LV37-Petrol Fuel Systems

kap all phase 2 & 3 6/11/03 11:36 am Page 15
Student Workbook
LV37
Petrol Fuel
Systems (3)
LV37/SWB
Student Workbook for Technical Certificates in
Light Vehicle Maintenance and Repair
MODULE LV37
PETROL FUEL SYSTEMS (3)
Contents
Page Page
…
Introduction 3 Engine Speed and Position
Sensors: 24
Air/Fuel Ratio 3 Principle of operation 24
Exercise 3 25
Emission Gases: 5 Exercise 4 25
Hydrocarbons 6 Engine speed an position sensing 26
Oxides of nitrogen (Nox) 7 Cam position sensor 26
Exercise 5 27
Electronic Control Principles: 9
Power supply 10 Hall Effect Sensors: 28
Sensor power supply circuit 11 Exercise 6 29
Potential problems 11 Throttle position sensors 30
Exercise 7 31
Electronic Fuel Injection: 12
Fuel supply 13 Temperature Sensing: 32
Fuel pressure regulator 14 Exercise 8 33
Fuel pump 15 Why sense temperature? 34
Fuel filter 16
Air induction system 16 Knock Sensing: 35
Sensors 17 Air/fuel mixture control 36
Vane type airflow meter 17 Potentiometer 37
Hot wire type air flow meter 19
Manifold pressure sensor 20 Oxygen/Lambda Sensors: 38
Analogue type 20 Operation 39
Digital type 21
Exercise 1 21
Exercise 2 23 (Cont.)
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Copyright © Automotive Skills Limited 2003 LV37: Petrol Fuel Systems (3) Issue 1
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Page Page
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Catalytic Converters 40 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR): 50
EGR system 51
Fuel Injectors: 41 Pressure charging 51
Resistance checks of injectors 42
Injector control signal 43 Turbocharger 52
Injection duration 44
Intercooling 53
Injector Circuitry: 45
Simultaneous injection 45 Blowers 53
Group injection 45
Sequential injection 46 Circuitry – MAP Sensed and Air
Single point injection 47 Flow Sensed EFI: 54
Maintenance 55
Idle Speed Control: 48
Control signal 49 Gas Analysis 56
Engine Speed Limiting 50
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Introduction
Introducing the fuel in an efficient manner is of paramount importance on a
modern vehicle. Carburetion will always be a bit ‘hit and miss’ no matter how
advanced such systems become. With drivers demanding better fuel
economy and better performance, and governments demanding fewer harmful
emissions, only electronic control of the fuelling of an engine can meet all
requirements.
Air/Fuel Ratio
14.7:1
A four-stroke petrol engine running on 95 RON unleaded fuel will run at its
most efficient with an air/fuel ratio of 14.7:1 (that is 14.7 parts air to every 1
part fuel). This is because with such a mixture strength, all the fuel will be
burnt and all the oxygen in the air will be burnt. If you burn all the fuel then
you are wasting none, and if you burn all the oxygen you will create maximum
combustion pressure that will translate into maximum torque (if all other
conditions are also ideal such as ignition timing).
This magical mixture strength is often referred to as ‘stoichiometric’. This is a

term borrowed from chemists – they will refer to a reaction as stoichiometric if
during the course of that reaction all the constituents are fully consumed.
It should be noted however that a stoichiometric mixture is rarely of any use to
an engine. This is because of their natural inefficiency.
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Your average 4-stroke petrol engine is around 25% efficient. This means that
for every four gallons of fuel that you put in, only one gallon turns the flywheel!
This inefficiency is mainly due to heat loss – it is worth noting that a petrol
engine is a heat engine – it converts heat energy through the burning of the
fuel and air into kinetic energy (the rotation of the flywheel). Inevitably a good
deal of the heat energy created escapes through the exhaust pipe, into the
cooling system etc.
Another area of inefficiency is in the mixing of the fuel and air. Oxygen is the
only constituent gas within air that is of any use to us in this instance as it
supports combustion. Air is only 21% oxygen (78% nitrogen and 1% others).
So only roughly one fifth of all the air drawn into the engine during the
induction stroke is of any use to us.
The difficulty that we have is ensuring that the particles of fuel are mixed
efficiently with the air to ensure that we make the best possible use of that
21% oxygen. If we cannot do that, not all the oxygen will burn and we have
an inefficient engine. We use numerous ways to ensure that thorough mixing
does take place but they can all be related to two techniques: creating
turbulence (or swirl) in the induced air and introducing the fuel in as finely an
atomised state as possible.
Electronic fuel injection helps us to achieve that fine atomisation.
In spite of all the electronics our engines are still inefficient. If we cannot mix
the fuel and air well enough to ensure that all the oxygen burns, all we can do
is ensure that we supply more fuel that is actually needed. That way we
increase the likelihood of the oxygen burning.
A rich mixture helps us to burn all the oxygen and therefore create maximum
torque.
Inevitably, a rich mixture increases the emissions produced by the engine and
also has a serious effect on the fuel economy. Therefore, if we are looking for
good economy and low emissions we need to run the engine using as little
fuel as possible. That way there is an abundance of oxygen and that will help
us to ensure that we burn all the fuel.
A lean mixture helps us to burn all the fuel and therefore reduce emissions
and improve fuel economy.
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Emission Gases
N2 N2
O2 CO2
HC H 2O
Perfect combustion - stoichiometric
Under perfect conditions, when petrol is burnt in air at a mixture strength of

14.7:1, nitrogen (N2), carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) are produced
But as we have seen, perfection is a holy grail. In reality, our engine produces
the following gases:
• carbon monoxide (CO)

