Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Reviewer in Biology
- “Father of Genetics”
- Developed principles of heredity by studying the
Studies of Medicine Theories of Natural History variation and heredity of seven pairs of inherited
characteristics in pea plants.
- Died because of kidney failure.
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Reviewer in Biology
Felix D. Maramba Sr. (1898-1983) Agriobiology – quantitative science of plant life and plant
nutrition.
- Agriculture and business.
- Contributed a machine that could turn rice hull Agrology – soil science dealing with production of crops.
into fuel for farm engines, a charcoal and a
Andrology – study of male reproductive organs.
coconut-oil fed power generator.
- Biogas Araneology – study of spiders.
- Alchol from cassava, soap fromyle and fertilizer.
- A man of ingenuity in agricultural technology. Arboriculture – cultivation of trees and shrubs.
- Launched the biggest project in the history of Angiology – study of blood vessels.
the Philippine medicine – the inclusion of
enriched rice (enriched rice is fortified with B
Vitamin B1 to cure beri-beri) in the Filipino diet.
- Extensive drive to combat mosquitoes which Bioinformatics – development and application of
carry malaria germs, and the use of vaccine. computing system and technology in order to make novel
- First batch of National Scientist (1980), named observation and biological processes.
by National Academy of Science and Technology
Biotechnology – controlled use of biological organisms or
(NAST).
cellular components for beneficial use.
Fe Del Mundo (1907-2011)
Breeding Biology – art and science of changing and
- Invented incubator and the jaundice-relieving improving the heredity of plants and animals.
device for babies.
Biochemistry – study of chemical aspect of living
- Conducted an experiment on immunization that
organisms.
help designate the best age at which children
should be immunized. Bacteriology – study of bacteria.
- Wrote many books and researches. (Pedriatics)
- Robert Koch – Father of Bacteriology, discovered
Bacterium Bacillus Anthracisin (1876)
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Reviewer in Biology
Ecology – study of inter-relationship between living Pathology – nature, symptoms, causes, efforts, prevention
organisms and their environment. and suggestive cure of disease.
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Reviewer in Biology
- Cause human diseases such as salmonella (food Rattus Norvegicus or Rattus Rattus
poisoning) and tuberculosis (TB).
- Causes animal and plant diseases such as - Common, depend on the color. (Rattus
anthrax (sakit sa balat, lungs and digestive Norvegicus – Brown; Rattus Rattus – Black).
system) and bacterial infection (blights). - These versatile animals are very useful as
research subjects.
Lichen
Common Biology Equipment
- A mutualistic relationship between algae and
fungi. Microscopes
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Reviewer in Biology
- Also known as Iron Stand and now called Ring - Can be used to heat substance.
Stand because not all stand are made of iron.
- Hold flasks and beakers for heating and Bunsen Burner
observation purposes.
- Can burn gas to heat substances
- Has two rings.
- It has a very hot blue flare
Terrarium
Balance
- Used to grow plants in a controlled environment.
- Used to measure mass (a weighing instrument)
- Vivavium is a terrarium with plants that is also
- Triple Beam Balance is a single pan balance.
used as a controlled habitat for animals.
Measures mass.
Aquarium - Spring Balance used to measure weight.
pH Meter Beakers
- pH measures the amount of hydrogen ions in a - Used to transfer liquid from one place to
solution and is a measure of how acidic a another.
solution is. - Not accurate for measuring volume.
- pH 7 - Neutral
- Below 7 - Acidic Timer (Stopwatch)
- Above 7 - Basic
- Used to help you take readings of appropriate
pH Paper lengths of time.
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Reviewer in Biology
- Wear safety goggles as directed. - Always designate a safe zone for animals prior to
- Do not touch your eyes or face during lab and working with them or removing them from their
always wash your hands after performing a lab habitat.
activity. - Notify the teacher immediately if scratched,
bitten or injured by a live animal.
Safety with Gases or Inhalants - Examine the animals in their natural habitat first
prior to working with them outside of their
- Use extreme care when handling a sharp and habitat.
pointed instrument, such as scalpels, sharp - Always wash your hands after working with live
probes and knives. animals.
- Do not cut objects while holding them in your - Treat animals with care and respect at all times.
hands. - Remain calm and plan all procedures ahead prior
- Cut objects on a suitable surface. Always cut in a to exposing animals to procedures.
direction away from your body.
