, their rules and regulations are subjected to drastic changes if the creator
of association desire so.

(3) Its aim is determined:

No association is formed without any aim. First, there is the problem and the solution of which,
becomes the aim of the association formed to solve such problems. For example, if it is a
dramatic association, then its aim will naturally be to stage dramas and plays. No association can
maintain its identity without any distinct aim and object.

(4) Followers of rules and regulations are the only members:

Every association floats on the ground of certain rules and regulations. It also contains code of
conduct for the members. Those who follow the rules^ and regulations provided for and
participate in the pursuit of the aim of the association are only called as the members of it.

Anyone acting contrary or disowning the obligations as members may be expelled from the
membership; as per procedure framed for the purpose. For example, if the member of “political
association” stops believing or start criticizing the policies of the association of which he has
been, hitherto the supporter, shall cease to be the member.

It also becomes obligatory for every member to co-operate with other in the achievement of the
goals of the association. Otherwise, what for else is he the member? What is his aim of joining
such an association? The answer is; it is useless for him to be the member of such an association,
and it is equally useless for an association to keep such an individual on the membership list.

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(5) Its membership is voluntary:

An association is not an essential organization like State or society. Neither it is a natural

organization in which every one’s contribution can be asked for on natural grounds. Neither
there is any common instinct among the persons based on common and unified ideology to
become the member of a particular association. And, also there is no ‘whips’ from the heaven or
State to every citizen to form a association and to become its member.

But the membership of an association is voluntary. A person becomes the members because he
wants it and only because he likes it and if he grows a feeling of dislike he is absolutely free to
disown any such association. “Mr. A is free to become the member of AryaSamaj and shift its
memberships from AryaSamaj to SanatanDharamSamaj.” There are no restrictions, no law and
no suppression of Mr. A for his changes.

(6) An association exists for its aims and objects:

The life of an association is upto the achievement of the aim for which it has been created. The
existence of association after his achievement of the aim becomes, immaterial and irrelevant. It
becomes nominal and lifeless body of formalities only. “The aim is the soul of the association.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ASSOCIATION AND COMMUNITY:

An association is not a community but a group within a community. The differences

between them are as follows:

Firstly, F. Tonnies remarks that community is a form of grouping which arise spontaneously or
naturally and on a type of will which is deeply rooted in the entire personality. Association, on

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the other hand, is artificially formed, reflective or deliberate, resting on a type of will which
consciously means to attain given ends. Community is organic, spontaneous, and creative but
association is mechanical, artificial and held together by ties which belong to the world of
rivalries, bargaining, and compromises.

Secondly, as used by Maclver, the community is “a focus of social life”. It is regarded as integral
or whole because it fulfills all the needs of its members. One’s life may be lived wholly within it.
An association, on the other hand, is “an organization of social life”. It is regarded as partial
because it is formed for the pursuit of specific interests or aims.

Thirdly, associations exist within community. An association is formed by the individuals for
their own interests. There are a number of associations within a community. According to
Maclver, association is not a community but an organisation within a community.

Fourthly, the membership of an association has a limited significance. Membership is voluntary.

They withdraw their membership when they lose interest in it. But the community membership
has a wider significance and compulsory. People are born into community but they choose their
associations.

Lastly, community sentiment is necessary to constitute community without which the existence
of community cannot be imagined. There can be no community without the sense of “we-
feeling”. But sentiment is not at all a basic factor to form an association.

The distinctions between community and association were very much clear in primitive societies.
But due to the rapid of urbanization, development of transportation and communication, it
becomes very difficult to distinguish between them.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ASSOCIATION AND SOCIETY:

The following are the points of differences between association and society:

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Firstly, society is a system of social relationships which are invisible and intangible. It is the
result of natural evolution. Whereas association is a group of people. It is deliberately created or
is artificial.

Secondly, society is older than association, it is in existence since man appeared on the earth
while association arose at a later stage when man learn to organise himself for the pursuit of
some particular purpose.

Thirdly, man cannot live without society. Society will exist as long as man exists. The
membership of society is compulsory. On the other hand, man may live without being a member
of any association at all. Association may be only transitory. The membership of association is
voluntary.

Lastly, society comes into existence for the general well being of the individuals. Hence, the aim
of society is general. It is marked by both co-operation and conflict. It may be organised or
unorganised. But association, on the other hand, is formed for the pursuit of some particular
interest or interests. Hence, the aim of association is particular. It is based on co-operation. It
must be organised.

Unit-2

MARRIAGE

INTRODUCTION

Like family, marriage is another important social institution. Marriage and family are two
aspects of the same social reality i.e. the bio-psychic and social instincts of man. Marriage is one
of the most ancient, important, universal and indispensable social institution which has been in
existence since the inception of human civilization.

Marriage is a socially supported union involving two or more individuals in what is regarded as a
stable, enduring arrangement based at least in part on a sexual bond of some kind. Depending on
the society, marriage may require religious and/or civil sanction, although some couples may
come to be considered married simply by living together for a period of time (common law

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marriage). Though marriage ceremonies, rules, and roles may differ from one society to another,
marriage is considered a cultural universal, which means that it is present as a social institution
in all cultures.

a marriage is considered a permanent social and legal contract and relationship between two
people that is based on mutual rights and obligations among the spouses. A marriage is often
based on a romantic relationship, though this is not always the case. But regardless, it typically
signals a sexual relationship between two people. A marriage, however, does not simply exist
between the married partners, but rather, is codified as a social institution in legal, economic,
social, and spiritual/religious ways.

DEFINITION OF MARRIAGE:

Different scholars and sociologist have tried to define it. They differ from each other.

(1) According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Marriage is a physical, legal and moral union
between man and woman in complete community life for the establishment of a family.”

(2) According to Malinowski, “Marriage is a contract for the production and maintenance of
children.”

(3) Edward Westermark in his famous book ‘History of human marriage’ defined, “Marriage is
a relation of one or more men to one or more women which is recognized by customs or law and
involves certain rights and duties both in case of parties entering into the union and in the case of
children born of it.”

(4) According to H.M. Johnson, “Marriage is a stable relationship in which a man and a woman
are socially permitted without loss of standing in community to have children.”

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(5) According to Lowie, “Marriage is a relatively permanent bond between permissible mates.”

(6) According to Horton and Hunt, “Marriage is the approved social pattern whereby two or
more persons establish a family.”

(7) According to Hoebel, “The complexes of social norms that define and Control the relations
of a mated pair to each other their kinsmen, their offspring and their society at large.”

CHARACTERISTICS OF MARRIAGE:

MARRIAGE MAY HAVE THE FOLLOWING CHARACTERISTICS.

(1) Marriage is a universal social institution. It is found in almost all societies and at all stages of
development.

(2) Marriage is a permanent bond between husband and wife. It is designed to fulfill the social,
psychological, biological and religious aims.

(3) Marriage is a specific relationship between two individuals of opposite sex and based on
mutual rights and obligations. Relationship is enduring.

(4) Marriage requires social approval. The relationship between men and women must have
social approval. Without which marriage is not valid.

(5) Marriage establishes family. Family helps in providing facilities for the procreation and
upbringing of children.

(6) Marriage creates mutual obligations between husband and wife. The couple fulfill their
mutual obligations on the basis of customs or rules.

