The Chemistry of Solutions

A solution is a homogeneous mixture. It is uniform throughout. If you analyze any two

samples of a solution, you will find that they contain the same substances in the same
relative amounts. The simplest solutions contain two substances. Most common solutions
contain many substances.

A solution consists of a solute or solutes dissolved in a solvent:

• The substance that is present in the largest quantity (whether by volume, mass, or amount)
is usually called the solvent. (Water is considered to be the universal solvent because of its ability to dissolve or dissociate many
compounds.)
• The substances that are dissolved in the solvent are called the solutes.

Solvation is an interaction of a solute with the solvent, which leads to stabilization of the solute species in the solution.

Pure substances - systems with only one component

Mixtures - systems with 2 or more components
2 types:

1. heterogeneous- mixing is on a larger scale than the molecular level.

2. homogeneous- mixing is on the molecular level.A homogeneous mixture has the same uniform appearance and
composition throughout. Many homogeneous mixtures are commonly referred to as solutions.Both solutions and pure
substances can be described as “uniform throughout,” so what is the difference between them? Pure substances, such as distilled
water, H2O have fixed composition. Distilled water is always 11% hydrogen and 89% oxygen by mass. Solutions, on the other hand,
have variable composition.

Characteristics of Solutions
1. Distribution of solvent and solute particles is uniform throughout the solution.
2. Components will not separate upon standing.
3. Components cannot be separated by filtration.
4. For any given solute and solvent, many different concentration solutions can be made - up to the solubility limit.
5. A solution may or may not be colorless, but it will be clear. (clear means transparent)
6. Components of a solution may be separated by chromatography, distillation, or fractional crystallization

Type of solutions:
1. Liquid solutions are the most common - solids, liquids, and gases dissolve in liquids to give solutions.
2. Gas solutions - all mixtures of gases are solutions. Why? Mixing is at the molecular level.
3. Solid solutions - anytime solids are mixed, they form heterogeneous mixtures - to make a homogeneous mixture of solids, all
components must be melted and mixed in the liquid phase. ex. alloys like brass, bronze, and steel.

Aqueous Solutions - the most common solutions are those containing water as the solvent. These solutions are called aqueous
solutions.
A concentrated solution has a relatively large amount of a solute per unit of solution, and a dilute solution has a relatively small
amount of the same solute per unit of solution.

Types and Examples of Solutions

Type of solution Example Solvent Solute
Gas
Gas in gas Air Nitrogen (gas) Oxygen (gas)
Liquid
Gas in liquid Carbonated water Water (liquid) Carbon dioxide (gas)
Gas in liquid Ocean water Water (liquid) Oxygen gas (gas)
Liquid in liquid Antifreeze Water (liquid) Ethylene glycol (liquid)
Liquid in liquid Vinegar Water (liquid) Acetic acid (liquid)
Solid in liquid Ocean water Water (liquid) Sodium chloride (solid)

Solid
Liquid in solid Dental amalgam Silver (solid) Mercury (liquid)
Solid in solid Steel Iron (solid) Carbon (solid)

Solubility Miscibilityand Saturation

Solubility - the maximum amount of a solute that dissolves in a given amount of liquid at a given temperature. A good rule of
thumb for determining the solubility is “like dissolves like”. Solutions form between solute and solvent molecules because of
similarities between them. For most solids the solubility increases with increasing temperature. In contrast, gases are less soluble
in water at higher temperature.

 Polar solvents dissolve polar substances, nonpolar solvents dissolve nonpolar substances.
· Ionic solids dissolve in water because the charged ions (polar) are attracted to the polarwater molecules.
· Nonpolarmolecules such as oil and grease dissolve in nonpolarsolvents such as kerosene.

Solubility of a solute in a solvent depends on:

1. nature of the solute
2. nature of the solvent - “like dissolves like” likeness refers to polarity
3. temperature- For solids and liquids dissolved in liquids, solubility increases with increasing temperature. For gases, solubility in
liquids almost always decreases with increasing temperature. (ex. a bottle of warn coke or beer foams up when you open it.)
4. other dissolved solutes (if any)

A substance that dissolves in a solvent is said to be soluble (when > 1 gram per 100ml of solvent dissolves) in that solvent.
A substance that does not dissolve in a solvent is said to be insoluble (when < 0.1 gram per 100ml of solvent dissolves) in that
solvent.
SOLUBILITY RULE: Simple Solubility Rules:
-Nitrate (NO3-) salts are soluble.
All Soluble Except With -Alkali (group 1A) salts and NH4+are soluble.
Chlorates -Cl-, Br-, and I- salts are soluble (NOT Ag+, Pb2+,
Acetates Hg2 2+)
Sulfates Ca Ba Sr Hg Ag Pb (CBS HAPpy) -Sulfate salts are soluble (NOT BaSO4, PbSO4,
Halogens Hg Ag Pb(HAPpy) HgSO4, CaSO4)
Nitrates -OH− salts are only slightly soluble (NaOH, KOH
Group (IA) are soluble, Ba(OH)2,Ca(OH)2 are marginally
soluble)
Remember the acronym: “CASH N’ Gia.” All these things are -S2−, CO32−, CrO42−, PO43− salts are insoluble.
soluble unless they are found with certain elements.

