GEOPHYSICS,VOL. 59, NO. 8 (JULY 1994); P. 1121-1132, 18 FIGS.
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The application of map migration to 2-D migrated data
David N. Whitcornbe* and Randall J. Carroll$
ABSTRACT
Two-dimensional migrated time interpretations are
used in a novel application of map migration. This is
done by following the seismic migration along the 2-D
lines by a map migration in a direction orthogonal to
the lines, thus achieving a fully 3-D migrated represen-
tation of the subsurface. In addition to modifying the
2-D times and positions, this approach corrects the
amplitudes of the 2-D migrated data, which suffer from
being corrupted by focusing or defocusing because of
the reflector curvature orthogonal to the line direction.
A Gulf of Mexico case study illustrates how this map
migration technique simplifies the time structure map
and explains anomalous amplitude variations.
INTRODUCTION
In this paper, we are concerned with making better time
structure maps from 2-D data. The methodology we have
developed also takes into account the amplitude focusing
and defocusing that occur because of structural effects.
These can cause lateral variations in amplitude that can
incorrectly be interpreted as being caused by lithological
andlor pore fluid.effects.
It is well recognized that significant time mis-ties exist
between intersecting 2-D migrated seismic lines. While pro-
cessing inconsistencies are a potential source of mis-tie, we
are concerned here with the expected mis-ties that occur
because of structural effects.
While mis-ties on 2-D migrated data are to be expected,
mis-ties should not occur on intersecting 2-D unmigrated
data, providing those data have been accurately stacked to
zero offset. This has led several authors to interpret unmi-
grated time data and then carry out map migration to
correctly position the structure. Two forms of map migration
can be carried out: map depth migration and map time
Manuscript received by the Editor March 17, 1993; revised manuscript received January 3, 1994.
*Formerly BP Exploration Inc., P.O. Box 4587, Houston, TX 77210; presently BP Exploration, Farburn Industrial Estate, Dyce, Aberdeen,
Scotland AB2 OPB, United Kingdom.
$Formerly BP Exploration Inc., P.O. Box 4587, Houston, TX 77210; presently Veritas Seismic, 200 615-3rd Ave. S.W., Calgary, Alberta,
Canada T2P OG6.
O 1994 Society of Exploration Geophysicists. All rights reserved.
migration. These procedures have identical properties to
their seismic counterparts. Map depth migration needs inter-
val velocities, corrects for refraction and generates an output
map in depth (Fagin, 1991a; Reilly, 1991). Map time migra-
tion (Haas and Viallix, 1976) uses a simpler definition of the
velocity field and generates an output time map. It does not
handle refraction caused by lateral velocity changes, but it is
inherently quicker to use than map depth migration and is
adequate for a broad range of problems. Both of the above
procedures use maps of unmigrated time as input. In this
work, we have developed an alternative approach of work-
ing directly with the 2-D migrated data. We did this because
we believe (see also Fagin, 1991b):
1) Interpreters generally prefer to interpret 2-D migrated
data than unmigrated data, and rightly so, since the
migrated section more closely resembles an image of
subsurface geology and because migrated sections have
far superior lateral resolution.
2) For complex structures, map migration of unmigrated
data is difficult. It is both difficult to correctly follow
multivalued events such as bow ties on an unmigrated
section and to store and manipulate the multivalued
surfaces in conventional mapping systems.
Our methodology uses an innovative application of map
migration. First, we discuss the assumptions made in our
methodology. Then we show how this approach can be used
to quickly evaluate the impact 3-D effects have on 2-D data.
Finally, we present our solution of building a fully migrated
3-D map from the 2-D migrated data. We use a real case
study taken from the Gulf of Mexico to demonstrate the
methodology.
ASSUMPTIONS
We assume that time sections can be described as zero-
offset sections. In other words, we assume that we have
been able to stack along hyperbolas, resulting in a stacked
 1122 Whitcornbe and Carroll
trace with true zero-offset times and amplitudes. We also
assume that depth migration is not necessary. These as-
sumptions imply a relatively simple overburden. This is
satisfactory for the majority of data where velocities are
strongly depth controlled, and is a good first approximation
for more structurally complex areas. We are basically as-
suming that the imaging problems associated with 3-D struc-
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ture are greater than lateral refraction (image ray) problems.
The amplitude focusing and defocusing treatment used
here assumes that the reflector curvature effects have a
structural wavelength greater than a Fresnel zone. For
shorter wavelength structure, wave equation effects must be
taken into account. As an example, the analysis given in this
report predicts unchanged amplitude from a planar reflector
near a fault. In reality, the reflection amplitude measured on
unmigrated data decreases from its true value at a Fresnel
distance from the fault to half its value at the horizon
termination. A discussion of these effects is given by Trorey
(1970).
PITFALLS OF 2-D DATA IN A 3-D WORLD
Properties of unmigrated seismic sections
Most seismic interpretation is canied out on time-mi-