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(7) Marriage is always associated with some civil and religious ceremony. This social and
religious ceremony provides validity to marriage. Though modern marriage performed in courts
still it requires certain religious or customary practices.

(8) Marriage regulates sex relationship according to prescribed customs and laws.

(9) Marriage has certain symbols like ring, vermillion, special cloths, special sign before the
house etc.

TYPES OF MARRIAGE:

As a universal social institution marriage is found to exist in all societies and at all stages of
development. Types or forms of marriage varies from society to society. Types or forms of
marriage in different communities, societies and cultural groups differ according to their
customs, practices and systems of thought. In some societies marriage is a religious sacrament
whereas in others it is a social contract. However, there are several types of marriage which is
classified on different basis.

(A) On the basis of number of mates:

On the basis of number of mates marriage may be classified into three types such as Monogamy,
Polygamy and Endogamy or group marriage. This can be known from the following diagram.

(1) Monogamy:

Monogamy is an ideal, widespread and rational type of marriage. It is found in all civilized
societies. Monogamy refers to a marriage of one man with one woman at a time. This type of
marriage is normally unbreakable in nature. It continues till death. Today the principle of
monogamy i.e. one husband and one wife is practiced and emphasized throughout the world. M

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However, Monogamy is an ideal or best form of marriage because of it’s different advantages
which are as follows:

(1) It is suitable for all society and for all levels of people.

(2) It provide better sex satisfaction to both husband and wife.

(3) It promotes better understanding between the spouse.

(4) It minimizes jealousy, hatred and quarrels in the family.

(5) It upholds gender equality and provides equal status to men and women.

(6) It provides stable sex-life and stable family life.

(7) Children are taken proper care by parents.

(8) It facilitates easy rules of inheritance and succession.

Because of the above advantages Monogamy is considered as the best form of marriage and is
practiced everywhere. The only disadvantages of Monogamy is divorce which is resulted due to
the monogamous boredom.

(2) Polygamy:

Polygamy is a type of marriage in which there is plurality of partners. It allows a man to marry
more than one woman or a woman to marry more than one man at a time. Polygamy is of three
types such as polygamy, polyandry and endogamy or group marriage.

(i) Polygamy:

Polygamy is a type of marriage in which a man marries more than one wife at a time. In this type
of marriage each wife has her separate household and the husband visits them in turn. It was a
preferred form of marriage in ancient Indian society. But now it was not in practice among
majority of population.

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But it is now found among few tribal’s such as Naga, Gond and Baiga. Economic and political
cause was mainly responsible for polygamy. Besides man’s taste for variety, enforced celibacy,
Barrenness of women more women population etc. are some of the cause of polygamy.

(ii) Polyandry:

Polyandry is a very rare type of marriage in present day. In this type of marriage a woman
marries several men at a time. In the words of K.M. Kapadia, “Polyandry is a form of union in
which a woman has more than one husband at a time or in which brothers share a wife or wives
in common. At present it is found among some of the tribes like toda, khasi and nayars.
Polyandry is divided into two types such as fraternal polyandry and non-fraternal polyandry.

(a)Fraternal Polyandry:

When several brothers share a common wife it is called as fraternal polyandry. Draupadi’s
marriage to Pandas is fine example of fraternal polyandry. The determination of father is
associated with some rituals. At present time this type of marriage is practised by some tribals
like toda and khasi.

(b) Non-fraternal Polyandry:

It is just opposite of fraternal polyandry. In this type of marriage husbands of a woman is not
necessarily brother to each other. This type of marriage is found among the Nayars of Kerala,
Wife goes to spend some time with each of her husband. So long as a woman lives with one of
her husbands, the others have no claim on her. This mainly happens due to scarcity of women.

rules of mate selection:

Marriage may be divided into two types i.e. endogamous and exogamous marriages on the basis
of choice of mate or on the basis of the rules of choice of mate. Endogamy is divided into four
sub types such as caste, sub-caste, varna and tribal endogamy. Similarly exogamous marriage
may be divided into four sub-types such as Gotra, Pravar, Sapinda and village exogamy.

(1) Endogamy or endogamous

21
Endogamy or endogamous marriage refers to the marriage within one’s own group such as
within one’s own caste, sub-caste, varna and tribe. In other words there are several types of
endogamous marriage such as caste endogamy, sub-caste endogamy, varna endogamy and tribal
endogamy.

(a) Caste endogamy:

Caste endogamy is a type of endogamous marriage in which marriage takes place within one’s
own caste. In a caste based society endogamy is strictly followed. Members of each caste marry
within its own caste group.

(b) Sub-caste endogamy:

It is another type of endogamous marriage. In a caste based society each caste is divided into
many sub-castes. Like caste each sub-caste is also an endogamous unit. In sub-caste endogamy
marriage takes place within one’s sub-caste only.

(c) Varna endogamy:

Varna endogamy is another type of endogamous marriage. In the traditional Indian Society we
found the existence of four varnas such as Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaisya and Sudra. In varna
endogamy the choice of mate is restricted to one’s own varna only.

(d) Tribal endogamy:

Tribe is a territorial group. Tribal endogamy is a type of endogamous married in which the
choice of mate is restricted to one’s own tribal group. Like caste tribe is also an endogamous
unit.

(ii) Exogamy or Exogamous marriage:

It is just opposite to the endogamy or endogamous marriage system. It refers to a system of

marriage in which an individual has to marry outside one’s own group such as gotra, pravara,
sapinda or village. This is a sound marriage system which leads to the creation of healthy and
intelligent children. However there are several forms of exogamy such as:

22
(a) Gotra exogamy:

Gotra refers to clan. Members of a particular gotra or clan supposed to have close blood relation
among themselves. Hence according to gotra exogamy one has to marry outside one’s own gotra.

(b) Pravara exogamy:

Pravara means siblings. People originating from a common saint are said to belong a particular
Pravara. According to Pravara exogamy one has to marry outside one’s own pravara. Marriage
within pravara is forbidden.

(c) Sapinda exogamy:

Sapinda means-lineage. People belonging to five generations from father side and three or seven
generation from mother side are known as sapindas. They believed to belong a particular pinda.
Hence according to sapinda exogamy marriage within one’s own sapinda is forbidden. They are
supposed to marry outside one’s own sapnida.

(d) Village exogamy:

According to this principle marriage within one’s own village is forbidden each and every
society prescribes certain rules relating to marriage. Some societies put several restrictions on
marriage among kins whereas some other societies allows marriage between a limited number of
kins.

THE CHANGING TRENDS OF MARRIAGE AMONG THE INDIAN YOUTH OF THE

MODERN ERA:

In the modern era the social institution of marriage has observed many changed trends and the
ones who are responsible to bring about those changes are the young individuals for whom the
meaning, significance and purposes of marriage have entirely transformed. Although we cannot
completely state that marriage has lost its emphasis for the youth, but certainly it has undergone
some radical changes. The Indian youth are now getting more influenced by the modern and
western values, their perceptions and ideologies are getting reshaped within the structure of

23
westernization, modern education, urbanization and reformed Legislations, and this has also
impacted the implications of marriage within our Indian society. The youth of the modern era has
come up with new and fresh dogmas and they rather seek the authenticity in the bonding of
marriage, with the time numerous of things have changed and for the youth as well the institution
of marriage has also been reformed as a sacrament of companionship, love and trust. Following
are the changing trends of marriage among the Indian youth of the modern era:

Change in the Aim or Purpose of Marriage: traditionally the purpose of marriage was to tie a
male and a female in a sacred knot that was considered to be the ‘dharma’ of a male to become
the life-long protector of his wife and to fulfill the vows of the marriage but in the modern era
the young generation perceives marriage as a bonding of a male and a female as the life-long
companions. For them, marriage is taking place not very much for the performance of religious
duties but for obtaining a life-long companionship of the individual of the opposite sex.