• hydrocarbons (HC)
• oxygen (O2)
• carbon dioxide (CO2)
• oxides of nitrogen (Nox).
CO is produced by incomplete combustion of the fuel, which is in turn caused

by a lack of sufficient oxygen at the time of combustion. The temperatures
around the cylinder walls are low, leading to “quenching” meaning that the
temperature is too low for combustion to occur. The fuel left unburnt in these
quenching zones is then exhausted during the exhaust cycle.
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CO
16
14
12
10
10 12 14 16 18
Air / fuel ratio
A rich mixture can also contribute to the production of CO.
Hydrocarbons
HC is raw unburnt petrol emitted from the automobile. It comes from the
following sources:
• raw gas remaining near the walls of the cylinder after burning, and
exhausted during cycle (refer to the previous quenching zones
diagram)
• low compression during coasting or deceleration leads to incomplete

combustion of fuel resulting in raw HC gas in the exhaust.
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CO
HC
16
14
12
10
10 12 14 16 18
Air / fuel ratio
It can be seen in the diagram that HC is also directly affected by mixture

strength.
Oxides of nitrogen (Nox)
Nox is produced by the nitrogen and oxygen in the air of the air/fuel mixture,
which combine if the temperature inside the combustion chamber rises above
about 1,800°C (3,300°F).
There is also a strong connection between ignition timing and the production
of Nox. This is because advancing or retarding the ignition timing changes
the maximum temperature reached in the combustion chamber.
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The above shows the relationship between air/fuel ratio and the three main
emission gases.
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Electronic Control Principles
Input signal
Output signal
Electronic control systems consist of sensors (information gatherers), an ECM

(Electronic Control Module – the decision maker) and actuators (to carry out
actions). It is a three-way process – the sensors gather the information and
the ECM receives this information. The ECM processes the information and
makes a decision based on what it has been taught. That decision is
translated into an action by an actuator and something happens based on that
action.
Electronic control systems are based on what is probably the most adaptable,
intelligent thing on the face of the planet. Us!
Think about how we interact with the environment – we sense something

(sight, sound, smell, taste, touch) using our sensors (eyes, ears, nose,
tongue, nerve endings) and the information that we sense is sent to our brain
(ECM) for processing. Our brain (ECM) makes a decision based on that
information and controls our actuators to suit the situation (our muscles).
We pick something up, sense that it’s too hot to touch, and drop it.
It should be noted that we are discussing the fundamentals of electronic

control here. This same basic principle can be applied to any electronic
control system – EFI, ABS, cruise control etc.
Throttle
Engine
position
load
Temperature Engine Battery
sensor
sensors speed voltage
Input signals
Electronic Control Unit

Output signals
Injector
The above shows its application to EFI.

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Power supply
System
components
ECU
In order for the ECM (ECU) to be able to process information, it requires a

power supply. This is often supplied via a relay (EFI main relay – see diagram
above). This relay is ignition controlled. Most modern vehicles are configured
in this way.
System
components
ECU
The above shows a variation on this theme: The ignition switch provides only
a signal to the ECM (ECU) and the ECM then grounds the relay in order to
control its own supply. This type of configuration is found on any vehicle
where continued control functions are required for a short time after the driver
turns off the ignition. An example would be any vehicle equipped with a
stepper motor type idle speed control valve. These valves have to be stepped
out after the engine is switched off to enable the engine to breathe properly
the next time it is cranked. Some vehicles spin the fuel lift pump at high
speed for a few seconds after the ignition is turned off in order to prime the
fuel circuit ready for the next time the engine is cranked.
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Sensor power supply circuit
ECU battery supply ECU

voltage
Voltage stabilization
Sensor supply circuit (5 volt)
voltage – 5 volts
Sensor voltage via Micro processor

micro processor
(temperature sensors etc.)
The above shows the sensor power supply circuit.
Any passive sensor (a sensor that experiences a change in resistance in

proportion to changing conditions, rather than one that generates its own
voltage) must be supplied with a very closely controlled voltage. If we
supplied unconditioned battery voltage to such a sensor, its signal voltage
would fluctuate not only in accordance with changing sensed conditions but
also in accordance with battery voltage.
Battery voltage is applied to the ECM and the ECM supplies 5 volts to each
passive sensor. An integrated circuit (IC) is used to achieve this effect, but it
is primarily a Zener diode.
This 5 volts is also used by the ECM’s microprocessor circuit to enable the
ECM to fulfil its responsibilities.
Potential problems
Should the circuit open mid-harness, some or all of the sensors that depend
on this 5 volts will fail. At best, the engine will run badly, at worst not at all.
Should the circuit short to ground, we will have the same problem with the
sensors, but in addition to this, the ECM microprocessor will receive no
voltage. A very good indication of this is that the check engine warning light
(MIL or malfunction indicator light) will no longer illuminate when the ignition
switch is turned on (this facility normally acts as a bulb check when all is well).
The reason for this is that it is the responsibility of the ECM to ground the
warning lamp when the ignition is turned on to carry out this bulb check; it
cannot do this if the ECM microprocessor is effectively dead.
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Electronic Fuel Injection (EFI)
Supply the correct air / fuel ratio to the cylinders in

accordance with engine conditions
EFI is a system where engine conditions are sensed electronically. An ECM

decides how much fuel is needed for these sensed conditions and introduces
that amount through the activation of the fuel injectors. The key sensor is
airflow. If the engine is to receive the correct air/fuel ratio for the current
conditions, the ECM needs to know in very accurate terms how much air is
flowing into the engine at any given time. This way, the ECM can inject the
relevant quantity of fuel to achieve the necessary air/fuel ratio for those
conditions. All other sensors can be considered secondary to air flow – they
simply enable the ECM to make a far more informed decision (and therefore
accurate one).
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Fuel supply
If the injectors when opened are to inject fuel, they need to be supplied with
fuel. The diagram above shows the circuit that achieves this.
Fuel is lifted out of the tank by the fuel pump (housed within the tank) and
pressure fed to the fuel rail on the engine via the fuel filter. Pressed into the
fuel rail are the injectors, when the ECM opens these injectors, the fuel is
injected at the back of the intake valves.
The pulsation damper does what its name suggests it does – it dampens any
pulsations that are in the fuel created by the fuel pump.
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It does this by reacting directly to the fluctuations in fuel pressure felt under its
diaphragm. If the pressure fluctuations are high the damper flexes up,
increasing the total volume of the fuel rail and therefore dropping the pressure
within. If the pressure fluctuation is low then the diaphragm flexes down,
decreasing the total volume of the fuel rail and therefore increasing the
pressure within. If these pressure fluctuations were not compensated for, the
fuel injection quantity would vary in relation to these, and the engine would be
imbalanced.
Some manufacturers fit a pin to the damper assembly that you can access
externally. This pin will protrude under the influence of the fuel pressure and
is a very quick and effective way of checking for the presence of pressure
when carrying out diagnosis.
Fuel pressure regulator