When solid solute (substance or particles) and liquid solvent are mixed, the only reactions are dissolution or crystallization.
 A dissolution is the dissolving process of the solid solute.
 A crystallization is the opposite, which causes the solid solute to remain undissolved.

Substances whose aqueous solutions are conductors of electricity are called electrolytes.
Substances whose aqueous solutions are not conductors of electricity are called nonelectrolytes.
Weak electrolytes - solutes that are only partially ionized in solution.Some molecular compounds, carboxylic acids, and
amines. In order for a solution to conduct an electric current, ions must be present. Electrolytes produce ions in aqueous
solutions. Nonelectrolytes do not produce ions.

Types of Saturation
Kinds of Saturation:
 Saturated Solution - A solution with solute that dissolves until it is unable to dissolve anymore, leaving the undissolved
substances at the bottom.
 Unsaturated Solution - A solution (with less solute than the saturated solution) that completely dissolves, leaving no
remaining substances.
 Supersaturated Solution - A solution (with more solute than the saturated solution) that contains more undissolved
solute than the saturated solution because of its tendency to crystallize and precipitate.
Miscible and Immiscible are terms limited to solutions of liquids in liquids. If two liquids dissolve in each other they form a single
continuous layer (like water and alcohol) and are miscible. Liquids that are not soluble in each other form two distinct layers (like
water and oil) and are immiscible.

FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY

The rate at which a substance dissolves in water depends on these factors:

Heat Pollution: A Solubility Problem For 1. Temperature = increase temp–> increases KE –> increases collisions –> faster
most solids, and almost all ionic substances, dissolves
solubility increases as the temperature of for most solid solutes, the rate of dissolving is greater at higher temperatures. At
the solution increases. Gases, on the other
higher temperatures, the
hand, always become less soluble as the
temperature increases.This property of solvent molecules have greater kinetic energy. Thus, they collide with the undissolved
gases makes heat pollution a serious solid molecules more frequently. This increases their rate of dissolving. For some
problem. Many industries and power plants substances to dissolve in a given solvent, heat is absorbed. The reaction is
use water to cool down overheated
endothermic. In this case, an increase in temperature increases solubility. For some
machinery. The resulting hot water is then
returned to local rivers or lakes. Steam rise substances, heat is released when they dissolve in a given solvent. The reaction is
from a “heat-polluted” river. Adding warm called exothermic. In this case, an increase in temperature decreases solubility.
water into a river or lake does not seem like Generally, an increase in temperature in the solubility of solids in liquids increases
actual pollution. The heat from the water,
solubility. But for solubility of gas in liquids, an increase in temperature decreases
however, increases the temperature of the
body of water. As the temperature solubility because gas evaporates as temperature increases.
increases, the dissolved oxygen in the
water decreases. Fish and other aquatic 2. Agitation = increase agitation (stirring) –> increases KE –> increases collisions –>
wildlife and plants may not have enough
faster dissolving
oxygen to breathe. The natural heating of
water in rivers and lakes can pose Agitating a mixture by stirring or by shaking the container increases the rate of
problems,too. Fish in warmer lakes and dissolving. Agitation brings fresh solvent into contactwith undissolved solid.
rivers are particularly vulnerable in
thesummer. When the water warms up
even further, the amount of
dissolvedoxygen decreases.
3. Particle Size (surface area) = decrease particle size –> increases surface area –>
increases collisions–> faster dissolving.
Decreasing the size of the particles increases the rate of dissolving. When you
breakup a large mass into many smaller masses, you increase the surface areathat is in
contact with the solvent. This allows the solid to dissolve faster.
During the building of James Eads' St. Louis
Bridge, several of the construction workers
4. Molecule Size and Solubility digging out the riverbed from inside the caissons
Small molecules are often more soluble than larger molecules fell ill. An alarmed Eads shortened his men's
working hours, and called his personal doctor on
5. Effects of Pressure the scene. Still, some of the workers died. They
were victims of caisson disease.
Pressure unlike temperature has little effect on This condition, also known as the bends
solutions unless the solute is a gas. An increase in pressure ordecompression sickness, is caused by the
causes greater interaction between particles of the gas and the formation of gas bubbles in the body. Human
liquid, thus, increasing solubility. Gas solubilities in all solvents body tissues contain small amounts of the gases
present in the air. At great depths underwater,
are affected by changes in pressure. As for gasses the Henry's because of the increased air pressure, larger
English chemist, an law states that solubility of gas is directly proportional to the amounts of gas can be held in solution in the
apothecary and pressure of this gas. A good proof of Henry's law can be body. However, when a diver or underwater
writer on chemistry, observed when opening a bottle of carbonated dring. When we construction worker rises to the surface of the
born at Manchester water, the pressure decreases and the gases
on the 12th of decrease the pressure in a bottle, the gas that was dissolved in come out of solution. Oxygen doesn't cause a
December 1775. the drink bubbles out of it. problem, because it is used up by the cells of the
body. Carbon dioxide is simply exhaled. Nitrogen,
• Henry's Law S = k P (S=solubility, k= is a temperature dependent constant for a on the other hand, accumulates. When the
pressure decreases, the dissolved nitrogen comes
particulargas and P=pressure of the gas). out of solution, forming tiny bubbles in the blood
and tissues of the body.Nitrogen bubbles in the
THE SOLUBILITY CHART/CURVE respiratory system can cause excessive coughing
and difficulty in breathing. Other symptoms
include, chest pain, dizziness, paralysis,
unconsciousness or blindness. In extreme cases,
caisson disease can cause death.
• The curve shows the # of