Change in the Process of Mate Selection: the youth no more believes in the old patterns of
finding a mate for marriage rather they believe in seeking the mate on their own terms and
choices.

Change in the Field of Selection: traditionally marriages were pursued within the framework of
the caste or ethnicity but in the modern era the youth rejects the rigid structure of the caste
system, ethnicity or racism. Their selection has become enough wide to include the inter-sub
castes or inter-caste marriages. They look for a good person rather than sticking to the caste or an
ethnic identity.

Change in the Party of Selection: earlier parents, elders and relatives of the family used to
select the mate for the eligible adult but in the modern times the youth want to accomplish this
very task by themselves, because they truly feel that marriage is a bonding for lifetime thus, their
mates should be of their choices and consent. This trend is reflected in the increase in the
instances of love marriages.

Change in the Criteria of Selection: In the modern times the young individuals give much
importance to their personal interests, preferences and considerations rather than to family
considerations. Earlier, family used to look for very basic criteria for selecting a girl or a boy for
marriage, but today the young generation look for many other criteria other than basic ones such

24
as; employment, housing, working status, prestige, goodwill, friend’s circle, compromising
attitude and etc.

Change in the Age of Marriage: the youth of today focus more upon personal and professional
growth they believe that one should concentrate on acquiring higher education and good job at
first and then should get settled in the bond of marriage. They believe to make themselves
economically and mentally strong before they step into the phase of marriage and that is why
most of the young individual now get married at an older age. Where earlier girls preferred to get
married at the age of 18-22years and boys 23-25years now in the modern times it has changed to
24-26years for girls and 25-30years for men respectively.

Change in the Economic Aspect of Marriage: the practice of paying dowry is associated with
the economic aspect of marriage, however in the modern time the practice of paying dowry has
not been changed a lot but particularly the young generation show a strong disfavour against this
practice. The modern men do not prefer to take dowry from the girl’s parents but rather prefer to
give every comfort and facility to their wives on their own. Many educated youth refuse to take
even a single penny from their in-laws and maintain their dignity.

Increase in Divorces and Desertion: most of the youth of today follow the individualistic
values that make them focused on personal selves, they first look at their own growth and wishes
than of others and such attitudes sometimes result in arguments, disagreement and disputes with
their spouses and that is also why in the modern times the instances of divorce and desertion are
on the increase.

Thus, we can say that however the youth of the modern era perceives the institution of marriage
with modernized and westernized visions, marriage has not been reduced to the level of a mere
civil contract although the sanctity of the same is little affected. The youth rather trying to
embrace the companionship of a husband and a wife on the foundation of empathy, trust and
mutual consents. Although the values of the youth are individualistic but those also provide
space for each other’s growth and preferences.

FAMILY

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Meaning:The family is an intimate domestic group made up of people related to one another by
bonds of blood, sexual mating or legal ties. It is the smallest and most basic social unit, which is
also the most important primary group found in any society.

It is the simplest and most elementary group found in a society. It is a social group consisting of
a father, mother and one or more children. It is the most immediate group a child is exposed to.
In fact, it is the most enduring group, which has tremendous influence on the life of an
individual, from birth until death. It also accounts for the most enduring social relation-ship
found in society. Family has been defined by different social scientists.

Some of these definitions are given below:

‘Family is a group defined by sexual relationship, sufficiently precise and enduring to provide
for the procreation and upbringing of children.’– Maclver

‘The family, almost without question, is the most important of any groups that human experience
offers … the family … is with us always, or more precisely, we are with it.’ Robert Bierstedt

‘Family is a more or less durable association of husband and wife, with or without child, or of a
man or woman alone, with children.’– M. F. Nimkoff

‘Family is the biological social unit composed of husband, wife and children.’– Eliot and Merrill

‘Family is a group of persons united by ties of marriage, blood or adoption constitut­ing a single
household interacting and inter-communicating with each other in their respective social roles of
husband and wife, father and mother, son and daughter, brother and sister, creating a common
culture.’

– Burgess and Locke

‘Family is a group of persons, whose relations to one another are based upon con­sanguinity and
who are therefore kin to one another.’– Kingsley Davis

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CHARACTERISTICS OF FAMILY:

1. Family is a Universal group. It is found in some form or the other, in all types of societies
whether primitive or modern.

2. A family is based on marriage, which results in a mating relationship between two adults of
opposite sex.

3. Every family provides an individual with a name, and hence, it is a source of nomenclature.

4. Family is the group through which descent or ancestry can be traced.

5. Family is the most important group in any individual’s life.

6. Family is the most basic and important group in primary socialization of an individual.

7. A family is generally limited in size, even large, joint and extended families.

8. The family is the most important group in society; it is the nucleus of all institu-tions,
organizations and groups.

9. Family is based on emotions and sentiments. Mating, procreation, maternal and fraternal
devotion, love and affection are the basis of family ties.

10. The family is a unit of emotional and economic cooperation.

11. Each member of family shares duties and responsibilities.

12. Every family is made up of husband and wife, and/or one or more children, both natural and
adopted.

13. Each family is made up of different social roles, like those of husband, wife, mother, father,
children, brothers or sisters.

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FUNCTIONS OF FAMILY:

As a social group and as an important social institution, family performs various func-tions
that are as follows:

1. Family is a unit through which procreation takes place. Marriage sanctions sexual
relationships, and it also establishes a family, which is further reinforced with the birth of
children.

2. The process of reproduction is institutionalized, regulated and controlled in a family. The

family legitimizes the act of reproduction.

3. Family helps in propagation of human species and perpetuation of human race.

4. Family provides an individual with an identity.

5. It is through the family that every family name is carried on from one genera-tion to another.

6. Family is responsible for the production and upbringing of children.

7. Family is an important agent of socialization. The primary socialization of any individual

takes place within the family. The imme-diate family members teach all the basic rules and
norms of social life to a child.

8. Family is also an important agent of cultural transmission. Culture is transmit-ted from one
generation to another through family. All the aspects of culture are learnt within the family
structure.

9. Family is a great source of strength, emotional and psychological, for its mem-bers. All the
members are aware that they can depend upon their family in the times of need.

10. Family provides an individual with a home, and establishes enduring social re-lationships.

11. The family is the basis of division of labour, where all members have their duties and
obligations towards each other.

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12. A family fulfills the economic needs of its members. This function has undergone
transformation, with families moving from being production and consumption units in earlier
times, to becoming more of consuming units rather than a pro-ducing one. Now-a-days, members
of a family no longer produce things them-selves; rather, they go out and work for some
monetary remuneration or wages.

