Module – EEE3014/8017

Power System Operation

Section 1 –
The Electricity Supply System

Module Leader: Dr B Zahawi

EEE3014/8017 © Copyright Newcastle University

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Introduction

The aim of this introductory section is to give a general overview of the electricity supply
system and the fundamental concepts that determine the design and operation of power
grid systems.

Objectives

On completion of this unit you will be able to:

Describe the main requirements of a modern electricity supply system.

Understand the basic difference between transmission and distribution networks.

List and describe the three basic layouts of a power network.

Time

You will need about 1 hour for this unit.

Resources

Pen and paper.

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1.1 Supply Requirements

The primary aim of the electricity supply system is to meet the demands of its customers
for electrical energy. It must deliver power to all its customers, reaching every customer
with a supply of sufficient strength to meet the peak demand of that particular customer for
electric power.
The electricity supply must also be reliable, providing an uninterrupted flow of power to
the customer and meeting all of his demand for electricity all the time. A reliability rate of
99.9% sounds very impressive, but would you be happy with nearly 9 hours of
interruptions every year?

The supply system must also provide stable voltage quality and deliver power to the
customer in a form and at the voltage level required for his electrical equipment. The
magnitude and frequency of the voltage supplied to each customer must also be maintained
within a narrow range, centred on the levels that equipment is designed to operate at. The
supply must also be free of high levels of harmonics and transient electrical disturbances.

Another important requirement is the safety of the electricity supply. Electricity can cause
danger to people, animals and property in a number of ways unless suitable precautions are
taken. Safety can be improved in a number of ways, for example, by ensuring that adequate
clearances are maintained between conductors and ground, using the appropriate method of
earthing the network and by providing suitable protection on all circuits and equipment.

The supply system must, perhaps above all else, achieve all this at the very lowest cost
possible.

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1.2 Transmission and Distribution Systems

The behaviour of large electricity supply systems is governed by a number of fundamental

truths that dominate the design and operation of T & D systems:

1. In general, it is a lot more economical to generate power in very large amounts. There
are significant economies of scale in generation; i.e. large generators produce power a
lot more cheaply than small generators.

2. It is more economical to move power at high voltage levels. The higher the voltage, the
lower the costs per kW, to move power any significant distance.

3. The capacity and cost of electrical equipment increases with increasing voltage levels.
A high voltage overhead line has a much greater transmission capacity than a low
voltage line, but cost a great deal more.

4. Changing voltage levels is a costly option. Transformers are expensive and they do not
move power along.

5. Domestic voltage levels are absolutely useless for the transmission of power. The use
of 240 V in anything more than the local distribution level results in unacceptably high
losses, severe voltage drops and massive equipment costs.

6. Ultimately, power is delivered to the customer in very small quantities at low voltage
levels. A typical customer will consume only about 0.001% or 0.0001% of the output
of a large generator.

An efficient power delivery system builds upon these fundamental truths and has evolved
into a system of hierarchical voltage levels that contains three distinct functions,
generation, transmission and distribution.

Generation plant such as nuclear power stations with high capital cost and low running cost
are economical only if operated for most of the time at near maximum output. On the other
hand, gas turbine stations with relatively low capital cost but high operating costs are
operated for short periods to meet demand peaks. Fossil fuel burning steam power stations
together with nuclear power stations provide the majority of electrical energy consumed in
the EU.

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The transmission system then transfers power in bulk from the main generation areas to
major load centres at high voltage. The distribution system carries the energy to the most
remote customer, utilising the most appropriate voltage level. As power is dispersed
through the system, it gradually moves down to lower voltage levels where it is moved in
ever smaller quantities on lower capacity equipment until it reaches the end users.

Exercise 1.1

Why do we bother with generation and transmission at very high voltage levels such as
400 kV and 275 kV? Why don’t we simply generate and distribute at a sensible voltage
level like 11 kV and then drop to 415 for domestic distribution?

Turn to the end of the book for suggested answers to the exercise

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1.3 The Distribution Network

Definitions of what is transmission and what is distribution vary a great deal among
different countries, companies and power systems. In the UK, voltage class generally
makes the distinction. 400 kV and 275 kV are transmission; anything at 132 kV and below
is distribution. Figure 1.1 demonstrates the interrelationship of the various networks. Other
voltages are present on the network, often for historical or geographical reasons.

Generation

Transmission Voltages
400 kV & 275 kV
Generation

High Voltage
e.g. 132 kV

Medium Voltage
e.g. 11 kV
Load

Low Voltage
e.g. 415 V
Load

Figure 1.1 Transmission and distribution voltages

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The 132 kV networks are supplied from major high voltage substations which themselves
are supplied by 400/275 kV transmission lines. 132/11 kV substations situated around each
132 kV network supply individual 11 kV networks. Large customers are supplied directly
from the 11 kV networks, but the vast majority of customers are connected at 415 V and
supplied via 11 kV/415 V distribution substations and the associated low voltage networks.
These days, small distributed generators may be present on the network providing power
close to the customers and removing the need and cost of additional T & D facilities to
move power from large power stations to the customer.