grated sections. To understand the properties of a 2-D
migrated section in a 3-D world, it is first necessary to review
the properties of unmigrated sections.
Imaging and amplitude effects from 2-Dstructures.-Figure 1
illustrates some of the properties of unmigrated data by
showing the unmigrated response of a deep syncline. Note
that the predicted times are bow tied (i.e., multivalued). This
effect happens when the radius of curvature of the syncline
is less than its depth of burial. Note also that the amplitude
changes along the unmigrated section even though the
reflector has a constant reflection coefficient. This change of
amplitude is partly a result of the changing depth to the
reflector that would be addressed by a spherical divergence
correction. However, the main cause of the amplitude vari-
FIG. 1. This synthetic shows the unmigrated response of a
deep syncline. Note the focusing and defocusing of the signal
and the 90-degree phase rotation of the bottom arc of data
(after Sheriff, 1991).
ation is focusing and defocusing of the energy caused by the
changing curvature of the reflector. If the reflector is planar,
no amplitude focusing occurs. Figure 2 illustrates the focusing
and defocusing effects of anticlines and synclines. These ef-
fects are predicted by the following equation (Hilterman, 1975):
where A. is the amplitude after spherical divergence correc-
tion, L is the length of the normal incidence ray, and R , is
the radius of curvature of the reflector. Note that in Figure 1
the bottom arc of the bow tie shows a phase rotation of 90
degrees. This phase change is predicted by equation (1)
when the radius of curvature is less than the depth of burial
of the syncline. The equation then evaluates the square root
of a negative number, which signifies a 90-degree phase
rotation. Generally, synclines focus energy. However, when
the synclinal axis is buried below twice the radius of its
curvature, amplitudes start to defocus. This is illustrated in
Figure 1. At the base of the syncline, its depth of burial is
more than twice its radius of curvature, and the synthetic is
clearly defocused along the bottom arc of the bow tie.
Imaging and amplitude effects from 3-D structuresi--In the
real world, 2-D data will contain events from out-of-the-
plane ("sideswipe"). In fact, 2-D data may contain no events
from the plane of the section.
Assuming no processing problems, such as in locations,
statics, stacking, or wavelet processing, the unmigrated
sections from a 2-D grid of lines should all tie in time. Given
a general 3-D surface with curvature in both the X and Y
directions (radii of curvature R , and R,), the amplitude
focusing is sensitive to both these curvatures and is given by:
0.0 I I I
0.0 1.O 2.0 3.0
Depth of burial I radius of curvature
4- 90 degree phase rotation -+
0.0
0.0 1.O 2.0 3.0
Depth of burial I radius of curvature
FIG.2. (a) An anticline always defocuses energy. (b) Syn-
clines usually focus energy. However, when the synclinal
axis is buried below twice the radius of curvature, ampli-
tudes start to defocus (after Hilterman, 1975).
 Map Migration of 2-0 Migrated Data
Properties of time-migrated sections
Having reviewed the properties of unmigrated sections,
we will consider the effect on the data when 2-D migration is
applied.
What time migration does to unmigrated data.-Figure 3
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shows the effect of migrating a linear element with a constant
propagation velocity V. As observed in Figure 3, migration
steepens the unmigrated dip angle 0, to a migrated dip angle
8, according to the relationship (Chun and Jacewitz, 1981):
tan 0, = sin 8,. (3)
The hyperbolic Kirchhoff time-migration equation relates
the unmigrated position (Xu, T,) to the time migrated
position (X, , T,) by the migration velocity V:
From this it can easily be shown that the migrated coordi-
nates are:
where p, is the unmigrated time slope expressed in units of
timeldistance. Migration steepens this time slope to a mi-
grated time slope of p,. The relationship between these
time slopes is obtained from:
sin 0, = Vpu/2,
and
tan 0, = Vpm12. (7)
Equations (S), (6), and (7) hold for any type of migration,
since they are formulated with a constant velocity. For the
Strike line ( in ~ i line
p
and b produced by our standard interpretation technique of inter-
Reflection points
for strike line
(in and out of paper)
through surface point A
FIG.3. Illustration of the anticipated mis tie between dip and
strike lines. Subsudace point B on a dipping bed is observed
at B' on unmigrated data for both a dip line and strike line
through surface point A. 2-D migration of the strike line will
not move the event at B' ,so that the dipping bed still appears
to be at B' vertically below A. However, 2-D migration of a
dip line will cause point B' to move back to B and the dipping
bed appears to be at point C vertically below A.
1123
general case of varying velocity structures, Kirchhoff time
migration uses the above equations directly, applying the
rms velocity at each image point.
Figure 3 shows that point B is recorded at surface location
A and appears at the unrnigrated position Br. 2-D migration,
as expressed in equations (5) and (6), moves unmigrated
point Br to migrated position B. Geometrically, this is the
well-known "arc-swinging" procedure of migration. How-
ever, note also in Figure 3 that the strike line (circle at
location A) records events from the dipping plane that
emanate from a horizontal line of reflection points in and out