Return to fuel
tank
High pressure
in fuel rail
Diaphragm
Manifold
vacuum
Spring
The purpose of the fuel pressure regulator is to compensate for any pressure
differential variations experienced across the fuel injector due to intake
manifold pressure changes.
For example, if the engine is running at light load – engine speed 2000 rpm
partial throttle, the pressure in the manifold will be low. When the injector
opens, this low pressure will help draw in the fuel, creating an over fuelling
situation. The regulator reduces the fuel pressure behind the injector (in the
rail) under these conditions so that the difference in pressure across the
injector is constant. The diagram shows how this assembly detects manifold
pressure. The manifold pressure either helps or hinders the lifting of the
diaphragm and therefore influences the volume of fuel that is able to return to
the tank. This directly affects rail pressure. If the manifold hose should
become detached, the engine over fuels (atmospheric pressure is acting on
the regulator continually, the equivalent of WOT – wide open throttle).
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It should be noted that most modern engines no longer use this type of
regulator and use a fuel returnless system. Pressure in the rail is kept at a
constant through the use of a pressure regulator valve housed inside the fuel
tank. A manifold pressure sensor measures any fluctuations in manifold
pressure and the ECM compensates for these variations in its fuel injection
duration calculation. This way, no fuel is returned to the tank from a hot
engine and this helps to reduce evaporative emissions from the tank
considerably (a smaller charcoal canister can be fitted).
Fuel pump
The fuel pump is electrically driven and is housed inside the fuel tank to
reduce noise. There is no risk of fire from any sparks that might be created at
the commutator and brushes of this motor, as the pump is always immersed in
fuel (even if you run out) so there is no oxygen present. Even if the tank was
to rupture and all of the fuel was to drain, there would still be no fire as the
environment would be super-rich and would still not support combustion. The
check valve is to retain residual fuel pressure in the line to aid starting. If this
check valve fails, poor starting will result.
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Fuel filter
The fuel filter is provided to ensure that any impurities in the fuel are filtered
out. They are often a non-serviceable item i.e. fitted for life but manufacturers’
instructions should be referred to.
Air induction system
Air flow is sensed by the

air flow sensor – e.g. air
flow meter
Air cleaner
Air drawn into

intake system
Engine load is dictated by the

position of the throttle butterfly –
i.e. driver demands
The air induction system consists of all components between the air cleaner
element and the intake ports. The main players are the air flow meter (if
fitted) the throttle body and the manifold/induction trunking.
Their positions can be seen in the diagram. The operation of the throttle body
and the air flow meter are covered in detail later in this book.
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Sensors
Air flow meter Manifold pressure

sensor
Air flow is monitored by either sensing air flow volume or sensing inlet
manifold pressure.
Airflow is measured either directly through the use of an air flow meter or
indirectly through the use of a manifold pressure sensor.
Vane type airflow meter
S ensor
conn ections
D am penin g cham b er
A ir volu m e
A ir b ypass
m easuring flap
Throttle position
switch / sensor
usually located on
the side of the
throttle body
assembly
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The position of the vane plate is influenced directly by the airflow volume, as
the deflecting force will be proportionate to this. Mounted on the same axis as
the vane plate is a potentiometer (mechanically varied resistance – see
throttle position sensor and its value is therefore changed by the rotation of
the vane. If we supply the potentiometer with a closely regulated voltage (5
volts) the voltage returned by the potentiometer to the ECM will alter
proportionately in accordance to the vane’s position.
An example of a potentiometer that most of you will identify with is a Scalextric

hand controller!
The damping chamber prevents natural turbulence in the airflow (created by

the internal pumping effect of the cylinders) from setting up a frequency and
producing a hysteresis effect. This would make the engine hunt badly.
Earth
terminal
ECU
Signal terminal
Supply voltage
terminal
Electrical circuit for vane type airflow meter.
An oscilloscope is ideal for checking the serviceability of such a sensor as any

worn parts of the potentiometer track will create dips and spikes in the signal
voltage. Use of an ohmmeter is limited to checking only the sensor and not
the circuitry.
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Hot wire type airflow meter
A platinum wire is suspended in the flow of air and a voltage applied to it by

the ECM. The resulting current flow heats the wire. A thermistor is used to
sense the temperature of the wire and when the target temperature is reached
the voltage is maintained. The flow of air across the wire cools it, and the
ECM has to apply a higher voltage to achieve its target wire temperature. The
degree of cooling created by the air flow is in direct proportion to the amount
of air flow, and the voltage required to achieve the target temperature is
therefore also in direct proportion to this. The ECM interprets the voltage as
airflow volume.
On a cold day the cooling effect will be greater for a given amount of air flow,
therefore the required voltage will be higher. The ECM interprets this as an
increase in airflow and will increase fuel injection volume correspondingly.
This is just what we want as cooler air is denser and therefore each cylinder
will receive a greater amount of oxygen per intake stroke.
This sensor is therefore a true air mass sensor.
The best way to test this sensor is to monitor the change in voltage as you
blow through the sensor.
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Manifold pressure sensor
Analogue type
--v
--v
--v
ECU
Changes in engine load will create changes in intake manifold pressure. The
MAP manifold (absolute pressure) sensor detects these pressure fluctuations
and converts them into a language that an ECM can understand negative
voltage. An integrated circuit called a piezoelectric element is mounted on a
small diaphragm. This diaphragm is influenced directly by the pressure in the
manifold. As the diaphragm flexes, the resistance of the piezoelectric IC
alters. We apply 5 volts to the IC and the voltage from it alters in proportion to
the degree of flex on the diaphragm. The lower the pressure, the greater the
flex the higher the resistance the lower the signal voltage the shorter the fuel
injection duration required.
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Digital type
The operation of this sensor is identical to the analogue type with one
exception; the signal is converted into a digital signal within the sensor and
supplied to the ECM as such (the analogue sensor’s signal is converted to
digital inside the ECM). Both types of sensor can be checked using a scope
and a source of vacuum such as a Mityvac pump. The digital type can also
be checked using frequency.
Exercise 1
Draw the relevant signal for the digital type MAP sensor next to the values
stated below:
High vacuum - idle/light load