grams of solute in a saturated solution containing 100 mL or 100 g of water
at a certain temperature.

• Any amount of solute below the line indicates the solution is

unsaturated at a certain temperature

• Any amount of solute above the line in which all of the solute has
dissolved shows the solution is supersaturated.

 Dynamic equilibrium occurs when the rate of crystallization is equal

to the rate of dissolving.

• If the amount of solute is above the line but has not all dissolved,
the solution is saturated and the # grams of solute settled on the bottom of
the container = total # g in solution – # g of a saturated solution at that
temperature. (according to the curve)

• Solutes whose curves move upward w/ increased temperature are

typically solids b/c the solubility of solids increases w/ increased temperature.

• Solutes whose curves move downward w/ increased temperature are typically gases b/c the solubility of gases decreases
withincreased temperature.

Practice Reading Solubility Curves

(Refer your answer on the chart above)
1. Which of the salts shown on the graph is the least soluble in water at 10 oC?

2. Which of the salts shown on the graph has the greatest increase in solubility as the temperature increases
from 30 degrees to 60 degrees?

3. Which of the salts has its solubility affected the least by a change in temperature?

4. What two salts have the same degree of solubility at approximately 19 oC?

5. How many grams of potassium chlorate must be added to 1 liter of water to produce a saturated solution at 50oC?

6.Are the following solutions saturated, unsaturated or supersaturated (assume that all three could form supersaturated
solutions)
a. 40. g of KCl in 100 mL of water at 80oC
b. 120. g of KNO3 in 100 mL of water at 60oC
c. 80. g of NaNO3 in 100 mL of water at 10oC
 DILUTION AND CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS

Dilution- is a process used to lower the concentration of a solution by

increasing its volume.

In the lab, you will often encounter a stock solution which you will need
to dilute to a given concentration for use in a lab
exercise. Dilution consists of adding more solvent to a solution so that
the concentration of the solute becomes lower. The total number of solutes in the solution remains
the same after dilution, but the volume of the solution becomes greater, Figure 1
resulting in a lower molarity, ppm, mg/L, or % concentration.

In Figure 1, the solute is the dots and the solvent is the solid blue. The 1 L beaker on the left shows the
initial concentration, which we might represent as 13 dots/L. The beaker on the right is the result of
dilution of the left beaker. We added more solvent so that the solution's total volume was 3 L. As a result, the concentration of
the diluted beaker is (13 dots)/(3 L), or 4.3 dots/L.

Calculating Dilution
Dilution calculations are simplified by using the following equation:
M1V1 = M2V2
where:
M1 = concentration of the first solution
V1 = volume of the first solution
M2 = concentration of the second solution
V2 = volume of the second solution

Concentration and volume in the equation above can have any units as long as the units are the same for the two solutions.
As long as you know three of the four values from the equation above, you can calculate the fourth. Let's consider a sample
problem:
You have 1 L of a 0.125 M aqueous solution of table sugar. You want to dilute the solution to 0.05 M. What do you do?

To solve the problem, you simply plug in the three numbers you know:
(0.125 M) (1 L) = (0.05 M) V2
2.5 L = V2

Using the equation, you determine that the volume of the diluted solution should be 2.5 L. So we simply add enough water to the
first solution so that the solution's volume becomes 2.5 L.

Dilution Problems:

1. What will be the final concentration of the solution indicated that will result from the following dilutions?
a. 14.0 mL of a 4.20 M Na2CO3 solution is diluted to 86.0 mL.
b. 450. mL of a 1.22 M HCl solution is diluted to 1.26 liters.