In rural areas, medium voltage 11 kV overhead lines are generally used usually mounted
on wooden poles. Insulated conductors are increasingly being used on overhead lines.
These are more reliable and more acceptable environmentally. Underground cables are
usually found in urban areas, but they are also used in rural areas for environmental
reasons.

Pole mounted transformers form the rural 11 kV/415 V distribution substations. The
smaller transformers are sometimes single-phase units. Urban distribution substations are a
common site around any built-up area and are usually housed in brick, steel or concrete
enclosures, or placed in the basement of an office block or a housing development.

Low voltage 415 V distribution in rural areas is via overhead lines with bare or insulated
conductors. In towns and cities, the use of underground cables predominates. In urban
areas, backup supplies in case of an interruption are often available from adjacent
distribution substations.

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1.4 Network Configurations

There are three basic ways to lay out a power distribution network, each of which has
variations in its own design. Radial, loop and mesh networks differ in how the distribution
feeder lines are arranged and interconnected around a distribution substation, as shown in
Figure 1.2.

Radial Loop Mesh

Figure 1.2 Radial, loop and mesh circuit configurations

Radial distribution systems are characterised by having only one path between the
substation and each end user. Power flows exclusively from the substation out to the
customer along a single path, which if interrupted results in complete loss of power to the
customer. Radial distribution systems have two big advantages. They are cheaper and
much simpler in terms of planning design and operation. Another advantage of radial
systems is the simplicity of analysis and predictability of performance. Because there is
only one path between each customer and the substation, the direction of power flow can
be determined with certainty. Also, the load at any point in the system can be determined
very simply by adding up all customer loads down stream from that piece of equipment.

Because of this, voltage profiles can be accurately determined without resorting to

complicated calculation methods. Equipment ratings can be determined exactly and fault
levels can be predicted reasonably accurately. Fuses, circuit breakers and other protective
devices can be co-ordinated without resorting to complicated methods of analysis.
Capacitors and other voltage regulation equipment can be sized and located using
relatively simple procedures, and so on. Before the days of powerful computer analysis
packages, this simplicity alone was a substantial advantage. It still is.

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An alternative to the purely radial design is the loop system consisting of two paths
between the substation or service transformer and every customer. Equipment is rated so
that service can be maintained regardless of where an open point might occur on the loop.
When designed in this way, the loop system is more reliable than a radial feeder system.
Because power can take one of two routes, no customer on the loop will be downstream of
any interruption and the majority of customers will not be affected whenever a segment is
isolated for any reason.

In terms of complexity, the loop system is more complicated than a simple feeder design,
but not by that much. Power flows from both sides of the loop towards the middle, and can
take only one of two paths. The big disadvantage of loop systems is cost. The conductor
must be large enough to handle the power and voltage drop needs of the loop network
when fed from only one end. This makes the loop system inherently more reliable than a
radial system, but at an extra cost because of the extra capacity.

Mesh networks are the most complicated and most reliable method of distributing electric
power. The network involves multiple paths between all the points in the network. Power
flow between any two points is split along several paths. If a failure occurs, power
instantly re-routes itself. Meshed distribution networks are usually employed in high-
density urban areas where the system must be placed underground and where repairs and
maintenance are difficult because of traffic and other considerations.

In terms of cost, a network design may cost little more than loop systems. Networks
require little more conductor capacity than loop systems. As we mentioned earlier, a loop
system requires double capacity everywhere to provide increased reliability. A network
design is generally no worse than that. The major disadvantage with network systems,
however, is complexity. Meshed distribution networks are much more complicated than
other forms of distribution layouts and thus much more difficult to analyse. The direction
of power flow through the network cannot be assumed. Loading, power flows, fault
currents and protection settings must be determined by complicated network analysis
techniques.

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Exercise 1.2

Which network configuration is usually adopted for rural distribution networks? And why?

Turn to the end of the book for suggested answers to the exercise

1.5 Auxiliary Systems

As well as the distribution networks and equipment themselves, a number of auxiliary

electrical systems are needed to ensure that the system meets the stringent requirements for
economy, safety, quality and reliability that the supply system must meet. These mainly
include protection systems and control systems.

Protection systems are installed to prevent abnormally high fault voltages and currents
from damaging distribution equipment. These include fuses, circuit breakers and protective
relays that isolate a faulty section of the network in order to maintain a supply elsewhere in
the system, and other devices such as surge arresters that bypass the excess energy of
voltage surges to earth.

Control systems enable real-time monitoring of the supply network and remote operation
of various switching equipment, thus improving fault clearance times and the overall
reliability of the supply. The information collected via the electronic control systems can
easily be stored and processed to assist in various design, operation and maintenance
studies.

Summary

In this section we had a very brief introduction to the requirements and basic
configurations of the electricity supply system in general and, more specifically, to
distribution networks. In the following section we will examine some of the basic
definitions and concepts that we often take for granted without ever thinking about what
they mean. For example, what is reactive power?

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