Low frequency
Low vacuum – part throttle

Moderate frequency
Zero vacuum – full throttle

High frequency
The changes in signal frequency can be clearly seen here. It should be noted
that the duty ratio of the signal is always 50% (the on time and the off time are
equal) it is only the frequency that alters. See idle speed control for a full
explanation of duty cycle.
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This sensor is very accurate but is rather expensive. Vortices (turbulence) are
created in the air by presenting to it a vortex generator (a plastic post). These
vortices strike a small mirror and cause it to vibrate . When the mirror is in a
particular position it reflects a light (provided by an LED) straight onto a
phototransistor, switching it on. The phototransistor will switch at a frequency
dictated by the speed of mirror vibration, which in turn is directly influenced by
the frequency of the vortices. These vortices become progressively more
frequent as the airflow volume increases. The ECM measures this frequency
and interprets it as airflow volume. Check this signal with an oscilloscope.
The biggest enemy of this sensor is dirt. Foreign bodies can adhere to the
intake side of the sensor during servicing of the air filter and these tend to
disturb the airflow and create vortices of their own! The engine will run badly.
The scope pattern will be non-uniform.
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Exercise 2
Serviceable signals will look very similar to the signals in Exercise 1. Draw a
diagram showing how the signal will look if affected by foreign matter:
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Engine Speed and Position Sensors
In order for the ECM to inject into the correct cylinder at the correct time, it
must be able to sense the position of the engine. With any increase in engine
speed we have less time to introduce the fuel via the injector (the intake
valves are open for a far shorter period) but the reaction speed of the injectors
remains constant. If the ECM has a means of sensing engine speed then it
can compensate for this by providing current to open the injector slightly
earlier. The above diagram shows a typical AC inductive type speed sensor.
Principle of operation
If we change the strength of a magnetic field in the presence of a coil of wire,

current will flow in that coil.
This is the fundamental underlying principle of electrical generation.
It can be seen that the sensor consists of a coil of wire wrapped around a
magnet (inductive pickup) placed close to a toothed wheel (the rotor or
reluctor).
The rotor (toothed wheel) is connected to the crankshaft and therefore rotates
as the engine rotates. When the rotor tip passes near to the coil, an AC
current is produced which is sensed by the ECM. When the air gap is large,
there is little influence on the magnetic flux around the pickup and therefore
signal voltage is low. When the rotor tip approaches the pickup, the tip
increases the strength of the magnetic flux and produces a positive voltage
from the pickup. When the rotor tip leaves the pickup, the tip reduces the
strength of the magnetic flux and produces a negative voltage.
The rotation of the rotor near to the pickup therefore causes an AC current to
be produced.
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Exercise 3
Plot the AC signal on the diagram on page 24
The rotor on the diagram on page 24 has 4 teeth on it. This indicates that it
will generate 4 AC pulse per revolution of the crankshaft. If we programme
the ECM with this information, it can calculate engine speed by simply
counting the pulses.
Example:
100 pulses received every second
4 pulses per revolution
25 revolutions per second (100 divided by 4)
1500 revolutions per minute (rpm), (25 multiplied by 60 seconds)
In reality the crankshaft rotor has more than 4 teeth. The more teeth that it
has, the more accurate the ECM’s speed calculation will be at any given point.
Exercise 4
Complete the circuitry for the speed sensor shown on page 24:
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Engine speed and position sensing
Positive
voltage
Negative
voltage
It has been seen that an engine speed sensor can be used to calculate engine
speed. The diagram shows the signal generated by a crank sensor with a
36-2 rotor. The minus 2 part of the rotor provides positional information
(normally TDC). However, as the engine is 4 stroke, this could indicate TDC
compression No1 cylinder or TDC valve overlap. For correct control of the
fuel injectors clarification of this is important. The camshaft position sensor
provides definitive positional information because it is positioned on the
camshaft, which only rotates once per engine cycle.
Cam position sensor
Camshaft
Sensor
Rotor
tooth
Positive
voltage
Negative
voltage
To confirm TDC compression, the ECM monitors the 36-2 crank sensor as
well as the cam position sensor. When it receives the minus 2 flat line and the
single pulse from the cam sensor it knows exactly where the engine is within
the 4 stroke cycle. This ensures that fuel is injected into the correct branch of
the manifold on the induction stroke.
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Exercise 5
Draw a twin trace scope screen depicting the crank signal (36-2) and the cam
signal (1 tooth) phased correctly to indicate TDC compression stroke number
1 cylinder. Assume that the centre of the gap on the minus 2 equates to TDC
and the 0 volts point in the centre of the cam signal equates to TDC
compression number 1 cylinder.
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Hall Effect Sensors
Low
High
+
Sensor supply current
-
- Trigger plate
-
-
Magnet N - S Magnet
-
-
Hall IC -
The Hall switch is an integrated circuit (IC), which is affected by magnetism.

The Hall switch receives a power supply at the “+” terminal. The “-” terminal is
connected to earth (usually via the ECM). The ECM passes a signal voltage
to the sensing terminal of the Hall switch (the voltmeter is connected to this in
the diagram typically between 5 - 10 volts). The ECM uses any changes
experienced in this voltage as positional/speed information. When the solid
section of the drum passes between the magnet and the Hall switch,
magnetism cannot influence the Hall switch. If magnetism cannot influence
the Hall switch, the Hall switch will be open. When the switch is open, the
signal current cannot flow to earth, therefore the signal voltage at Hall switch
terminal will be high (and also at the corresponding ECM terminal.)
When the cut out section of the drum passes between the magnet and the
Hall switch, magnetism can influence the Hall switch. If magnetism influences
the Hall switch, the Hall switch will close. When the switch is closed, the
signal current can now flow to earth. The signal voltage at the Hall switch
terminal will be zero (and also at the corresponding ECM terminal).
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Exercise 6
Draw the circuit for a Hall effect sensor:
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Throttle position sensors
Throttle position
switch / sensor
usually located on
the side of the
throttle body
assembly
The ECM needs to know the position of the throttle for one overriding reason
– acceleration enrichment. When the driver presses hard on the accelerator
peddle, the throttle opens fully. The air will increase in volume with very little
delay, but the fuel being heavier is slower to react. This creates a momentary
lean period, which often manifests as a flat spot (hesitation). You have seen
that a carburettor overcomes this problem through the use of an accelerator
pump. EFI has no such pump, only the injectors. The ECM senses that the
driver has moved the throttle to the fully open position by monitoring the
throttle position sensor. This enables the ECU to increase the quantity of fuel
injected to prevent the generation of a flat spot.
Throttle position Throttle position –