2. To what volume should the indicated solution be diluted to produce a solution of the desired concentration?
a. 12.0 mL of a 0.64 M KCl solution to produce a 0.19 M solution.
b. 84.2 mL of a 4.60 M KMnO4 solution to produce a 1.42 M solution.

3. What volume of the indicated solution is needed to produce the volume and concentration of a diluted solution as indicated?
a. 2.73 M NaOH solution to prepare 142 mL of a 0.540 M solution.
b. 0.0076 M SnF2 solution to prepare 25.0 mL of a 0.00027 M solution.
Remember:
How to Dilute an Acid (A large amount of heat is
released (exothermic reaction)
1. Consult Chemical Safety Cards of the acid one wants to dilute. Many of these can easily be
when strong acids are mixed with
found on the internet. Sometimes several cards are issued, depending on the concentration water. Adding more acid releases
and additions to the acid. Search for the card that matches the acid to be diluted. These more heat. If you add water to
cards give just the safety precautions, they do not explain in depth why you should stick to acid, you form an extremely
concentrated solution of acid
them. If you don't understand the reason behind it study further and make sure you do.
initially. So much heat is
2. Do follow the safety precautions! releasedthat the solution may
3. Wear gloves, safety goggles, roll up sleeves, and tie up long hair. boil very violently, splashing
4. Use a pipette to place one drop of the acid into the beaker of water. Never use a mouth concentrated acid out of the
container! If you add acid to
pipette with anything, especially acids. Use a graduated (Mohr) or volumetric pipette with a
water, the solution that forms is
rubber bulb on top. very dilute and the small amount
5.Allow the solution to cool off. Strong acids may generate lots of heat that may even bring of heat released is not enough to
the diluted acid to the boil. This will cause splattering and may produce corrosive fumes. vaporize and spatter it. So
Always Add Acid to water, and
6. Continue adding the acid in small doses until the acid has been diluted. Allow every time
never the reverse.)
to cool off. Never add lots of acid to the water at once.
Remember AAW.
7. Put a stopper on the flask and invert several times
Measuring Concentrations
Concentration as a Mass/Mass Percent
A mass/mass percent gives the mass of a solute divided by the mass of solution, expressed as a percent. The mass/mass
percent is also referred to as the percent (m/m), or the mass percent.

Concentration as a Volume/Volume Percent

A volume/volume percent gives the volume of solute divided by the volume of solution, expressed as a percent. The
volume/volume percent is also referred to as the volume percent concentration, volume percent, percent (v/v), or the percent by
volume.

Concentration as a Mass/Volume Percent

A mass/volume percent gives the mass of solute dissolved in a volume of solution, expressed as a percent. The
mass/volume percent is also referred to as the percent (m/v).

Answer Me
1. What is the percent by mass of 5.0 g of NaCl mixed with 80.0 g of water?

2. What is the percent (mass/volume) if 22 g of Kcl is added to 75 mL of water to make 83 mL of solution?

3. What is the percent solution (by volume) when 50. mL of ethanol is diluted to 140 mL with water?

4. Solder flux, available at hardwood stores, contains 16 g of zinc chloride in 50 ml of solution. The solvent is HCl (aq.). What is the
percentage mass by volume of zinc chloride in the solution? 16 g / 50mL = 32% M/V

Concentration in Parts per Million and Parts per Billion

The concentration of a very small quantity of a substance in the human body, or in the environment, can be expressed in
parts per million (ppm) and parts per billion (ppb). Both parts per million and parts per billion are usually mass/mass
relationships. Notice that parts per million refer to the mass of the solute compared with the mass of the solution (same units).

"Parts per" is a convenient notation used for low and very low concentrations. Generally speaking it is very similar to weight by
weight percentage - 1% w/w means 1 gram of substance per every 100 g of sample and it is (although very rarely) named pph -
parts per hundred. Other abbreviations stand for:

parts per milion (106) Concept of ppm: 1 ppm = 1 part of substance in one million parts of water solution, or
ppm 1/1,000,000
1 ppm = approximately one second in 11.6 days

parts per bilion (109) Concept of ppb: 1 ppb = 1 part of substance in one billion parts of water solution, or
1/1,000,000,000
ppb
1 ppb = approximately one second in 31.7 years

parts per trillion (1012) Concept of ppt: 1 ppt = 1 part in one trillion parts of water solution, or 1/1,000,000,000,000
ppt 1 ppt = approximately 1.6 days out of the present age of the earth (approx
4.5 billion yrs)
 Answer Me
1. Find the concentration in ppm of a solution in which 0.0059 g of NaCl has been dissolved making a solution
with a volume of 750 mL.

2. Find the concentration in ppb of a solution in which 9.6 x 10-6 g of NaCl has been dissolved making a solution
with a volume of 2.0 L.