of the plane at location B. Thus, the dip of the unmigrated
strike-line is zero, and according to equation (3) its migrated
dip is also zero. For the strike line, 2-D migration does not
change the position of the event recorded at A, yet for the
dip line, it changes it dramatically. Viewed another way, the
dipping plane appears at point C on the migrated dip line at
location A and at point B' on both the strike line and the
unmigrated dip line at location A. This simple illustration
shows why reflections on dipping beds tie on unmigrated
data but not on 2-D migrated data. Fagin (1991a, c) also
shows this problem in concept and with a salt sill example.
The mis-tie between dip and strike lines is the simplest to
visualize, but occurs with smaller magnitude for crossing
lines of all orientations. Note that in the real world true dip
lines are very rare.
Imaging and amplitude errors associated with 2-Dmigrated
data in a 3-D world.-The previous discussion explains why
interpreters who have worked areas with significant dip
appreciate that 2-D migrated time data invariably do not tie
in time at line intersections. Figure 4 is a map view of
locations from 15 seismic lines from the Gulf of Mexico.
Each point shown has an associated traveltime for the
horizon of interest taken from the time-migrated 2-D seismic
sections. Typical mis-ties are indicated at three-line intersec-
tions and can be more than 200 ms. Figure 5 is a computer-
contoured map of the points in Figure 4 and shows "bull's-
eyes" caused by the mis-ties. The map in Figure 6 was
preting 2-D migrated data and reconciling mis-ties by attach-
ing more significance to lines that are predominantly in the
dip (radial) direction. We will refer to this as the initial time
map.
Now consider 3-D migration. A major breakthrough that
enabled 3-D data to be processed economically was the
realization that, to a first approximation, a true 3-D migra-
tion could be achieved by a 2-D migration in the inline
direction followed by a 2-D migration in the crossline direc-
tion (or vice versa) (Gibson et al., 1983). For 2-D data,
migration is performed only inline, and the data remain
completely unmigrated in the direction perpendicular to each
line (Figure 7). Seismic data tie in time only when they are
completely unmigrated and represent a reflection wavefield,
or when they are fully 3-D migrated and represent subsur-
face structure.
Figure 8 shows a profile view illustrating out-of-plane
effects. The seismic profile runs in and out of the paper and
an out-of-plane reflection from a salt wall is drawn. It can be
seen that the 2-D profile will observe the feature with a
traveltime larger than the true vertical time to the feature.
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 Map Mlgratlon of 2-D Mlgrated Data 1125
The event is also laterally mispositioned. When ideally reflector. This is usually built from a collection of 2-D
imaged, it should be observed on a profile directly over the migrated lines acquired in various directions. In a sense, this
feature. map is a 3-D migrated map, since the interpreter has tried to
Figure 9 shows the same profile view but now considers mentally correct for out-of-plane effects by relying heavily
the amplitude effects. In this example the anticlinal curva- on dip lines and down-weighting strike lines. A map pre-
ture of the reflector in the plane of the paper (orthogonal to pared in this manner usually serves well in assessing the
the seismic line) causes the energy to defocus. While the severity of out-of-plane effects on the 2-D data. This is the
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migration along the 2-D profile has removed the focusing and
defocusing caused by curvature in the plane of the 2-D
profile (l/R,) the curvature in the plane perpendicular to the
profile (IIR,) has not been addressed. The expected ampli-
tude on 2-D migrated data is therefore given by:
APPLYING MAP MIGRATION TO 2-D MIGRATED DATA
Having reviewed the properties of 2-D migrated data, we
will now show how to identify the severity of 3-D effects and
then show how to correct for them.
Understanding the severity of the 3-D problem
T i e s and positions.-Map time migration and demigra-
tion, as expressed in equations ( 3 , (6), and (7), serve as the
basis for quickly assessing out-of-plane effects on 2-D data.
The starting point for such an analysis is typically the
interpreter's best estimate of a 3-D migrated time map of the
map shown in Figure 6.
First, it is important to estimate how far out-of-plane the
reflection points lie with respect to the surface locations of a
line. The initial time map is demigrated using equations ( 3 ,
(6), and (7). Typically, to perform this demigration, a 3-D
velocity grid is built from either the migration or stacking
velocities of the 2-D lines. A single constant velocity repre-
sentative of the target level could be used to provide a first
approximation. This map demigration yields a set of demi-
gration vectors (Xu- X , , Y , - Y,). These can then be
used to resolve the component of migration in the direction
perpendicular to each 2-D line (as in Figure 7). This compo-
nent tells us how far reflections on a 2-D line would have
migrated in the crossline direction and if 2-D seismic migra-
tion could have accomplished this. Additionally, an estimate
may be made of the difference between measured 2-D
migrated time and 3-D migrated time. These measures, the
time and lateral displacements away from the 2-D lines, give
a good initial estimate of the sideswipe.