- idle part throttle
Signal voltage Supply voltage Signal voltage Supply voltage

1.0 volt (5.0 volt) 2.0 volts (5.0 volt)
Throttle position –
full throttle
Signal voltage Supply voltage

4.5 volts (5.0 volt)
The diagram shows the principle behind the throttle position sensor. The
ECM applies 5 volts to the resistor track. The moving contact effectively
divides the resistor track into two resistors wired in series with one another.
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As the moving contact moves (it’s connected to the throttle linkage) it will
adopt a position that dictates the comparative length of the two resistors. If
they are the same length, then the voltage will be half supply (2.5 volts) in the
middle where the moving contact is. The moving contact is connected to the
ECM via the harness and the ECM senses 2.5 volts. This it interprets as 50%
throttle opening. All voltages sensed in between fully closed and fully open
represent a known throttle angle to the ECM.
This type of sensor is often referred to as a ‘potentiometer’. You have already

seen this in use on the vane type airflow meter.
Exercise 7
5
Volts
Scope
0
Time
Signal terminal
ECU
Supply voltage
terminal
The diagram shows the circuitry for such a sensor. Draw onto the graph the
expected waveform for this sensor generated through full pedal action (fully
down to fully up with a very slowly moving oscilloscope trace):
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Temperature Sensing
4
Resistance
3
K Ohms
2
0 20 40 60 80 100
Temperature oC
NTC NTC
sensor
sensorresistance
resistance
A material that experiences a change in resistance in proportion to a change

in temperature acting upon it is referred to as a thermistor (thermal
resistor).There are two categories of thermistor-NTC and PTC. Silicon is a
good example of an NTC thermistor, and most metals are PTC. How an NTC
thermistor behaves can be seen from the graph.
NTC = Sensor resistance decreases as the temperature increases

PTC = Sensor resistance increases as the temperature increases
NTC thermistors are commonly used to sense temperature, as they tend to

experience a very large resistance change for a relatively small temperature
change. This leads to greater accuracy.
The ECM applies 5 volts to the series circuit, which consists of a fixed
resistance (inside the ECM) and a variable resistance. If the engine
temperature is low, the resistance of the sensor will be high (NTC) and
therefore the sensor will have greater resistance influence on the circuit
comparatively (that is compared to the fixed resistance). The voltage in
between the two resistors will therefore be high. The ECM monitors the
voltage at this point and compares its value to programmed temperature
equivalents mapped to its memory. A high voltage means a cold engine and
the injection duration will be long to compensate.
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As the temperature of the engine increases, the resistance of the sensor will
reduce (NTC) and the fixed resistance will now have a greater effect on the
voltage. The voltage in between the two resistors will now be lower. This is
interpreted by the ECM as a higher engine temperature and the fuel injection
duration will be reduced.
Exercise 8
--v
--v
Engine coolant
temperature
sensor ECU
Draw on to the diagram the 5 volts ECU supply and the fixed resistance
(inside the ECM).
Assume a resistance value inside the ECM of 1000 ohms and an engine
temperature that results in a thermistor resistance of 1000 ohms. Write on the
screens of the voltmeters what voltages you would expect to see with a
serviceable system.
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Why sense temperature?
An engines temperature must be sensed due to the differing fuelling

characteristics required of engines at different temperatures. This is because
fuel tends to condense onto the inside of manifolds and onto the back of
intake valves when the engine is cold. Therefore, the amount of fuel that
reaches the cylinders is reduced. The ECM must compensate for this
tendency by injecting more fuel (and vice versa).
The temperature of the air induced into the engine must also be sensed by the
ECM as the density of the air will vary in accordance with this (very cold air is
considerably more dense than hot air and therefore the cylinders are receiving
more oxygen per intake stroke). More fuel is required preventing lean running
when the air is cold, less fuel is required to prevent rich running when the air
is hot.
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Knock Sensing
ECU
Positive
voltage
Negative
voltage
Knock sensor signal
A knock sensor is another example of a piezoelectric element being put to use

on a modern engine (the other being the MAP sensor). Piezoelectric
elements come in two main types; those that experience a change in
resistance and those that physically generate a voltage when deformed. The
knock sensor is a good example of the latter category.
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When an engine starts to knock, the sensor vibrates and a high voltage is
generated (this can vary between as much as 10 volts and as little as 1 volt
dependent upon the manufacturer). This voltage indicates to the ECM that
the engine is knocking and it will start to progressively retard the ignition
timing. When the engine stops knocking, the knock sensor voltage will reduce
to zero and the ECM will start to progressively re-advance the ignition timing
until knocking is detected again. This type of closed loop control enables the
ECM to keep the timing right on the threshold of knock therefore generating
maximum power for minimum fuel consumption with low emissions.
Air/fuel mixture control
Dampening chamber
Air volume
Air bypass
measuring flap
With a vane type air flow meter, it is possible to adjust the idle mixture
strength.
We can influence directly how much unmeasured air is able to enter the
engine by changing the position of the screw. The greater the amount of
unmeasured air, the leaner the idle mixture. If the ECM does not know about
it, it will not increase the fuel injection quantity in conjunction with it.
Caution should be exercised before adjusting this – ask yourself the question
why is the idle mixture wrong? Remember, don’t just cure the fault - cure the
cause of the fault. This adjustment must be carried out in conjunction with a
gas analyser.
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Potentiometer
ECU
Supply
voltage
Signal
voltage
Idle mixture adjuster
The diagram shows a more common method of adjusting idle mixture

strength. It is simply a potentiometer adjustable through the use of a
screwdriver. Any adjustment carried out alters a voltage in the ECM which the
ECM then interprets and alters the fuel injection quantity at idle to suit.
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Oxygen/Lambda Sensors
From exhaust
manifold
Oxygen in the
exhaust gas
Oxygen sensor
Oxygen sensor
electrical signal
Oxygen in the
atmosphere
Zirconia type of
oxygen sensor To exhaust system
On a modern engine, oxygen sensors assume responsibility for the monitoring