Chemical Safety
Heating Safety
- Always wear safety goggles, and a lab apron or
- Hot plate looks the same, hot or cool. Never coat when working with any chemicals.
touch a hot plate to determine its temperature. - Do not touch, taste, or smell any chemicals
Always assume hot plates are hot and treat them unless instructed by your teacher.
as such. - Do not pour water into a strong acid or base.
- Always inspect the electrical cord and outlet of a Pour acid into water.
hot plate prior to plugging it in. Do not leave hot
plates unattended.
- Be aware of flames, sparks or heat before
working with flammable materials.
- When heating chemicals or solutions in attest
tube, do not point the test tube towards anyone.
- Avoid using open flames.
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Reviewer in Biology
Modern Interpretation
-- Spontaneous Generation is the belief that living
1. The cells is the fundamental unit of structure and things come from non-living things.
function in living organisms.
How big are cells?
2. All cells arise from pre-existing cells by division
- Microscopic (mostly)
3. Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs - Measured in microns.
within the cells. - Micrometers
- a µm is one millionth of a meter
-6
4. Cells contains hereditary information (DNA) which is - 10 m = one thousadnth of 1 mm
pass from cell to cell during cell division.
Mycoplasma Genitalium
5. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition
in organism of similar species. - Smallest free living cell
- Gen- commonly the cause of STD
6. All known living things are made up of one or more cells - A pathogenic bacterium
- Unicellular bacteria
7. Some organisms are made up of only one cells and are - Size : 0.2 to 0.3 µm
known as unicellular organisms.
Bacteria (eg. Escherichia Coli)
8. Others are multicellular, composed of a number of cells
- Size: 1µm to 3 µm
9. The activity of an organisms depends on the total
activity of independent cells Human Red Blood Cells
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Reviewer in Biology
Cell
Plants, animals,
Examples bacteria fungi, protist, and
- Differ widely in shape.
humans
- Most cells are roughly cuboidal or spherical.
Prokaryotes
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Reviewer in Biology
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Reviewer in Biology
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Reviewer in Biology
- Have a cilia – tiny hairs on inner cells that pick- 1. Interphase (3 Stages) – DNA condensed.
up vibrations in the air and send signals to - Non-dividing state.
brain. - G1 (GAP 1)
Cell grows in size.
Cell Reproduction Organelles replicated.
- S (Synthesis)
- Process by which a cell divides to form two new Replication of DNA.
cells (daughter cells). Synthesis of proteins associated with
DNA.
3 Types of Cell Division
- G2 (GAP 2)
Prokaryotes (Bacteria) Synthesis of proteins associated with
mitosis.
1. Binary Fission – divides forming two new
identical cells.
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Reviewer in Biology
2.3 Anaphase
- Sister chromatids separate.
- Spindle fibers attached to kinetochores shorten
and pull downward towards the pole.
- Free spindle fibers lengthen and push poles of
cell apart.
2.4 Telophase
- Spindle fibers disintegrate.
- Nuclear envelopes form around both groups of
chromosomes.
- Chromosomes revert to their extended state.
- Cytokinesis occurs, enclosing each daughter
nucleus into a separate cell.
1. Somatic Cells
2. Sex Cells (a.k.a Gametes)
Ploidy
Haploid
Diploid
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Reviewer in Biology
Meiosis:
1. Crossingover in Prophase I
- Homoluges break at identical locations,
- 1n
then rejoins opposite partmers.
- Daughter cells different from parent cell
- Occurs randomly several times on every
and from each other.
chromosome.
- Daughter cells have ½ the number of
- Results in mixing of the genes you inherited
chromosomes as somatic cell.
from your parents.
- Shuffling the genes.
2. Independent Assortment in Metaphase I
- When two different alleles are linked on the
same chromosome they are not
independently assorted during Meiosis I. In
this case, only two types of gametes (YG
and yg) were produced instead of the
expected four types of gametes that are
produced.