3. An Olympic-size pool is 50 m (164 ft) long, 25 m (82 ft) wide, and 2.0 m (6.6 ft. minimum) deep. It holds 660,000 US gallons or
2,500,000 liters of water. It has 8 racing lanes that are 2.5 m wide with an “empty” lane of 2.5 m in width along each side. (While
there are 10 lanes, only the middle 8 are used for racing.) If 1.0 gram of NaCl is dissolved in the water of a pool of this size, what is
the concentration of the dissolved salt in ppt?

Molarity
Molarity tells us the number of moles of solute in exactly one liter of a solution. (Note that molarity is spelled with an "r" and is
represented by a capital M.)
We need two pieces of information to calculate the molarity of a solute in a solution:
 The moles of solute present in the solution.
 The volume of solution (in liters) containing the solute.
To calculate molarity we use the equation:

PRACTICE PROBLEM
1. What is the molarity of a solution that contains 1.724 moles of H2SO4 in 2.50 L of solution?

2. What is the molarity of a solution prepared by dissolving 25.0 g of HCl (g) in enough water to make 150.0
mL of solution?

3.How many grams of NaOH would you need to add to .35 liters of water to make a 1.50 M solution?

4. A chemist dissolves 98.4 g of FeSO4 in enough water to make 2.000 L of solution. What is the molarity of the solution?

Molality
Molality, m, tells us the number of moles of solute dissolved in exactly one kilogram of solvent. (Note: that molality is spelled with
two "l"'s and represented by a lower case m.)
We need two pieces of information to calculate the molality of a solute in a solution:
 The moles of solute present in the solution.
 The mass of solvent (in kilograms) in the solution.
To calculate molality we use the equation:

PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. If you dissolve 75.0 g of aluminum nitrate (check the formula!) in 750.0 g of water, what is the molality of
the solution?

2. If the molality of a CaCl2 solution is 0.100 mol/Kg, and was made from 500.0 mL of water, how many grams of CaCl2 were
needed to make the solution? (Hint: How do you change mL to g for water?)
3. A commonly purchased disinfectant is a 3.0% (by mass) solution of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in water. Assuming the density of
the solution is 1.0 g/cm3, Calculate the molarity and molality of H2O2.

Mole Fraction
The mole fraction, X, of a component in a solution is the ratio of the number of moles of that component to the total number of
moles of all components in the solution.
To calculate mole fraction, we need to know:
 The number of moles of each component present in the solution.
The mole fraction of A, XA, in a solution consisting of A, B, C, ... is calculated using the equation:

To calculate the mole fraction of B, XB, use:

PRACTICE PROBLEMS:

1.6.80 g of sodium chloride are added to 2750 mL of water. Find the mole fraction of the sodium chloride and
of the water in the solution.

2. Determine the mole fraction of KCl in 3000 grams of aqueous solution containing 37.3 grams of Potassium Chloride KCl.

Colligative Properties of Solutions

Key Concepts
 Colligative properties of solutions depend on the concentration of solute particles but NOT on their identity.
 Colligative properties depend on the lowering of the escaping tendency of solvent particles by the addition of solute
particles.
 Colligative properties include:
a. vapor pressure lowering
b. boiling-point elevation
c. freezing-point depression
d. osmotic pressure
Vapor Pressure Lowering
 The escaping tendency of a solvent is measured by its vapor pressure.
 Vapor pressure measures the concentration of solvent molecules in the gas phase.
 Adding a nonvolatile solute lowers the vapor pressure of the solvent since a smaller
proportion of the molecules at the surface of the solution are solvent molecules,
fewer solvent molecules can escape from the solution compared to the pure solvent.
 The quantitative relationship between vapor pressure lowering and concentration in
an ideal solution is stated in Raoult's Law.

Boiling-Point Elevation
 A liquid boils at the temperature at which its vapor pressure equals atmospheric
pressure.
 The presence of a nonvolatile solute lowers the vapor pressure of a solution so it is
necessary to heat the solution to a higher temperature in order for it to boil.
 The amount by which the boiling point is raised is known as the boiling point
elevation.
 The boiling-point elevation is proportional to the concentration of solute particles
expressed as moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.

Freezing-Point Depression
 The presence of a nonvolatile solute lowers the freezing point of a solvent.
 In order to freeze the solvent, it must be cooled to a lower temperature in order to compensate for its lower escaping
tendency.
 The amount by which the freezing point is lowered is known as the freezing point depression.
 The freezing-point depression is proportional to the concentration of solute particles expressed as moles of solute per
kilogram of solvent.
Electrolytes
Since colligative properties depend on the number of particles if the solute is an electrolyte and breaks apart in to multiple ions
then we need to take that in to account when we are doing molality calculations.
We use the van't Hoff factor (i) to measure the extent that the solute breaks apart into ions.