of the mixture strength.
The lambda sensor is located in the exhaust pipe between the exhaust ports
and the catalyst, normally in the exhaust down pipe. The lambda sensor
signal is used by the ECM to maintain the air/fuel mixture at the correct ratio.
The lambda sensor measures the oxygen content in the exhaust gas and
passes an electrical signal to the ECM. The ECM is then able to provide the
correct control signals to enable the engine management system to maintain
the correct air/fuel mixture. The lambda sensor signal operates between 0.1
volts and 0.9 volts. When the oxygen content in the exhaust is high, the
lambda sensor voltage is low (0.1 volts), when the oxygen content is low (rich
mixture) the signal voltage is high (0.9 volts).
The oxygen sensor is coated with a special material called Zirconia. Zirconia
has a special property which when exposed to two areas of differing oxygen
content, a small voltage is produced. If the engine is running rich, there will
be an excess of fuel. This will result in the majority of oxygen being burnt. We
then configure the sensor so that one side is in direct contact with the exhaust
gas and the other atmospheric air. The greater the difference in oxygen
across the sensor, the higher the voltage. The smaller the difference, the
lower the voltage. Working range is 0.1 volt to 0.9 volts.
The value ‘Lambda’ is used to describe how rich or lean an engine is running.
It is calculated by dividing the actual A/F ratio by the ideal (14.7:1). If an
engine is running at the ideal A/F ratio, it can therefore be described as
running at Lambda 1 (14.7:1 divided by 14.7:1 equals 1). From this simple
equation it can be seen that if an engine is running rich, the Lambda value will
be less than 1 and if it is running lean, greater than 1. Lambda is also
sometimes described as Excess Air Factor.
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Operation
An oxygen sensor will only start to produce a decent signal when hot. As the
majority of emissions are produced by a vehicle when cold, it is important to
assume control based on an oxygen sensor signal as soon as possible. To
help the sensor to heat up quickly, two things are done: the sensor is
positioned very close to the exhaust ports and sometimes an electrical heater
element is also provided. The ECM controls the flow of current through this.
An oxygen sensor is always used in conjunction with a catalytic converter as

the converter only works effectively at stoichiometric ratio (or lambda 1).
When the ECM is monitoring mixture strength through the use of the oxygen
sensor, this is known as closed loop control. The term is derived from the fact
that the ECM decides what to put into the engine based on what it knows is
coming out (like a loop). Engines rarely run on closed loop as a stoichiometric
ratio is seldom suitable (the driver only has to touch the accelerator to indicate
a requirement to accelerate and a rich mixture is required – the ECM will
assume open loop control, effectively ignoring the oxygen sensor).
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Catalytic Converters
Catalytic converters use heated precious metals and other materials (rhodium,
iridium, platinum) to encourage a reaction to take place, effectively converting
the emission gases to less harmful ones.
The catalysing materials are applied as a coat to a ‘monolithic substrate’ - a

porous sub-assembly having a very large surface area to reduce the
inevitable exhaust back pressure that such a component in the exhaust pipe
will cause. These materials are not chemically changed in any way during the
reaction in the gases, hence the name catalyst. Catalytic converters are only
effective when hot, so they are often placed very close to the exhaust
manifold and some manufacturers artificially heat them. Catalytic converters
are easily damaged. Under no circumstances must conditions be brought
about where prolonged exposure to unburnt fuel occurs (push starting,
disconnecting plug leads etc). If this does happen, the fuel will accumulate in
the catalytic converter and could ignite, destroying it.
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Fuel Injectors
Top feed injector Side feed injector
The injectors supply the fuel to the engine. A multi point system will normally
inject fuel on to the back of the open intake valves (indirect injection).
Problems can arise when the valve becomes coated in deposits, absorbing
the atomised fuel, leading to lean mixtures. The injector has a very fine spray
pattern. Not all injector spray patterns are the same, the spray pattern will
depend on the system/engine type. Top feed injectors normally have a fine
mesh filter in the top of the injector. Side feed injectors are now becoming
more common, the fuel can flow through the injector in the fuel rail,
overcoming fuel rail temperature problems.
Single point systems use an injector very similar to the side feed injector,
although the injector pintle is normally replaced by a ball valve. The ball valve
provides the correct spray pattern for the fuel to be sprayed on to the throttle
butterfly. The single point systems use a much lower fuel pressure (approx 1
bar). The fuel is injected above the throttle butterfly and therefore is not
subjected to intake manifold pressure changes.
When replacing injectors always ensure that the sealing “O” rings are
replaced, fuel leaks can occur and also air leaks can occur.
The injector is a solenoid-operated valve. The injector requires a power

supply and an earth connection in order to operate. Most systems will supply
a constant power supply to the injector and switch the injector ON/OFF by
switching the injector earth circuit, although there are a few systems which
switch the power supply circuit. The injector is opened electromechanically
and closed by spring pressure acting on the injector pintle.
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Resistance checks of injectors
--.- Ω
Injectors are commonly used with either a high resistance of 13 - 18 ohms or

a lower resistance injector of 1.5 - 3.0 ohms. A ballast resistor may be fitted in
series with a low resistance injector. The resistor limits the current flow in the
circuit when the circuit is switched on. Initially when the circuit is switched on
the ballast resistor resistance is low, when the resistor heats up, the resistor
resistance becomes higher, lowering the current flow. Later systems can
normally limit the current flow through the injector circuit (also refer to injector
signals).
A lower resistance injector will initially allow a higher electrical current flow
through the injector circuit, which will allow the injector to open more quickly.
A lower resistance injector will also reduce the induced voltage generated
during the injector operation. The reduction in EMF will allow the injector to
open and close more quickly giving precise fuel injection control.
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Injector control signal
Supply
voltage
(relay)
ECU
Induced
voltage
Battery Battery
voltage voltage
Zero voltage
Injector “ON” time usually
measured in milli-seconds
The control signal “ON” time (injection duration) will alter dependant on the
ECM input signals – engine temperature / engine load / throttle position etc.
An injector control signal waveform is illustrated above. When the injector is

inoperative, the supply voltage is available. When the injector is operated, the
supply voltage reduces to virtually zero volts. The earth circuit voltage may
not reduce to completely zero, as the earth path will usually have a slight
resistance. When the injector circuit is switched off, the voltage will rise. The
period from when the injector opens until the period when the injector closes
is referred to as the injection duration. Notice from the injector waveform, that
the closure of the injector induces a high voltage into the circuit, typically 40 -
60 volts. The induced voltage can be used to diagnose dirty/sticking injector
solenoids. The voltage will then reduce to the supply voltage again.
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Injection duration
Engine cold – Engine at idle speed

long injection – short injection
duration duration
Engine under high Engine deceleration –