13. Family is traditionally responsible for the education of the children.

14. Family also has a recreational function. Earlier, most recreation was family- based. Family
gatherings during festivals, functions, family reunions, marriages, brought entire families
together. Now-a-days, taking family members out on holidays or for movies, plays, dinners, or
parties, etc., perform the same func-tion.

TYPES OR FORMS OF FAMILY

A description of the above classification of types or forms of family is explained here:

1. Based on Birth:

Family of Orientation:

The family in which an individual is born is his family of orientation.

Family of Procreation:

The family where an individual sets up after his/her marriage is his/her family of procreation.

The family of orientation and procreation may live together under the same roof, but can still be
distinguished.

2. Based on Marriage:

Monogamous Family:

Polyandrous Family:

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A family made up of one wife and more than one husband, and the children, either born or
adopted with each one of them. This family is based on poly-androus marriage.

3. Based on Residence:

Family of Matrilocal Residence:

When a couple stays in the wife’s house, the family is known as family of matrilocal residence.

Family of Patrilocal Residence:

When a family stays in the house of husband, the fam-ily is known as family of patrilocal
residence.

Family of Changing Residence:

When a family stays in the husband’s house for some time, and moves to wife’s house, stays
there for a period of time, and then moves back to husband’s parents, or starts living in another
place, the family is called a family of chang-ing residence.

4. Based on Ancestry or Descent:

Matrilineal Family:

When ancestry or descent is traced through the female line, or through the mother’s side, the
family is called matrilineal family.

Patrilineal Family:

A family in which the authority is carried down the male line, and descent is traced through the
male line or the father’s side, is called a patrilineal family.

5. Based on Authority:

Matriarchal Family:

Matriarchal families are generally found in matrilineal societies. In these families, a woman is
the head of the family, and authority is vested in her. Succession of property is through the
female line, i.e., only daughters inherit the property.

30
After marriage, the husband resides in the wife’s house and descent is traced through the
mother’s side. Here, children are brought up in mother’s house. Thus, in matriarchal societies,
the matrilocal system exists. Matriarchal families are found only in matrilineal societies, which
are very limited in number all over the world. They are found in parts of Latin America, Ceylon,
parts of Africa and India (the Khasis and the Garos).

Patriarchal Family:Patriarchal families are commonly found in all parts of the world, since
most societies in the world are patrilineal societies. In patriarchal families, the head of the family
is a male, and authority is vested in him. Descent and property is passed through the male line
and children are brought up in father’s house. Such families are patrilocal in nature.

6. Based on the Nature of Relations:

Conjugal Family:

The conjugal family is made up of adults among whom there is a sexual relationship. It refers to
a family system of spouses and their dependent children. The emphasis is placed on the marital
relationship that exists between spouses. In modern times, the term ‘conjugal family’ is being
used for partners, who have a long- term sexual relationship, but are not actually married.

Consanguine Family:

A consanguine family is made up of members among whom a blood relation exists, or those who
are consanguineal kin, i.e., a family consisting of parent(s) and children, or siblings (brothers,
sisters, or brothers and sisters).

7. Based on state or structure:

Nuclear Family:

A nuclear family is a small group consisting of a husband, a wife and children, natural or
adopted. It is more or less an autonomous unit that is not under the control of adults or elders of
the family. It consists of two generations only. In all modern societies, nuclear family is the most

31
common type of family. In fact, nuclear family is both the consequence as well as the cause of
the disintegration of joint family.

Joint Family:

A joint family consists of three generation, living together under the same roof, sharing the same
kitchen and purse or economic expenses. It is a family consisting of three nuclear families living
together. According to IravatiKarve, a joint family is ‘a group of people, who generally live
under the same roof, who eat food cooked at one hearth, who hold property in common, and who
participate in common family worship and are related to each other as some particular type of
kindred.’

STRUCTURE OF FAMILY

Family structure has changed dramatically over the last 50 years. The "Leave it to Beaver"
family is no longer the standard, and several variations on family have been created. There are
six specific types of family structures identified by society today

The following types of families exist today, with some families naturally falling into multiple
categories. For example, a single parent family who lives in a larger, extended family. While
these types of families are distinct in definition, in practice the lines are less clear.

Nuclear Family

The nuclear family is the traditional type of family structure. This family type consists of two
parents and children. The nuclear family was long held in esteem by society as being the ideal in
which to raise children. Children in nuclear families receive strength and stability from the two-
parent structure and generally have more opportunities due to the financial ease of two adults.
According to U.S. Census data, almost 70 percent of children live in a nuclear family unit.

Single Parent Family

The single parent family consists of one parent raising one or more children on his own. Often, a
single parent family is a mother with her children, although there are single fathers as well. The

32
single parent family is the biggest change society has seen in terms of the changes in family
structures. One in four children is born to a single mother. Single parent families are generally
close and find ways to work together to solve problems, such as dividing up household chores.
When only one parent is at home, it may be a struggle to find childcare, as there is only one
parent working. This limits income and opportunities in many cases, although many single
parent families have help from relatives and friends.

Extended Family

The extended family structure consists of two or more adults who are related, either by blood or
marriage, living in the same home. This family includes many relatives living together and
working toward common goals, such as raising the children and keeping up with the household
duties. Many extended families include cousins, aunts or uncles and grandparents living together.
This type of family structure may form due to financial difficulties or because older relatives are
unable to care for themselves alone. Extended families are becoming increasingly common all
over the world.

THE MAJOR CHANGES THAT HAVE OCCURRED IN THE FAMILY CAN BE

SUMMARIZED IN THE FOLLOWING POINTS:

1. Decline of Extended Family System:With the impact of technology and industrial change,
there is a worldwide movement towards small, nuclear family maintaining a separate and
independent household and breaking down of the traditional extended (joint) family system and
other types of kin groups.

33
Their influence is declining in every field of life. A modified extended family structure is
emerging in which individual nuclear families retain considerable autonomy and yet maintain
connections with other nuclear families or so-called ‘joint family’.

The tradi-tional pattern, i.e., extended or joint family, rarely exists anywhere in its purest forms.
Now, there is a trend towards smaller family, i.e., fewer uncles and aunts and other relatives. But
it does not mean that the extended family is totally dead. Mutual support between generations at
times of birth, marriage or death still exists in some or the other form but in a modified form.

MAJOR CHANGES THAT OCCURRED IN THE FAMILY PATTERNS

Some of the major changes that occurred in the family patterns after industrialization are as
follows:

1. Decline of Extended Family System

2. Changing Authority Pattern

3. Changing Status of Women

4. Changing Economic Functions

5. Free Choice of Mate Selection

6. Decline in Family Size

7. Changing Attitudes towards Sex and Marriage

8. Declining Trend in Non-essential Functions.

The 18th and 19th century industrial revolution, which has been largely technical in nature
(brought changes in technology), has also brought with it the spirit of materialism and hedonism.
This spirit has greatly affected the society as a whole—its economic and social values and
ideology. Any change in the society has some bearing on the system of family—a basic
institution of society.

34
Today, the family is not the same as it was before industrialization. Industrialization has changed
the concept of the family largely. About a half century back, Burgess and Lock, in their book,
The Family (1953) said that the family is moving fast or slowly ‘from institution to
companionship’. It is united not by work and external pressures but by shared interests and
affections.

