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MATERIALS SCIENCE
Advances in synthesizing graphene offer
G
raphenes—mono- appropriate organic groups onto graphite oxide
layers of carbon surfaces not only leads to physical separation of
atoms arranged in a the resultant graphene sheets, but also makes it
honeycomb network (see possible to directly form stable graphene dis-
the figure, left panel)—are persions during the synthetic process (5, 7),
prevalent in many carbon- something that has been difficult to accomplish
based materials. For exam- with carbon nanotubes.
ple, graphite can be consid- Chemical conversion from graphene oxide
ered as stacks of graphene leaves residual oxygen-containing groups and
layers. Although the weak makes the resulting graphene surfaces nega-
interactions that hold the tively charged when dispersed in water. By
graphene sheets together in Simple structure, great potential. (Left) In graphene, carbon atoms controlling the colloid chemistry, graphene
graphite allow them to slide (green dots) are bonded together through sp2 hybridization (orange sheets can form stable aqueous colloids via
PLANETARY SCIENCE
Is Mars Geodynamically Dead? cap barely deforms its crust implies that its
planetary interior is colder than expected.
Matthias Grott
T
he temperature of a planet’s interior is almost twice as great as previously estimated This result is surprising. First, the temper-
one of the key factors controlling the from other measures of deformation and theo- atures in the interior of terrestrial planets
amount of geodynamic activity at its retical considerations (2, 3). Because the stiff- should be proportional to their radius if they
surface. Planetary scientists can estimate inte- ness of the rocks is connected to temperature, started with the same amount and distribution
rior temperatures if they can assess the Phillips et al.’s findings imply that the martian of radioactive, heat-producing elements and
deformability of the planetary surface, which is interior is extremely cool. then cooled through surface losses (see the
greater when interior temperatures are higher figure). In this case, Mars
(warm rocks will more easily deform than cold EARTH would be expected to plot
ones). Mass loading by glaciers and mountains between Earth and the
deflects the surface, and this deformation can Moon. However, the new
be used to estimate the elasticity of the surface estimates imply that the
layer when the load was emplaced. On Mars, 85 martian heat flow, a mea-
the polar caps are a geologically recent load. On sure for the temperatures
page 1182 of this issue, Phillips et al. (1) report in the planetary interior,
Energy release (mW/m2)
that the amount of deflection caused by the MARS is below even that of the
polar caps leads to unexpected constraints on Moon, even though Mars is
the current thermal state of the planet. about twice the diameter.
20 MOON
To investigate the ice-hidden planetary Either there is a large de-
surface, the authors used radar-sounding data gree of compositional het-
of the northern polar cap obtained by 15 erogeneity among the ter-
SHARAD, the shallow-radar instrument restrial planets, or heat
onboard the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, transport is very inefficient
?
which has orbited Mars since 2006. The radar- 10 inside Mars.
wave travel times can be converted into dis- Second, theoretical con-
tances by assuming that the polar cap consists siderations of the planet’s
of water ice and dust. The vertical deforma- 6371 3396 1738
thermal evolution have un-
tion of the surface was extremely small—less animously concluded that
Planetary radius (km)
than 100 m—and requires that the surface be Mars should have retained
CREDIT: ADAPTED BY P. HUEY/SCIENCE
very stiff to support these loads. The elastic more internal heat than is
lithosphere thickness, a measure of the sur- A colder Mars. The energy release at a planetary surface is a measure for consistent with the obser-
the temperatures in the planetary interior. Large planets, which have a
face’s resistance to flexure, needs to be greater ved stiff lithosphere (4, 5).
lower surface-to-volume ratio, should be warmer than small ones if they
than 300 km at the poles today. This value is contain equal concentrations of heat-producing elements. The average This discrepancy could be
heat flow of Earth is 87 mW/m2, and the lunar heat flow determined by the resolved if the amount
Institute of Planetary Research, German Aerospace Center Apollo experiments is 18 mW/m2 (9). Mars was expected to release 20 of radioactive elements in
(DLR), Rutherfordstraße 2, 12489 Berlin, Germany. mW/m2, but the value inferred from Phillips et al.’s findings would be Mars (potassium, thorium,
E-mail: matthias.grott@dlr.de much lower. and uranium) were smaller
REFERENCES This article cites 18 articles, 3 of which you can access for free
http://science.sciencemag.org/content/320/5880/1170#BIBL
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