Axes in ft
FIG.6. Faced with the severe mis-ties on 2-D migrated data, this time map was generated using a standard
interpretation technique of attaching more significance to lines that were predominantly in the dip (radial)
direction. This interpretation serves as the initial map for the map migration analysis.
 1126 Whitcornbe and Carroll
The initial time map of Figure 6 was time demigrated using
an rms velocity to the target of 7000 ftls (2100 mls). As
described above, the vectors computed in this process were
used to estimate subsurface reflection points on the mapped
horizon associated with the seismic lines (Figures 10a and
lob). Note that the out-of-plane effects are significant, aver-
aging about 6000 ft (2000 m). The erratic changes in location
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of the reflection points are caused by the kinks in the initial

time map. Note that multiple reflection points can corre-
spond to one surface location.

Amplitudes.-Migration along the 2-D profile will remove

effects of curvature in the direction of the profile, but the
I
effect of curvature in the direction perpendicular to the line
I Reflector
remains [equation @)I. The case history described above I
clearly illustrates the amplitude problem. Figures 1la and I
l l b show the 2-D migrated seismic sections for lines 5 and 2. I
Curvature in the crossline direction causes the observed
amplitudes to be focused or defocused (Figures 12 and 13).
I
A / (Note TM3 < TM2)
Predicted 2-D migrated amplitudes based on a uniform Reflection perceived here
after 2-D migration with
reflection coefficient along the target horizon were computed travel time TM2
from the initial time map (Figure 6) and then compared to the
real 2-D migrated data from each line. If the curves corre-
lated perfectly, we would conclude that all of the lateral FIG.8. The seismic profile runs in and out of the paper. An
changes in amplitude values observed on the seismic section out-of-plane reflection from a salt wall is drawn. It can be
seen that the 2-D profile will observe the feature with a
could be explained by focusing because of crossline curva- traveltime larger than the true vertical time to the feature.
ture. This analysis implies: The event is also laterally mispositioned: when ideally
imaged, it should be observed on a profile directly over the
1) Severe focusing and defocusing of the amplitudes ex- feature.
isted.
2) The size of the predicted focusing is similar to the size
of the observed lateral changes in amplitude.
3) Not all the observed lateral change in amplitude can be
explained by focusing.
Seismic profile in
and out of paper