In an ideal solution the van't Hoff factor would be equal to the number of ions the solute breaks apart into, in the real world the
van't Hoff factor is generally less. The van't Hoff factor needs to be measure experimentally. We now need
to add the van't Hoff factor to all the colligative property equations:

Osmotic Pressure
 When two liquids, such as a solvent and a solution, are separated by a semipermeable
membrane that allows only solvent molecules to pass through, then there is a net
transfer of solvent molecules from the solvent to the solution. This process is called
osmosis.
 Osmosis can be stopped by applying pressure to compensate for the difference in
escaping tendencies. The pressure required to stop osmosis is called osmotic pressure.
 In dilute solutions, osmotic pressure is directly proportional to the molarity of the
solution and its temperature in Kelvin.

RAOULT’S LAW:
In the 1880s, French chemist François-Marie Raoult made an interesting discovery: when a substance is added to a solution, the
vapor pressure of the solution will generally decrease. This change depends on two variables, the mole fraction of the amount
ofdissolved solute present and the original vapor pressure. Hence, Raoult's Law was established.
Psolvent = XsolventPosolvent
At any given temperature for a particular solid or liquid, there is a pressure at which the vapor formed above the substance is in
dynamic equilibrium with its liquid or solid form. This is the vapor pressure of the substance at that temperature. At equilibrium,
the rate at which the solid or liquid evaporates is equal to the rate that the gas is condensing back to its original form. All solids
and liquids have vapor pressure, and this pressure is constant regardless of how much of the substance is present.

Ideal vs. Nonideal Solutions

"An ideal solution shows thermodynamic mixing characteristics identical to those of ideal gas mixtures [except] ideal solutions
have intermolecular interactions equal to those of the pure components."2Like many other concepts explored in this Chemistry
series, Raoult's Law only applies under ideal conditions in an ideal solution. However, it still works fairly well for the solvent in
dilute solutions. In reality though, the decrease in vapor pressure will be greater than that calculated by Raoult's Law for
extremely dilute solutions.

The phase diagram below illustrates the effect of adding a solute to a pure substance.

As demonstrated by the phase diagram , adding a solute to

a solvent lowers the freezing point and raises the boiling
point; it also lowers the vapor pressure. The new freezing
point of a solution can be determined using the colligative
property law:
∆Tf = kf m
The change in freezing point is equal to the molal freezing-
point constant times the molality of the solution. The molal
freezing-point constant used is the constant for the solvent,
not the solute.

FREEZING AND BOILING POINT CONSTANT

Melting Boiling
Solvent Formula Kf(°C/m) ( Kb(°C/m)
Point (°C) Point (°C)
Water H2O 0.000 100.000 1.858 0.521
Acetic acid HC2H3O2 16.60 118.5 3.59 3.08
Benzene C6H6 5.455 80.2 5.065 2.61
Camphor C10H16O 179.5 ... 40 ...
Carbon disulfide CS2 ... 46.3 ... 2.40
Cyclohexane C6H12 6.55 80.74 20.0 2.79
Ethanol C2H5OH ... 78.3 ... 1.07
 PRACTICE PROBLEMS:
1. At what temperature will a solution that is composed of 0.73 moles of glucose in 650.0 mL of water begin
to boil?

2. At what temperature will a sucrose solution, C11H22O10, boil if it contains 175 grams of sucrose in 750 mL of water?

3. At what temperature will an methanol solution, CH3OH, freeze if it contains 55.0 grams of methanol in 1200 mL of water?

4. What is the boiling point of 0.10 M CaCl2? Would the actual boiling point be higher or lower than what you calculated? Why?
Kb = 0.512

5.10 grams of a non-ionic solid (like sugar) are dissolved into 100 mL of water. The freezing point of the water is depressed 3.32 0C.
What is the formula weight of the solid? Kf= 1.86

6. Osmotic pressure can be used to determine the formula weight of a compound and is commonly used to calculate the mass of
proteins. If 1.00 grams of a protein are dissolved in 100 mL of water, the osmotic pressure will be 92.92 torr. What is the formula
weight of the protein? Assume i = 1

7. Why do road crews throw salt on the road when it snows? How does it do it?

Properties of Solutions, Colloids, and Suspensions

Solutions Colloids Suspensions

Do not settle out Do not settle out Settle out upon standing

Pass unchanged through ordinary filter Pass unchanged through ordinary filter Separatated by filter ordinary filter
paper paper paper

Pass unchanged through a membrane Pass unchanged through a membrane Separated by membrane

Do not scatter light Scatter light Scatter light

 A colloid is a solution that has particles ranging between 1 and 1000 nanometers in
diameter, yet are still able to remain evenly distributed throughout the solution. A colloid is
also known as a colloidal dispersion because the substances remain dispersed and don't
settle to the bottom. In a colloid one substance is evenly dispersed in another.
The term colloid comes from the Greek words “kola” meaning ‘glue’ and “oidos”
meaning ‘appearance’. But colloidal systems may appear in all sorts of forms, from
apparently homogeneous solutions to cloudy liquids, smokes, mists, and even jellies.
Appearance cannot be used to identify colloids.Colloidal systems consist of a solid, liquid or gaseous continuous phase or
dispersion medium in which the colloidal particle of the internal phase or dispersed phase is suspended.