The direction of change is from the traditional family system—usually extended or joint family
system to some form of conjugal family system (neo-local and nuclear form) of which the
kinship network is not strong. Commenting on this new form of family, William J. Goode (1963)
argued that this nuclear family pattern is in itself a world revolution.

As a part of the revolution, the nuclear family emphasizes the importance of the freedom of the
individual to choose his/her own life and control his/her own destiny, released in good part from
the one’s rigid controls of extended kinship structures.

At the same time, we are experiencing the shrinking ties among kinship groups and reduction of
the sense of responsibility that family members used to have for one another. Such a family is
moving in harmony with the rest of our institutions.

Everywhere in the world, the family is changing from its old pattern and adapting to the new
emerging society in accordance with the time. It is changing in size or perceptions, norms and
role structures also. In pre-industrial era, the (agrarian) family was necessarily the centre of life
for the individual.

It possessed major economic functions as a production unit, organized by a division of labour

mostly based on sex and age. It not only socialized the young, it provided much other training of
the child as well. A boy learned his occupation by working with his father at a younger age.

Furthermore, in an agrarian society the kinship group maintained the aged, nursed the sick,
buried the dead and provided for the mentally ill or physically crippled. It also ensured support
for widows and orphans and made a place for stray cases of unmarried men and women. As a
result, kinship became a most binding and obligatory relationship, regardless of personal
feelings, requiring that family interests take precedence over individual one.

35
The family is no longer the all-encompassing social group; it once was. It has lost its age-old
valued functions of rearing and caring (child-raising) and education of the child. Such loss of
function reduces the dependence of the young on the family at an early age. Thus, the family
loses its authority and control over the young.

1. Decline of Extended Family System:

With the impact of technology and industrial change, there is a worldwide movement towards
small, nuclear family maintaining a separate and independent household and breaking down of
the traditional extended (joint) family system and other types of kin groups.

Their influence is declining in every field of life. A modified extended family structure is
emerging in which individual nuclear families retain considerable autonomy and yet maintain
connections with other nuclear families or so-called ‘joint family’.

The tradi-tional pattern, i.e., extended or joint family, rarely exists anywhere in its purest forms.
Now, there is a trend towards smaller family, i.e., fewer uncles and aunts and other relatives. But
it does not mean that the extended family is totally dead. Mutual support between generations at
times of birth, marriage or death still exists in some or the other form but in a modified form.

Fashioned families are increasing day by day which are generally formed after marriages. Newly
married couples establish their own family either in the same house or in the same city or in
some other city or village. But relations are not totally severed.

2. Changing Authority Pattern:

There is a change in the division of labour and authority in the family. Male authority is
declining in the modern family. The concepts of ‘symmetrical family- (Young and Willnott,
1973) and ‘egalitarian family’ are taking place of traditional patriarchal family.

The authority is slipping from the hands of family elders because of new economic and political
opportunities. Young couples do not rely on family elders for job instructions or education of
their children. Because of the dual-career marriages (husband and wife both working), there is a
significant change in the attitude towards equality between married partners.

36
3. Changing Status of Women:

The rights of women are becoming more recognized in respect to both initi-ation of marriage and
decision-making in the family. The ‘quite revolution’ in women’s employment along with the
feminist movements has changed the status of women in the family. Now, they are no more
chattel or deaf and dumb like animals.

4. Changing Economic Functions:

The modern family is no longer united by shared work on the farm. It is now a unit of
consumption instead of a unit of production as it was in the agrarian society. It is now united by
feelings of companionship, affection and recre-ation only.

5. Free Choice of Mate Selection:

A new freedom of personal choice, of freer opportunities for romantic love and sexual intimacy
has now entered the society. The individualism, which indus-trialism had created, permeated all
spheres of social life, not just economic; it encouraged the ideal of romantic love and free choice
of mate. Young people began to give more attention to their own feelings, and less to parental
wishes.

They also started paying court to whom they liked rather than whom their parents thought best.
Kin arranged marriages, thus, are becoming less common. Even in India, which is a traditional
society, this trend is increasing day by day in urban areas due to free mixing opportunities
available in educa-tional institutions and at workplaces.

6. Decline in Family Size:

Most married couples want to have children, but economic considerations force them to have
smaller family with one or two children. Young people believe that reproduction is not the duty
of all married couples. Today, a joint family often or more children living under one roof is rare
to find. Children are no more economically necessary, unlike in an agrarian society. Neo-
localism is devel-oping in which married couples live alone wherever they wish. Couples prefer
to have a ‘car’ rather than a ‘child’ these days.

37
7. Changing Attitudes towards Sex and Marriage:

There is a revolution in sexual attitudes and practices. Higher levels of sexual freedom (open
expression of pre-marital and extra-marital sex) are developing in societies that were earlier very
restrictive. For the young, sex has become as casual as having a cup of coffee together.

Pre-marital pregnancies have increased considerably in Western countries and America. There is
an increase in male-female couples who choose to live together without marriage. This has given
rise to the concepts of ‘living together,’ ‘living arrangements’ or ‘live-in relationships’.

Such couples engage in what is commonly called ‘cohabitation’. Because of these changes, some
new forms of families have emerged such as families of unmarried couples, families of single or
lone (single) parent and families of homosexuals.

8. Declining Trend in Non-essential Functions:The most of the socializing functions today,

like child raising, education, occupational training, caring of elderly, etc., have been taken over
by the outside agencies, such as creches, media, nursery schools, hospitals, occupational training
centres, hospice institutions, funeral contractors, etc. These tasks were once exclusively
performed by the family.

The protective functions of the family are on the verge of decline. For example, the function of
providing help and shelter to the sick, aged and handicapped has been taken over by agencies
like health institutions, old-age houses, deaf and dumb institutions, etc. However, these functions
are still performed to some extent by the family in India because of the persistence of old
traditions and values.

As the society is becoming more and more industrialized, parents can less and less transmit
occupational succession to their children, especially in the case of the wage-earning working
class and the salaried clerks and professionals. But where there is a family business, this is
possible but that too is also changing because of specialized nature of many modern businesses.

38
The affectionate and companionship functions have emerged as the most valued aspect of the
modern conjugal family today. The tie between husband and wife is viewed as the most
important bond holding the family together.

Though most of the other functions might have been taken over or being performed by other
agencies, it is the only function which is still performed by the family. The other relationships
like father/mother-in-law with daugh-ter-in-law have become subordinate relationships. These
are interactional changes in the family.

Commenting over the family life in the modern space age in the 14th International Family
Conference held at Rio de Janeiro, Christensen declared that family is, ‘little more than a
“service station” for its members where they call in for sleep, food and other services, but in
which they do not spend a lot of time and towards which they do not feel a great deal of loyalty’.

Not surpris-ingly, it is widely perceived that a radical change is occurring in one of society’s key
institutions. It is perceived by many that the institution of family is ‘in trouble’. New forces of
change are gradually undermining the traditional system of family.

The old size of the family is giving way to the smallest unit (nuclear family) of human
association, which is essential for the prime act of procreation, rearing and caring of the new-
born child. Available evidence suggests that blood and marriage alone cannot bind families and
communities together; some other adhesive is required, either common acceptance of gendered
hierarchical relationship, or love and solidarity.