2D profile

Surface l Profile View

recording
point Map View
OWW

Effect
of 2D
migration

I
Remaining out-of-plane effect

Subsurface
reflection point
I Recorded amplitude A =A, (1-~&)-"*

I FIG..^. The anticlinal curvature of the reflector in the plane

2D profile 1 of the paper (orthogonal to the seismic line), causes the
energy to defocus. Migration of 2-D data cannot compensate
for crossline focusing or defocusing.
FIG.7. TO a fist approximation, time migration of 3-D data
can be achieved by a 2-D migration in the inline direction,
followed by a 2-D migration in the crossline direction. The
subsurface reflection point and the surface recording point
are linked by a 3-D migration vector, and the components
represent the inline and crossline migration vectors neces-
sary to achieve correct imaging.
 Line 5
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Axes in ft

Line 2
5.888 18.888 15.088 28.088 25.088 30.980

FIG.10. Subsurface reflection points computed through map migration for (a) line 5 and (b) line 2. The out-of-plane effects are
significant, averaging about 6000 ft (2000 rn). The erratic changes in location of the reflection points are due to the kinks in the
time map. Multiple reflection points can correspond to one surface location.
 Whitcornbe and Carroll
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Line 5
CDP 10 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 170 190 210 230

Line 2
CDP 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 170 190 210 230 250

FIG.11. 2-D migrated seismic sections for (a) line 5 and (b) line 2.
 Map Migration of 2-D Migrated Data 1129

Correcting the 3-Deffects by map migration
Our process involves using an initial time map to start an
iterative procedure. It is important that the starting map
should not contain unsupported high-frequency detail. It is
better practice to build a low-frequency starting map and let
the higher frequency be added by the data at the next
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the east-west direction (Figure 15). This is analogous to 3-D
seismic migration being achieved as an inline migration
followed by a crossline migration. In our approach, we are
achieving a full 3-D migration as a seismic 2-D migration
followed by a map migration orthogonal to the lines. In a
situation where most of the seismic data are acquired in one
direction, the map resulting from this process could be the

iteration. With the current case study, we suspected that the
initial time map showed high-frequency detail that was not
substantiated by the data. One reason for this suspicion was
that while the estimated subsurface reflection points for
several lines were complicated and implied bow ties (Figures
10a, lob), the observed seismic looked simple and smooth
(Figures 1la, 1lb). Therefore, we could have built a starting
map by smoothing the initial time map. Instead, we used an
alternative technique. Only the six north-south lines from
the data shown in Figure 4 were selected, and the control
points from these were machine-contoured to form the map
shown in Figure 14. By using north-south lines only, mis-ties
were avoided, which led to a simpler and more continuous
map compared to the initial time map (Figure 6). Since the
lines from which this map was built had been 2-D migrated,
the map is fully migrated in the north-south direction but
completely unmigrated in the east-west direction. The full
3-D migration would then be achieved as a map migration in
final product. However, since the lines in this prospect were
shot in several directions, we used this map only as a starting
map to enable map migration of all of the data shown in
Figure 4.
The fully migrated map (Figure 15) was time demigrated
using the rms velocity to the target of 7000 Ws (2100 mls). By
resolving each demigration vector perpendicular to each
line, the sideswipe associated with each particular 2-D
station was estimated. Additionally, the difference between
the observed 2-D and mapped 3-D migrated times was
determined for each station. These distance and time cor-
rections were applied to the picked 2-D migrated times and
positions and then contoured to produce a re-estimated 3-D
migrated time map. This map was then time demigrated, and
the procedure was repeated again for all the seismic lines.
The map migration process thus converged on the map
shown in Figure 16 in two steps. Indeed, the map obtained
after the first step was very similar to this final map. The 3-D

0 4 : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1
20 70 120 170 220
COP

0 1 : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1
20 70 120 170 220
COP

FIG. 12. (a) Tracked observed amplitudes for the horizon of
interest on line 5. (b) Predicted focusing factors for 2-D
migrated amplitudes for line 5. Focusing factors greater than
1.0 imply the crossline structure is focusing, while factors
less than 1.0 imply the crossline structure is defocusing.
FIG. 13. (a) Tracked observed amplitudes for the horizon of
interest on line 2. (b) Predicted focusing factors for 2-D
migrated amplitudes for line 2. Focusing factors greater than
1.0 imply the crossline structure is focusing, while factors
less than 1.0 imply the crossline structure is defocusing.
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8 5.888 18.888 15.888 28.888 25.888 38,008

Axes in ft

FIG. 14. Computer-contoured time map generated from the six north-south lines of Figure 4. Note that the
map is simpler than the initial map (Figure 6).