Types of Colloids:
A common method of classifying colloids is based on the phase of the dispersed substance and what phase it is dispersed in. They
types of colloids includes sol, emulsion, foam, and aerosol.
1. Sol is a colloidal suspension with solid particles in a liquid.
2. Emulsion is between two liquids.
3. Foam is formed when many gas particles are trapped in a liquid or solid.
4. Aerosol contains small particles of liquid or solid dispersed in a gas.
When the dispersion medium is water, the collodial system is referred to as a hydrocolloid. The particles in the dispersed phase
can take place in different phases depending on how much water is available. For example, Jello powder mixed in with water
creates a hydrocolloid. A common use for hydrocolloids is in the creation of medical dressings.

Different colloidal systems and their examples:

Dispersed Dispersion
Examples
phase medium
Solid Solid Colored glasses, rock salt, porcelain, alloys.

Solid Liquid Starch, proteins and gold solution

Gas Liquid Foam, froth, soap, leather

Solid Gas Smoke, dust, fumes.

Liquid Solid Curd, cheese, jellies

Liquid Liquid Milk, cream, certain medicines

Liquid Gas Clouds, fog, mist

Gas Solid Occluded gases in metals, pumice stone

Gas Gas unknown

The colloidal systems with solid as dispersed phase and liquid as dispersion medium are known as sols. In case the dispersion
medium of colloidal system is gas, the system is known as aerosol. When the liquid medium is water the system is known as
aquasol or hydrosol. In case of alcohol, benzene or any other organic liquid, the stem is termed as alcosol, benzosol or orgaosol,
respectively.

Two general ways to achieve colloidal size:

CONDENSATION METHOD – process of making particles of atom/ion/molecular size unite to form particles of colloidal size. This
can be accomplished by double decomposition reaction.
DISPERSION – the process of making breaking down large particles to colloidal size. This can be done by grinding or using an
emulsifying agent.
An emulsifying agent stabilizes an emulsion so that it does not separate into components.

Classification of Colloids
Colloids can be classified as two types they are the lyophilic or reversible and lyophobic or irreversible. If water is the dispersion
medium, the terms used are hydrophilic and hydrophobic.

Lyophilic colloids: A colloidal system that can be made readily by simple warming or shaking the substance in a suitable solvent is
known as lyophilic colloid. Substances that form lyophilic colloids include gelatin, starch, proteins, gum and rubber. Lyophilic
colloids are also termed as reversible colloids as on evaporating the dispersion medium such as water, the substance or the
residue can be again reconverted into colloidal state simply by addition of the liquid i.e. water. These solutions are quite stable
and cannot be easily precipitated.

Lyophobic colloids: colloids formed with difficulty are termed as lyophobic colloids. These colloids are formed by substances such
as As2S3 , Fe(OH)3, gold and other metals which are sparingly soluble and thus their molecules do not pass readily into colloidal
state. Lyophobic colloids are known as irreversible colloids since the residue cannot readily be reconverted into sol by ordinary
means. These solutions are readily precipitated and hence are not stable. To form colloidal dispersion of such substances it is
necessary to add a third substance called an emulsifier or peptizing agent, also called surfactants which consist of molecules
which are attracted to both the dispersed phase and dispersing medium.
PREPARATION OF COLLOIDAL SYSTEMS:
Lyophilic colloids – Direct Method
Lyophobic colloid:
o Physical Method or Bredig’s arc Method – this method is employed for obtaining colloidal solutions of metals like gold,
silver, platinum.
o Chemical Method – by oxidation

PROPERTIES OF COLLOIDS:
 Heterogeneous character – colloidal particles remain within their own boundary surfaces which separate them from the
dispersion medium.
 Brownian Movement – Robert Brown, a Scottish naturalist, discovered in 1827 that pollen grains’
placed in water do not remain at rest but move continuously and randomly. Brownian motion is the
zig –zag movement of colloidal particles continuously and randomly

 Tyndall Effect – Tyndall observed in 1869 that if a strong beam of light is

passed through a colloidal solution then the path of light is illuminated. This
scattering of light is called Tyndall effect. Ninja Icon:
John Tyndall, a
Ninja Icon:  Electric Charge Effect – the particles of colloidal solution are electrically
British physicist
Robert Brown published a also performed
pamphlet which he
charged and carry the same type of charge, either negative or positive. The experiments
recorded that he noticed dispersion medium has an equal and opposite charge. The colloidal particles demonstrating
moving particles therefore repel each other and do not cluster together to settle down. that the blue color
suspended in the fluid of the sky results
The precipitation of colloids due to attraction of oppositely charged colloids from the scattering
within living pollen grains
of pinkfairies (Clarkia
explains the following: of the sun’s rays by
pulchella). - Use of egg white as an antidote for food poisoning. molecules in the
- Formation of land called delta at the mouth of a river that leads to the sea. atmosphere.