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Reviewer in Biology
1. All cells have a cell membrane. - The solution has a lower concentration of
2. Functions: solute and higher concentration of water
a. Controls what enters and exits the cell inside the cell (low solute; high water).
to maintain an internal balance called - Result: Water moves from the solution to
homeostasis. inside the cell: Cell swells and burst
b. Provide protection and support for the (cytolysis).
cell. - Red blood cells (diabetic)
3. Structure of the Membrane:
Lipid Bilayer – 2 layers of phospholipids. Water
a. Phosphate head is polar (water
*Cells become larger
loving).
b. Fatty Acid Tail s non-polar(water
fearing).
c. Proteins embedded in membrane. Hypertonic Solution
- Hydrophilic head attracts water.
- Hydrophobic tail repels water. - The solution has a higher concentration of
4. Cell membranes have pores (holes) in i. solutes and a lower concentration of water
a. Selectively permeable: allows some than inside the cell (high solute; low water).
molecule in and keeps other molecules - Result: Water moves from inside the cell
out. into the solution: Cell shrinks (Plasmolysis).
b. The structure helps it be selective. Water
Passive Transport
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Reviewer in Biology
- Cells use energy (in the form of ATP). - Sugar is the name given to all carbohydrates.
- Actively moves molecules to where they are
needed. Carbohydrates
- Movement from an area of low
- Hydrate of carbon.
concentration to an area of high
- Cn(H2O)m
concentration.
- Examples:
- Low -> High
Glucose (blood sugar): C6H12O6 -
Three Types of Active Transport: C6(H2O)6
Sucrose (table sugar): C12H22O11 -
1. Protein Pumps C12(H2O)11
- Transport proteins that require energy to
do work. * At the molecular level, most carbohydrates are
- Example: Sodium/ Potassium pumps are polyhydroxyaldehyde, polyhydroxyketones or compounds
important in nerve responses. that yield them after hydrolysis (removal of water
- Protein change shape to move molecules: molecules).
this requires energy!
2. Endocytosis * The simpler members of the carbohydrate family are
- Taking bulky material into a cell. often referred to as saccharides because of their sweet
- Uses energy. taste.
- Cell membrane in folds around food
Functions of Carbohydrates
particle.
- “Cell eating” - Act as storehouses of chemical energy.
- Forms food vacuole and digest food. - Potatoes have a lot of starch, a polysaccharide.
- This is how white blood cells eat bacteria. - “Go” energy.
- Three Types: - Components of supportive structures in plants:
Phagocytosis Cellulose, a polysaccharide, is used for
“Cell eating” support by plants.
Pinocytosis - Insects and crustaceans, such as crabs and lobsters,
“Cell drinking” rely on hard shells made of the polysaccharide chitin
The cell engulfs drops of fluid for structure.
by pinching in and forming - Present in connective tissues in animals (joint,
vesicles. tendons, ligaments where carbohydrate are main
Receptor-mediated endocytosis composition).
Occurs when an integral - Essential component of nucleic acid (found in ribose)
membrane protein displays in DNA/RNA.
receptors.
Extremely selective process of Good Carbohydrates
importing materials into the
cell. - Good carbohydrate food are those that are still in
The cell will only take in an their natural state, or they are still similar to their
extracellular molecule if it binds natural state.
to its specific receptor protein - Food that have not been processed or altered by
on the cell’s surface. people/ machines.
Requires macromolecules - Generally high in fiber -> faster metabolism.
(reunion/synapses). - Foods high in fiber will give you energy over longer
periods of time.
3. Exocytosis - Will give you low glycemic index -> sugar level.
- Forces material out of the cell in bulk. - Nutritious
- Membrane surrounding the material fuses - Examples:
with cell membrane. Fruits, Vegetables, Beans, Legume, Nuts,
- A cell changes shape-requires energy. Seeds, Whole grain breads, Whole grain
- Example: Hormones or waste released from cereals
cell.
Bad Carbohydrates
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Reviewer in Biology
Sugar Substitute
CLASSIFICATION
1. Maltose
Fructose Monosaccharide 1.75
- Malt sugar (germinated grain).
Aspartame Synthetic 180 - Formed from two units of glucose.
- Maltose is an important component in the
Acesulfame Synthetic 200 process of creating fermented barley that in turn
Pottasium can be used to brew beer.
- Is digested without difficulty and is fermented
Saccharin Synthetic 350 readily.
2. Cellobiose
Sucrose Semisynthetic 600 - Obtained from the hydrolysis of cellobiose, also
contains 2 glucose subunits.