load - long injection very short injection
duration duration
The length of the injection duration will depend on the ECU input signals.
When the engine is cold, the engine requires more fuel and so the injector
duration is long (approximately 7 - 15 milliseconds). As the engine warms up
and therefore requires less fuel, the injection duration shortens.
When the engine is at idle and at the correct operating temperature, the
injection duration is typically 2.0 - 3.0 milliseconds.
During high load (wide open throttle, acceleration) more fuel is required and
the injection duration lengthens, dependent on the ECU input signals.
During vehicle deceleration (overrun situations), fuel is not required and

therefore under certain conditions (engine speed above 1500 rpm and the
throttle closed) the injection duration will be very short or with some EFI
systems, disappear completely (only the supply voltage is available).
These waveforms and duration figures are only guidelines. They will differ
from system to system and therefore always refer to vehicle specific
information before checking any signals etc.
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Injector Circuitry
Simultaneous injection
Supply
voltage
(relay)
ECM
The circuit illustrates a simultaneous injection system. All of the injectors are
open at the same time (simultaneous). The injectors are opened twice per
engine cycle and therefore half the required fuel is injected at each injector
opening. The injectors are not normally timed to the engine cycle. The
injectors are controlled by switching the earth circuit.
Group injection
Supply
voltage
(relay)
ECM
The circuit illustrates a grouped injection system. The system may also be
referred to as a semi-sequential injection system. The groups may be opened
together (twice per engine cycle) or the groups may be opened in sequence to
the opening of the intake valves (intake valve closed). Opening the injectors
to the timing of the intake valves will usually provide lower emissions, increase
in fuel economy and an increase in engine power. The injector control signal
should be checked at both of the ECM control terminals. The control signals
should be identical.
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Sequential injection
Supply
voltage
(relay)
ECM
The circuit illustrates a sequential injection system. The injectors are opened
in sequence, which is timed to the firing order of the engine. The injectors are
opened only once per engine cycle. The injector-opening period (injection
duration) is longer than that of the simultaneous system as the injector are
only opened once per engine cycle.
The ECM requires information on the engine’s exact position (firing order) in
order to operate the sequential injector operation. The engine speed/position
signal will only contain information on the crankshaft position, not the cylinder
firing order. The cylinder recognition sensor signal provides the ECM
information on the exact engine position and therefore the firing order of the
engine. The ECM can therefore provide the injector control signal to the
correct cylinder at the correct time. If the cylinder recognition sensor signal is
not available, the ECM will usually operate the injectors in a simultaneous
mode.
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Single point injection
Supply
voltage
(relay)
ECM
The title refers to the type of injection system, only one injector supplying the
cylinders with fuel. The fuel injector was controlled in accordance with engine
conditions. The injector could be opened with each cylinder cycle (four control
signals for a 4 cylinder engine) or when fuel demand was high, the fuel
injector could be multi pulsed to provide sufficient fuel for the high engine
demand.
Although not used by vehicle manufacturers now, these systems were very
common during the 90’s on small engine vehicles. Problems encountered
were similar to those of carburettors, emission levels were higher than multi
point fuel systems and the systems were subject to temperature changes (hot
and cold). Emission regulations could not be met by these types of fuel
systems and were phased out by the end of the 90’s.
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Idle Speed Control
Supply
voltage
(relay)
Engine
speed
ECU
Idle speed control valve alters position to

influence the quantity of air that can bypass
the throttle butterfly
The above diagram indicates the idle speed control valve altering the engine
idle speed by varying the air bypassing the throttle butterfly. The ECM
controls the position of the idle speed control valve.
The ECM stores the engine idle speed information in its memory; this is often
referred to as the engine idle target speed.
The ECM receives an engine speed sensor signal. When the throttle is in the
idle position (the ECM receives an idle position signal from the throttle position
sensor) the ECM controls the engine idle speed to the target speed. Note: The
ECM may vary the target speed dependent on additional sensor signals i.e.
engine temperature.
The idle speed control actuator illustrated is a rotary type idle speed control
valve. The valve is supplied with battery voltage from the system relay. The
ECM controls the position of the valve by switching the actuator earth circuit
ON/OFF (similar to other actuators such as the injector). Most idle speed
control actuators operate in a similar manner although the control signals will
vary from system to system.
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The control signal
A B
Off
On
1 Cycle
B
x 100
Duty ratio = A + B
Duty cycle/ratio is a method of controlling current flow digitally. An ECM can

only affect this type of control. By switching current on and off very rapidly
and controlling the relationship between ‘current on’ and ‘current off’ time, an
increased or reduced current flow can be achieved. For example: If the on
time is longer than the off time, a large amount of current will flow, but if the off
time is longer than the on time, only a small amount of current will flow. The
relationship between on and off time is expressed as a percentage. The
higher the value, the longer the on time comparatively. Idle speed control
valves are commonly controlled through the use of a duty cycle signal.
Exercise 10
Calculate the duty ratio for the following time values:
On time 2 milliseconds
Off time 4 milliseconds
Your answer:
Will the idle speed control valve be opening or closing?
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Engine Speed Limiting
Engine
rpm
An engine can be protected from over-revving very simply. The ECM is

taught a pre-determined maximum permissible speed and when this is
reached, it cuts fuel injection. The engine speed sensor provides information
on current engine speed.
Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)
Oxides of nitrogen emissions (Nox) are produced in very large quantities once
combustion temperatures exceed 1800°C. Manufacturers employ many
methods to ensure that this temperature is not exceeded and EGR is one of
them. By allowing a controlled amount of exhaust gas to re-circulate back to
the combustion chamber, the next combustion process is far cooler. This is
because the exhaust gas contains water vapour, which brings about a cooling
effect, and the presence of the gas means lower combustion pressures (less
cylinder space for air and fuel).
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EGR system
It can be seen from the diagram that the ECM controls the EGR valve. The
ECM decides when it is acceptable to recirculate (not when the driver is
demanding power) and also when Nox is most likely. At this point, it controls
the lifting of the valve with the use of a duty cycle signal and solenoid.
Pressure charging
To obtain more power from an engine you have to increase the torque
produced, the engine speed or preferably both. Torque is a product of the
force acting on the piston crown (the combustion pressure) and the crankshaft
throw. In order to increase the force acting on the piston crown it is necessary
to increase the combustion pressure (or the size of the piston crown). This
entails filling your cylinders as efficiently as possible. If you can force-feed
them so that they actually receive more fuel and air than there is theoretical
space for, then you are supercharging your engine and high combustion
pressures will result. There are many ways to supercharge an engine and the
use of a turbocharger is one.
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Turbocharger
The turbocharger is an air compressor driven by gases. The gases generated

by the engine turn the turbine which is mounted on a common shaft linked to
the compressor. This forces air into the engine under pressure. When the
engine is put into overrun conditions i.e. with throttle shut the turbocharger will
create a large back pressure back from the throttle. This would slow the
turbocharger and reduce efficiency. To prevent this, a dump valve is fitted
that allows this excess pressure to vent to the atmosphere (an atmospheric
dump valve) or to recirculate back around the turbocharger compressor (a
recirculating dump valve).
Should the engine be driven so hard that there is risk of over pressurisation
occurring, the ECM will open the waste gate, which allows further exhaust gas
pressure to bypass the turbine. An inlet manifold pressure sensor enables it
to detect dangerous amounts of boost.
Engine coolant Knock