0 5.088 10.800 15.888 20.888 25.808 38.080

Axes in ft

FIG. 15. By carrying out a east-west map migration of the map built from north-south 2-D migrated lines
(Figure 14), we are achieving a two-pass 3-D time migration. The first pass is seismic migration and the
second pass is map migration.
 Map Migration of 2-0 Migrated Data
migrated traveltimes computed for the reflection points
(Figure 16) tied closely. Note that this map is significantly
simpler than the original machine gridded map (Figure 5) and is
also simpler than the initial (hand drawn) time map (Figure 6).
Figures 17 and 18 show that modeling using the map
derived by map migration (Figure 16) produced 2-D migrated
synthetic seismic sections that matched the real data ampli-
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tudes much more closely than those produced from the
initial map (Figures 12 and 13). The observed lateral ampli-
tude variation can, therefore, be explained entirely by 2-D
focusing and defocusing.
Note that in this study we have not concerned ourselves
with a detailed map migration of the faults, as these were not
directly relevant to this particular case study. The procedure
described above can be used to modify fault cuts picked
from 2-D time-migrated data.
CONCLUSIONS
In the presence of structural dip, events on 2-D data will
image at the wrong time, the wrong place, with an incorrect
amplitude and sometimes with the wrong phase. These errors
get worse with increasing depth and structural complexity of
the mapped horizon. Given a time map based on the mapping
of 2-D migrated data and a simple rms velocity function($, a
quick estimate can be made of the severity of 3-D effects
inherent in 2-D data. If 3-D data cannot be obtained, 2-D data
FIG. 16. Final map of the horizon of interest obtained after two iterations of map migration using data from
all 15 lines.
1131
can be better used by applying 3-D map migration techniques
to produce 3-D (map) migrated time maps.
For the case study, which involved a horizon mapped
between 5 and 6 seconds two-way time, out-of-plane effects
of the order of 6000 ft (2000 m) occur and cause mis ties of
the order of 200 ms. These mis ties complicated the con-
struction of the initial time map. Analysis using this time
map implied severe focusing and defocusing of the ampli-
tudes. A refined time map was produced by map migration.
This map was simpler than the initial map produced by our
standard interpretation procedure from the 2-D migrated
time mapping. Using this refined time map, it was possible to
closely model the observed lateral amplitude variation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank BP Exploration employees Don
Herron, Roger Reagan, Tim Smith, and Tim Summers for
critically reviewing the manuscript and suggesting numerous
improvements. Additionally, we would like to acknowledge
the contribution made by Tim Smith in establishing these
methodologies as workable practices within the Exploration
Business Units. We wish to express our gratitude to the
Chairman and the Board of Directors of the British Petro-
leum Co. for permission to publish this paper.
Axes in ft
 Whitcornbe and Carroll
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FIG. 17. (a) Tracked observed amplitudes for line 5 (repeated
from Figure 12a). (b) Predicted focusing factors for 2-D
migrated amplitudes for line 5. Focusing factors greater than
1.0 imply the crossline structure is focusing, while factors
less than 1.0 imply the crossline structure is defocusing. The
focusing predictions match the real observed amplitudes
closely. The large increase in amplitude between CDPs 70
and 130 can therefore be explained entirely by 2-D focusing
and defocusing.
REFERENCES
Chun, J. H., and Jacewitz, C., 1981, Fundamentals of frequency-
domain migration: Geophysics, 46, 717-732.
Fagin, S. W., 1991a, Defining a salt sill using three-dimensional
ray-trace modeling and inversion, in Fagin S. W.,Ed., Seismic
modeling of geologic structures: Geophys. Develop. Series: vol.
2, Soc. of Expl. Geophys., 209-248.
1991b, Seismic modeling approaches, in Fagin, S. W.,Ed.,
Seismic modeling of geologic structures: Geophys. Develop.
Series: vol. 2: Soc. of Expl. Geophys., 9-43.
- 1991c, Reflection interpretation, in Fagin, S. W.,Ed.,
FIG. 18. (a) Tracked observed amplitudes for line 2 (repeated
from Figure 13a). (b) Predicted focusing factors for 2-D
migrated amplitudes for line 2. Focusing factors greater than
1.0 imply the crossline structure is focusing, while factors
less than 1.0 imply the crossline structure is defocusing. The
focusing predictions match the real observed amplitudes
closely. The large increase in amplitude around CDP 120 can
therefore be explained entirely by 2-D focusing and defocus-
ing.
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