Alitame Semisynthetic 800
- Differs from maltose in that the 2 glucose are
hooked together by a Beta linkage.
3. Sucrose
TYPES - Table sugar.
- Most abundant pure organic chemical in the
Monosaccharides world.
- Consistsof 1 glucose and 1 fructose unit.
- Cannot be broken down into simpler - White, odourless, crystalline powder has a
compounds. pleasing, sweet taste.
- Simple carbohydrate. - Sources of sucrose: Sugar cane, sugar beets
- Have the general formula CnH2nOn, with one of - Forms of sucrose: Sugar cube, crystalline sugar,
the carbon being the carbonyl group of either an powdered sugar.
aldehyde or ketone. - Most common pure organic material.
Monosaccharide
Aldose Ketose
Aldo - Aldehyde Keto - Ketone
Ose - Carbohydrates Ose - Carbohydrates
4. Lactose
Complex
- Milk sugar.
Carbohydrate
- Consists of Galactose and Glucose fragments.
Lactose makes up around 2-8% of milk (by
weight) although the amount varies among
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Reviewer in Biology
Polysaccharide
1. Cellulose
- Consists of a linear chain of several hundred to
over 10,000 Beta linked units.
- Structural component of the primary cell wall of
green plants; to impart strength and rigidity.
2. Starch
- Consisting of a linear chain of several hundreds
to over ten thousand of linked and unlinked
glucose units.
- Produced by all green plants as storage of
energy.
- The most important carbohydrate in the human
diet is contained in such staple food as potatoes,
wheat, maize (corn), rice and cassava.
Fatty Acids
Glycogen
- Organic acid (chain of carbon with hydrogen
- Serves as the same-energy storage function in
attached) that has an acid group at one end and
animals, as starch in plants.
a methyl group at the other end.
- Glycogen is the analogue of starch, a less
- Deydration synthesis: Glycerol + 3 fatty acids -->
branched glucose polymer in plants and is
triglyceride + H2O
commonly referred to as animal starch having
similar structure to amylopectin. Carbon chains vary in:
- Dietary carbohydrate not needed for immediate
energy is covered to glycogen for long-term 1. Length - affects absorption
storage. 2. Saturation – Chemical structure; affects cooking
and storage properties and health.
- Our body needs insoluble compounds for the - In nature, most double bonds are Cis meaning
membranes that separate compartment that the hydrogen next to the double bonds are
containing aqueous solution from each other, on the same side of the carbon chain.
where they are cells or organelles within the - When a fat is partially hydrogenated, some of
cells. the double bonds change from cis to trans.
- Cis - Less stable (needed); lower cholesterol in
Messenger
the blood.
- Primary messengers such as steroid hormones, - Trans - opposite side (stable); raise cholesterol in
deliver signals from one part of the body to the blood.
another part.
Types of Lipids
Saturated VS Unsaturated
1. Triglycerides (Fatty Acids)
Saturated
- Fats and oil.
- Predominate form of fat in foods and major - Alkane (single bond).
storage form of fat in the body. - Saturated fats are fats with a single bond
- Structure: Composed of 3 fatty acids + glycerol between the carbon atoms of the fatty acids.
(cotains alcohol).
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Reviewer in Biology
- Derived: Mostly from animal products - Similar to triglycerides in structure except only 2
- Form: Solid at room temperature; FATS. fatty acids + choline.
- Shelf Life: These are long lasting and do not get - Phospholipids in foods: Lecithin, egg yolks,
spoiled soybeans, wheat germ, peanuts.
- Much stable. - Functions:
- Recommended consumption: Not more than Part of cell membranes and acts as an
10% of total calories per day (consumption). emulsifier (help keep fats in solution).
- Excessive consumption is not good because of Not a dietary essential; made by the
their association with artherosclerosis and heart liver.
disease.
- Cholesterol level: Saturated fats increase LDL
(Low Density Liphoproteins or Bad cholesterol)
and decrease the HDL.
Types of Steroids
Sex Hormones
1. Testosterone
- Development of male organs; male sexual
characteristics including muscles and facial hair;
2. Phospholipids
sperm formation.
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Reviewer in Biology
Bile Salt
Cholesterol
Glycerol
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Reviewer in Biology
PHOSPHOLIPIDS
WAXES
STEROIDS
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