In the absence of both families tend to break down, renowned social philosopher Eric From once
remarked about the declining trend of family: ‘We tend to love things more than people and to
use people for personal advantage very much as we are things …. Frequently today people are
valued for what they acquire or achieve more than for what they are.’

KINSHIP

Meaning

39
Kinship is one of the most important organizing components of society. From East to West or
North to South you will find this everywhere in the society. This social institution ties
individuals and groups together and establishes a relationship among them.

The basic type of bond is marriage and reproduction. Kinship refers to a bunch of relationship
and relatives, these are based on blood relationship (consanguineal) or marriage (affinal)

Some basic definitions

“The social relationships deriving from blood ties ( real and supposed) and marriage are
collectively referred to as kinship.” Abercrombie et al

‘Kinship is the recognition of relationships between persons based on descent or marriage. If the
relationship between one person and another is considered by them to involve descent, the two
are consanguine (“blood”) relatives. If the relationship has been established through marriage, it
is affinal.’ – L. Stone

Types of Kinship

The kinships are based on two broad aspects 1) Birth (Blood relationships) 2) marriages

Consanguineal kinship: this kinship is based on blood the relationship meaning the relationship
between parents and children also among immediate siblings. It is said to be the basic and
universal in relationships.

Affinal kinship: this kinship is based on marriage. The relationship between husband and wife is
the basic kin relations.

KINSHIP AND ITS DEGREE:

The relationship among individuals or people depends on the level of closeness and separation of
its relationship.Closeness and distance are based on how these individuals are related to each
other.

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Primary Kinship

Primary kinship is based on direct relations. Individuals or people that are directly related are
said to be primary in nature. Primary kinship is further divided into two:

Primary consanguineal kinship: this kin refers to that kin which is directly related to each other
by birth. For instance association with or amongst parents and children and among siblings.

Primary Affinal kinship: the relation that takes place with marriage is said to be Primary Affinal
kinship. The direct primary affinal kinship is the husband-wife relationship.

Secondary kinship

Secondary kinship alludes to the primary kinship. As it were, the individuals who are specifically
identified with primary kinship (i.e. primary kin of our primary kinship) becomes secondary
kinship. In other words, it means relations which come through primary kinship are said to be
secondary kinship.

There is two type of Secondary kinship:

Secondary Consanguineal kinship:

This kind of kin refers to primary consanguineal kinships primary consanguinealkinship.The

basic example of secondary consanguineal kinship would be the relationship between
grandparents and grandchildren.

Secondary Affinal kinship:

This kind of kinship refers to primary affinal kinships primary kinship. For example, Anita’s
husband is her primary affinal kinship and for Anita’s husband, her parents and siblings are his
primary kin. Therefore meaning the relationship between Anita and her sister in law/ brother in
law or parents in law and more vice versa is said to be Secondary Affinal kinship. Also, your
sibling’s spouse and his/her parents in law will be his secondary affinal kinship.

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Tertiary kinship:

Tertiary kinship is the secondary kinship of our primary kin or primary kin of our secondary
kinship. For example, wife of our brother in law would be related to us as tertiary kin.

TERTIARY KINSHIP IS FURTHER DIVIDED INTO TWO:

Tertiary consanguineal kinship:

Example of tertiary consanguineal kin would be our primary consanguinealkins (i.e. our parents)
primary kins (i.e. our parents’ parents meaning our grandparents) primary kins. (i.e. our
grandparents’ parents)

Tertiary Affinal kinship:

It means primary affinalkins primary kins primary kin or secondary affinals primary kin or
primary affinalkins secondary kin. For example our spouse’s grandparents or grand uncles and
aunties.

Descent: it refers to the socially existing recognized biological relationships between people in
the society. Every society looks at the fact that all offspring and children descend from their
parents and usually it is said biological relationship exists between parents and children.
Therefore descent is used to traces an individual’s ancestry.

Lineage: it refers to the line from which descent is traced. This is done by looking into fathers
line or mothers line or from both the lines. Descent and lineage work together.

IMPORTANCE OF KINSHIP:

 Kinship system maintains unity, harmony, and cooperation among relationships.

 Kinship sets guidelines for communication and interactions among people.

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  Where marital taboo exists decides who can marry whom.
 Kinship regulates the behavior of different kin.
 Kinship act as a watchdog of the social life.
 In rural areas or in the tribal society kinship defines the rights and obligations of the
family and marriage also the system of production and political power.
 It helps people to better understand their relationship among each other.
 It builds and develops and helps better relate to one another in society.

SHORT TERMS

CONSANGUINITY("blood relation", from the Latin consanguinitas) is the property of being

from the same kinship as another person. In that aspect, consanguinity is the quality of being
descended from the same ancestor as another person.

The laws of many jurisdictions set out degrees of consanguinity in relation to prohibited sexual
relations and marriage parties. Such rules are also used to determine heirs of an estate according
to statutes that govern intestate succession, which vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. In some
places and times, cousin marriage is approved and expected; in others, it is as taboo as incest.

The degree of relative consanguinity can be illustrated with a consanguinity table in which each
level of lineal consanguinity (generation or meiosis) appears as a row, and individuals with a
collaterally consanguineous relationship share the same row.[1] The Knot System is a numerical
notation that defines consanguinity

AFFINITY

In law and in cultural anthropology, affinity, as distinguished from consanguinity (blood

relationship), is the kinship relationship that is created or exists between two or more people as a
result of someone's marriage. It is the relationship which each party to a marriage has to the
relations of the other partner to the marriage; but does not cover the marital relationship of the
parties to the marriage themselves. Though laws vary considerably, affinity does not always

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cease with the death of one of the marriage partners through whom affinity is traced, nor with the
divorce of the marriage partners. In addition to kinship by marriage, "affinity" can sometimes
also include kinship by adoption and step relationship.

Under the law, such relatives by marriage are known as affines. More commonly, they are
known as in-laws or family-in-law, as affinity is usually signified by adding "-in-law" to a degree
of kinship.[n 1]

In law, affinity may be relevant in relation to prohibitions on incestuous sexual relations and in
relation to whether particular couples are prohibited from marrying. Which relationships are
prohibited vary from country to country, and have varied over time. In some countries, especially
in the past the prohibited relationships were based on religious laws. (See, for example, Affinity
under canon law.)

A CLAN—alternatively called a sib or gens—is a kind of kin group whose members claim a
shared identity and certain rights based upon descent from a common ancestor. Clans are usually
found in societies with descent systems based on only one lineage—descent is figured only
through the male line (producing patriclans)or female line (producing matriclans).They have,
however, also been reported from some societies with cognatic descent systems, in which
descent may be traced through alternating generations, via either male or female connections.
Clans usually contain a number of lineages; that is, groups whose members trace descent from a
common ancestor through known genealogical links. Clan members will often rank internal
lineages according to their seniority, with the lineages believed to be closest in direct descent
from the clan's founder ranked highest. Such rankings are reached through consensus because
clan members usually do not know or need to know the actual genealogical connections between
the earliest remembered ancestors of each lineage and the apical, or first known, founder of the
clan as a whole. In short, the clan is an extension of the lineage: it is a corporate kin group whose
members define themselves by reference to their believed, but not demonstrated, common
descent from a historically remote ancestral founder (Holly 1994).