Intake air sensor Engine load
temperature sensor (Air
sensor temperature Engine
sensor speed flow / MAP)
Input signals
Electronic Control Unit

Output signals
Turbo waste
gate
solenoid
It can be seen from the diagram that many signals are taken into account by
the ECM for control of the waste gate actuator.
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Intercooling
The process of turbocharging heats the air considerably. The fact that you
are compressing it, combined with the fact that the exhaust gas is running so
close to the induced air makes this inevitable. As we have seen previously,
hot air is thin which means there is less oxygen for the engine to burn which
would result in a reduction in achievable power. An intercooler cools this
compressed air before it enters the cylinder. There are two main types of
intercooler – an air-to-air charge cooler and an air to liquid charge cooler.
They are both heat exchangers, but one uses air to cool the induction process
and the other uses coolant.
Blowers
A blower is another method of pressure charging the engine. The main

difference between a blower and a turbocharger is the method employed to
turn it. Whereas exhaust gases drive the turbocharger, the blower is
mechanically driven – normally by a belt but occasionally by gears.
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Circuitry – MAP sensed and air flow sensed EFI
Throttle Engine Cylinder Engine Intake Fuel

MAP speed recognition coolant air temp Knock Main
position pump
sensor sensor sensor temp sensor sensor relay
sensor relay
Warning
lamp
Engine management ECU
Fuel
pump
Injectors Idle EVAP Coil Lambda

speed solenoid pack sensor
control
Engine
coolant EFI Fuel
Idle temp main pump
mixture sensor relay relay
adjuster
Air
flow
sensor
M
EFI ECU
Fuel
pump
Idle Throttle Engine

Injectors speed position speed
control switch signal
Typical fuel injection wiring diagram
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Maintenance
EFI systems require very little routine maintenance. The air cleaner element
should be replaced regularly, as should the fuel filter. Always refer to
manufacturers’ instructions.
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Gas Analysis
The picture shows a quality gas analyser. This analyser is capable of

showing readings for all five critical emission gases:
• carbon monoxide (CO)
• hydrocarbons (HC)
• oxygen (O2)
• carbon dioxide (CO2)
• oxides of nitrogen (Nox).
The tables below show typical values for a current engine at running
temperature.
Typical gas reading with Typical gas reading with

engine at idle speed engine at cruise speed
CO % 0.1 max CO % 0.1 max
HC ppm 75 max HC ppm 50 max
CO2 14.5 min CO2 15.0 min
O2 1.0 max O2 0.5 max
Lambda 0.97 – 1.03 Lambda 0.97 – 1.03
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kap all phase 2 & 3 6/11/03 11:36 am Page 15

Engine Speed Limiting 50

This magical mixture strength is often referred to as ‘stoichiometric’. This is a

Electronic fuel injection helps us to achieve that fine atomisation.

Perfect combustion - stoichiometric

Under perfect conditions, when petrol is burnt in air at a mixture strength of

• carbon monoxide (CO)

CO is produced by incomplete combustion of the fuel, which is in turn caused

Air / fuel ratio

A rich mixture can also contribute to the production of CO.

• low compression during coasting or deceleration leads to incomplete

Air / fuel ratio

It can be seen in the diagram that HC is also directly affected by mixture

Oxides of nitrogen (Nox)

Electronic control systems consist of sensors (information gatherers), an ECM

Think about how we interact with the environment – we sense something

It should be noted that we are discussing the fundamentals of electronic

Electronic Control Unit

The above shows its application to EFI.

In order for the ECM (ECU) to be able to process information, it requires a

ECU battery supply ECU

Sensor voltage via Micro processor

The above shows the sensor power supply circuit.

Any passive sensor (a sensor that experiences a change in resistance in

Supply the correct air / fuel ratio to the cylinders in

EFI is a system where engine conditions are sensed electronically. An ECM

Fuel pressure regulator

Air induction system

Air flow is sensed by the

Air drawn into

Engine load is dictated by the

Air flow meter Manifold pressure

Vane type airflow meter

An example of a potentiometer that most of you will identify with is a Scalextric

The damping chamber prevents natural turbulence in the airflow (created by

Electrical circuit for vane type airflow meter.

An oscilloscope is ideal for checking the serviceability of such a sensor as any

A platinum wire is suspended in the flow of air and a voltage applied to it by

This sensor is therefore a true air mass sensor.

High vacuum - idle/light load

Low vacuum – part throttle

Zero vacuum – full throttle

If we change the strength of a magnetic field in the presence of a coil of wire,

This is the fundamental underlying principle of electrical generation.

Plot the AC signal on the diagram on page 24

100 pulses received every second

4 pulses per revolution

25 revolutions per second (100 divided by 4)

1500 revolutions per minute (rpm), (25 multiplied by 60 seconds)

Cam position sensor

The Hall switch is an integrated circuit (IC), which is affected by magnetism.

Draw the circuit for a Hall effect sensor:

Throttle position Throttle position –

Signal voltage Supply voltage Signal voltage Supply voltage

Signal voltage Supply voltage

This type of sensor is often referred to as a ‘potentiometer’. You have already

A material that experiences a change in resistance in proportion to a change

NTC = Sensor resistance decreases as the temperature increases

NTC thermistors are commonly used to sense temperature, as they tend to

An engines temperature must be sensed due to the differing fuelling

Knock sensor signal

A knock sensor is another example of a piezoelectric element being put to use

Air/fuel mixture control