- Removal of pollutants. A device called Cottrell precipitator can remove particles from industrial flue.
- Purification/separation of components of proteins. Components in protein plasma can be separated by a process called
electrophoresis, it is a process whereby the charged protein particles migrate at varying rates to electrodes of opposite
charge.

Adsorptive Property – the ability of a substance to hold another substance on its surface is referred to as
adsorption. Because colloids have large surface areas as compared with those of bulk matter, colloids have the
ability to adsorb or attach ions from a solution.
Adsorbate– adsorbed layer
Adsorbent – adsorbing medium

Kinds of Adsorption:
Chemisorption - the bond between surface and adsorbed particles (molecules or ions) is fairly strong, resembling chemical bonds
and difficult to break.This kind of adsorption is normally irreversible.
Physisorption – a weaker kind of adsorption involves only van der Waal’s forces and adsorbed materials can usually be removed
again.
 Dialysis, Hemodialysis and Electrodialysis – dialysis is the process of separating solute particles from colloidal
particles by means of a parchment paper or semipermeable membrane. In a dialysis unit, the movement of ions
across membranes can be speeded up by applying an electric current through the electrodes introduced in the
solution. This method is very fast and is known as eletrodialysis. Hemodialysis uses artificial kidney machine
where blood is pumped from the body to a filter made of tiny plastic capillaries. An alternative system the
peritoneal dialysis uses the body’s own membrane as a filter,and the fluid drained in and out of the abdomen
replaces the kidneys in getting rid of the body’s poison and excess water.

APPLICATIONS OF COLLOIDAL SOLUTION:

1. Sewage Disposal – colloidal particles of dirt, wind etc. carry electric charge.
2. Purification of Water in Wells – when alum is added to muddy water, the negatively charged particles of the colloid are
neutralized by Al3+ ions from alum.
3. Smoke precipitation – uses Cottrell precipitator.
4. Photography – colloidal solution of silver bromide in gelatine is applied on glass plates or celluloid films to form sensitive plates
in photography.
5. Clotting of Blood
6. Rubber Plating
7. Color of the Sky – colloidal dust particles floating about in the sky scatter blue light this makes the sky appear blue. In the
absence of these the sky would appear dark.

COLLOIDS IN THE ENVIRONMENT

Liquid droplets and particulates in air comprise the colloidal part of the atmosphere.
Acidic Aerosol
Oxides of sulphur like sulphur dioxide and sulphur trioxide and oxides of nitrogen, and nitrogen dioxide in combination
with water in fine droplets form acidic aerosol. It is corrosive and irritating to the respiratory tract. The acidic character of the
aerosol has damaging effects to plants, animals and properties. It may be precipitated to form acid rain which gives rivers and
lakes a lower pH levels.
Particulate Pollutants
 Solid particulates of colloidal size in air like dust, soot, fly ash, smoke, etc. are considered air pollutants. These pollutants,
if inhaled by humans contribute to respiratory problems.

NINJA CHALLENGE:

From the options below, choose the principle involved in behaviour/ applications of colloids for nos. 1 -5.
a. adsorptive property
b. Brownian movement
c. Electrical property
d. Tyndall effect
1. purification of blood
2. removal of particulates to filter impurities
3. use of charcoal to filter impurities
4. use of egg white as antidote to poisoning
5. describes the erratic movement of colloid.

6. Name the two phases of a colloidal system

a. Dispersion and dispersed phase.
b. The two phases cannot be distinguished.
c. Continuous phase and discontinuous phase
d. A and C

7. Give examples for colloidal systems in which the dispersed phase is gas and the dispersion phase is liquid.
a. Foam, froth, soap leather.
b. Unknown.
c. Gases in metals
d. Gases accumulated in a pumice stone.

8. Give examples for colloidal systems in which the dispersed phase is liquid and the dispersion phase is also a liquid.
a. Curd, cheese.
b. Milk, cream.
c. Jellies
d. Mist

9. The size of a colloidal particle is

a. >200 nm
b. <1nm
c. 1nm -200nm
d. None of the above.

10. Which of the following is true?

a. True solutions can scatter light.
b. Colloidal solutions can scatter light.
c. Suspensions can scatter light.
d. None.

Explain: Why do advertisements say that margarine ‘tastes like butter” or “has butter”. How is margarine different from butter?
Similar to butter?