The clan systems of different societies vary tremendously in terms of typical size and patterns of
residence. In some small-scale cultures, all members of a clan may reside together to form a
single community. More often, however, the lineages that make up a clan, which tend to be the

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land-holding units, reside in several locations. This was the case in precontact times for the
Tsimshean nation on the north coast of British Columbia prior to contact, for instance, where a
typical village included lineages belonging to two or more of the four clans named for the eagle,
raven, wolf, and killer whale (Garfield 1939).

Clan membership in pre-Revolutionary southeastern China was notably extensive. All married
men with their wives belonged to a tsu, a landholding patrilineage that worshipped together in a
temple in which was stored the names of all members of the descent group, past and present. As
a tsu expanded, members moved to new territories and set up new temples. A copy of the
original genealogy would be stored there and a new one begun. As the original tsu expanded and
dispersed, members continued to regard all those bearing the same surname as members of one
exogamous clan (that is, a group of relatives from which one cannot choose a spouse). In rural
China, the tsu lineage remained the key unit of kinship (Freedman 1958). As Chinese migrated to
North America, however, they drew on wider clan identities to form mutual help associations. In
a similar way, people of Scottish descent who are now dispersed across the globe maintain ties to
their homeland by identifying with one or another of the Highland clans, each represented by
distinctive tartans.

Clans thus provide members with a sense of identity. The founding ancestor often provides a key
symbol for the group. Stories may be told of his or her exploits, and the name may be venerated.
Members of clans in many small-scale cultures attribute a sacred quality to founding ancestors.
In Aboriginal Australia, Melanesia, and Native North America, clan members often associate
their founding ancestor with various natural phenomena— plants, animals, places, and so forth.
These totems in turn stand as emblems of group identity and are treated with reverence. They are
often associated with particular territories and landforms that the ancestor is believed to have
created. They should not be eaten or damaged, and they often form key symbols in clan rituals
(Lévi-Strauss 1963).

Clans form a common type of "corporate kin group" with legal and political functions in many
cultures in which kinship forms a prominent element of social organization (Keesing 1975).
Clans tend to be exogamous in small-scale cultures (and even some very large ones, as observed
with traditional rural China). Because marriages must take place across clan lines, clan elders
often play a key role in arranging marriages and associated exchanges. Although rights to land

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and other tangible assets tend to rest with lineages, members of clans may be drawn in to resolve
disputes over inheritance. Clan members may appeal to clan solidarity to deal with special
circumstances including organizing ceremonial exchanges, defending themselves against
enemies or launching their own attacks on others, forming special work parties when a large
project needs to be accomplished, and protecting common interests as when, for instance,
individual members seek to sell lands to foreigners or undertake some other controversial
measure such as inviting in foreign missionaries.

LINEAGE, descent group reckoned through only one parent, either the father (patrilineage) or
the mother (matrilineage). All members of a lineage trace their common ancestry to a single
person. A lineage may comprise any number of generations but commonly is traced through
some 5 or 10.

Notionally, lineages are exclusive in their membership. In practice, however, many cultures have
methods for bestowing lineage membership on individuals who are not genetically related to the
lineage progenitor. The most common of these is adoption, although other forms of fictive
kinship are also used. Lineages are normally corporate, meaning that their members exercise
rights in common and are subject to obligations collectively.

Lineage structure may be regarded as a branching process, as when two or three founders of
small lineages are represented as brothers or sisters. The groups thus constitute a single larger
lineage in which the smaller groups are segments. This structure may lend stability to a society;
the lineages are considered permanent groups and thus perpetuate concomitant political and
religious relationships over time. In societies lacking central political authority, territorial groups
often organize themselves around lineages; as these are usually exogamous, or out-marrying,
marriage becomes a means of bringing together otherwise unrelated groups.

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Unit-2

Class and Caste System of Society

A caste is a social category whose members are assigned a permanent status within a given social
hierarchy and whose contacts are restricted accordingly.

It is the most rigid and clearly graded type of social stratification. It has also often been referred
to as the extreme form of closed class system.

Sharply contrasted with the caste system, the open class system ran be placed at the opposite end
of a continuum. A social class has been defined as an abstract category of persons arranged in

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levels according to the social status they possess. There are no firm lines dividing one category
from another.

A social class consists of a number of individuals who share similar status often ascribed at birth
but capable of being altered. Class, therefore, does not consist of organised closed groups
defined by law or religion as does caste, nor are the various strata in the system as rigid and
easily identifiable. The following table summarizes a comparison between the class and caste
system of society.

Both caste and class symbolize two types of stratifications of rural society.

There are two approaches:

(i) Marxist

(ii) Non-Marxist/Weberian

Marxists analyse stratification of rural India in terms of modes of production and relations of
production. Marxists say that there are many variables but the most important variable is the
mode of production. Non-Marxists or Weberians feel that stratification takes place because of
three variables.

(i) Wealth

(ii) Power

(iii) Prestige

1. Wealth is defined as ability to produce or inherit properties.

2. Prestige refers to honour and style of life.

3. Power means the ability to control over others.

When all these three things are considered, the individuals are accordingly categorized.

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The stratification system Involve any quality which means a group of persons may get more
power/prestige/wealth or all the three in combination. Many studies have been conducted on the
basis of Marxist analysis.

They have given emphasis on:

(i) Ownership of land

(ii) Types of peasants (i.e. landowners, petty landholders, landless labours)

(iii) Types of technology which is used at the time of production,

(iv) Labour class.

(v) Amount of surplus at the time of production.

Supporters of Non-Marxist approach consider class, status and power as the basis of social
stratification of rural India.

Andre Beteille has conducted a study on caste, class and power. K.L Sharma has conducted a
study on changing rural stratification system.

In rural India, people are generally identified according to their caste. In South India, village is
given priority in identifying a person.

IravatiKarve observed that an Indian is identified mainly through three variables/areas:

(i) Caste

(ii) Language

(iii) Village.

In Indian village, northern or southern, caste has a very important role in giving identification to
the individual.

Y. Singh analyses caste from two perspectives:

(i) Caste as a cultural phenomenon.

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(ii) Caste as a structural phenomenon.

Caste as a Cultural Phenomenon:

Caste is associated with an autonomous form of cultural system or world view.

The basis of cultural system is:

(a) Institutionalized inequality.

(b) Closed social mobility.

(c) Simple Division of Labour (assignment of occupation).

(d) Ritualistic reciprocity (dependence on other caste categories for some rituals or customs).

(e) Importance of purity and pollution.

Caste as a Structural Phenomenon:

The structural aspect of caste is stressed by functionalists who express structural and functional
analysis of the caste system.

The basis of structural analysis is:

(a) A system of social organisation.

(b) An institutionalized system of Interaction among hierarchically ranked hereditary group. This
type of Interaction is expressed in the area of marriage/occupation/ economic division of
labour/enforcement of cultural norms and values by caste bodies/performance of rituals based on
principles of purity and pollution.

The structural properties of caste like endogamy, caste, occupation and hierarchy have a direct
linkage with social stratification. The cultural aspects, on the other hand, are value loaded. While
analysing rural stratification, it is observed that it has some specific features like co-operation
among caste groups, following rules of endogamy and exogamy, occupational inter-dependency,
caste association etc.

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GhanshyamSaha has conducted a study on caste sentiments, class formation and dominance in
Gujarat and found that caste plays an important role In the field of politics, particularly at the
time of voting during elections. Bihar has also similar experiences. It is confirmed from different
studies that the village community is going to be divided into high caste and low caste due to
reservation policy.

M.N. Srinivas has analysed the new form of Caste as the “20th Century Avatar.”

In relation to class and caste, there are two schools of thought:

(i) Caste is breaking down and class is taking its place.

(ii) Caste and class are not opposite to one another rather class comes within the caste system.
For example – Brahmin is a caste and within Brahmins we find rich Brahmins and poor
Brahmins.

Andre Beteille in his article “Class Structure in an Agrarian Society” argues that some of the
castes In rural society, particularly in West Bengal (where he had conducted his study) are
moving towards the formation of class but the procedure of movement is clear.

Caste-Class Nexus:

Nexus is defined as a set of ties in connection to the basic structural and cultural changes.

It indicates:

1. Interdependency between both factors.

2. Contradictions and similarities.

3. Control of one group over the other.

Caste and class nexus implies observation of two as mutually inherent areas. Tension and
contradiction between caste and class are not only recognizable but also bring their differential
consequences on different castes and classes. This nexus between caste and class also implies
going beyond caste and going beyond class in understanding social reality.

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A group of sociologists give their view that Indian society can be best studied from a caste
model. They justify their opinion by saying that caste is an over-reaching ideological system
encompassing all aspects of social life of Hindus, in particular, and the other communities, in
general. The problem, however, is the fact that caste system is very complicated and complex.

At the Lime of marriage, with all the rigid rules and regulations, a caste gives prime importance
to the class. So the assumption is that class is taking the place of caste is incorrect. Both caste
and class are inseparable parts of Indian social formation.

The sociologists who feel that recent changes are giving way to class than to caste have nothing
but a misapprehension. This is because there are studies in which it is observed that castes are
also equally important as class. If caste is getting weak in one aspect it also gets strengthened in
other aspects simultaneously with certain additions.

In conclusion, we can sum up that both caste and class are inseparable and closely interlinked.
Class like distinction within caste and caste life-style within the class are a part and parcel of the
members of the society. Both caste and class are real, empirical, interactional and hierarchical.

One incorporates the other. Common class consciousness among the members of a caste is
mainly due to their common economic deprivations.

In connection to caste-class nexus some conclusion can be drawn:

(i) The caste system functions as an extremely effective method of economic exploitation.

(ii) The caste hierarchy is linked with social hierarchy and it reflects ownership of land.

(iii) Caste determines a definite relation with the means of production.

(iv) B.R. Ambedkar rightly observed that the caste system not only divides labour or indicate
division of labour but also divides the entire social structure.

So caste and class represent similar social reality but from varying perspectives.

Tribes in India.

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The tribes in India form an important part of the total population. It represents an element in
Indian society which is integrated with the culture mosaic of our civilisation. The tribal
population of India constitutes nearly 8 percent of the total population.

There are a number of tribes in India, spread over different parts at different levels of
socioeconomic development. They live all over the country from the foot hill of the Himalayas to
the lands tip of Lakshadweep and from the plains of Gujarat to the hills in the North-East.
According to 1991 census, the numerical strength of the scheduled tribes in India stood at 52.03
million. Bihar leads all other States as regards the tribal population. It is followed by
Maharashtra and Orissa.

The names of tribes like the Kurumba, the Irula, the Panga in South India; the Asura, the Saora,
the Oraon, the Gond, the Santhal, the Bhil in Central India; the Bodo, the Ahom in North-East
India; are found in old classical Indian literature.

The term ‘tribe’ is derived from the Latin word ‘tribus’. Earlier Romans used this term to
designate the divisions in society. Latter use suggests that it meant poor people. The present
popular meaning in English language was acquired during the expansion of colonialism
particularly in Asia and Africa.

The present popular meaning of ‘Tribe’ in India refers to a category of people, included in the
list of Scheduled Tribes. It has carried different connotations in different countries.

In none of the Indian language there were the term tribes. In India the term ‘tribe’ conveys a
meaning of a bewildering and enchanting group of people. It refers to preliterate, localised social
group the members of which speak a common dialect. The tribal people have been known by
various names such as Adivasi, Vanavasi, Vanyajati, Adimjati, Girijan and Pahari etc. Ghurey
has described them as backward Hindus.

The Indian Constitution has made important provisions for the development and welfare of the
tribes. A list of tribes was adopted for this purpose. The list has been modified from time to time.
In 1971, the list contained names of 527 tribes.

The people who have been listed in the Constitution and mentioned in successive presidential
orders are called Scheduled Tribes. This is the administrative concept of tribe.

53
A tribe has been defined in various ways. The Constitution, however, does not provide a
definition of a tribe. The people who have been listed in the Constitution have been termed as
Scheduled Tribes.

Academicians have been making their efforts to define tribe. The Dictionary of Sociology
defines tribe as a “social group, usually with a definite area, dialect, cultural homogeneity and
unifying social organisation.

According to the Imperial Gazetteer,

“A tribe is a collection of families bearing a common name speaking a common dialect,

occupying or professing to occupy a common territory and is not usually endogamous though
originally it might have been so.”

Following are some of, the leading definitions of tribe:

According to Gillin and Gillin,

“Any collection of preliterate local group which occupies a common general territory, speaks a
common language and practises a common culture, is a tribe”. ,

Tribe has been defined as a group of indigenous people having common name, language and
territory tied by strong kinship bonds, practising endogamy, having distinct customs, rituals and
belief etc. Such definitions are not very helpful because we find lot of variations n life styles of
different tribes.

There are a number of tribes in India, spread over different parts at different levels of
socioeconomic development. Contrasting pictures regarding £ H e are visualised in India. For
example, whereas the tribes like Khas, or the Lush, are economically and educationally advanced
to a considerable extent the tribes like Birhor of Bihar or the Kattunayakan of Kerala are
backward and maintain their livelihood through hunting fishing and food collecting.

Further, we hardly find out any difference between minas of Rajasthan or the Bhumaj of West
Bengal and their neighbours. Therefore, tribes have been considered as a stage in the social and
cultural revolution.

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For S. C Sinha the tribe is ideally defined in terms of its isolation from the networks of social
relations and cultural communications of the centres of civilisation. According to Sinha “in their
isolation the tribal societies are sustained by relatively primitive subsistence technology such as
‘shifting cultivation and, hunting and gathering and maintain an egalitarian segmentary social
system guided entirely by non-literate ethnic tradition.

The tribes in India are under the impact of ‘mobility and change’. There are numerous examples
of tribes transforming themselves into the larger entity of the caste system; others have become
Christian or Muslim. They also join the ranks of peasantry and in modern times they become
wage-labourers in industries, plantations and mining. Thus, in the concept of tribe, the aspects of
mobility and change should not be overlooked.

Nevertheless grandparents provide an additional source of affection and enrichment of

experience in respect of child care and family business. Despite various problems of old age, one
must keep himself actively engaged for the personal well being and social good as well.

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