Digital Manufacturing Process Chain For One-Off Replacement Parts: A Precision Casting Case Study

Journal of
Manufacturing and
Materials Processing
Article
Digital Manufacturing Process Chain for One-Off
Replacement Parts: A Precision Casting Case Study
George-Christopher Vosniakos 1, * ID
, Stefanos Michael 1 and Anastasia Vasileiou 2 ID
1 School of Mechanical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Heroon Polytehneiou 9,

15780 Athens, Greece; falsely@hotmail.com
2 School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, The University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL,
UK; anastasia.vasileiou@manchester.ac.uk
* Correspondence: vosniak@central.ntua.gr; Tel. +30-210-772-1457
Received: 31 August 2017; Accepted: 9 November 2017; Published: 13 November 2017
Abstract: The need to manufacture a copy of a mechanical part typically arises when a single
replacement part is necessary and is out of stock or out of production altogether. For parts with
intricate details and associated accuracy requirements, investment casting may be preferred to
machining, for size and detail reasons, or 3D printing, for material reasons. This work applies the
digital manufacturing paradigm to one-off vacuum-aided rapid investment casting focusing on the
process chain rather than on engineering issues. 3D laser scanning, digital model construction by
surface fitting, casting model making by exploiting additive manufacturing, material investigation
using scanning electron microscopy, casting simulation exploring process parameter scenarios, as well
as the corresponding implementation on a vacuum casting machine are the pertinent interlinked
steps and techniques. The added value of this work is that for each process link the important steps
and the potential pitfalls are analyzed in detail using as an example a cylinder liner from a model
car engine. Quality of the result was quite acceptable, the main benefit of the streamlined approach
being that “right-first-time” parts can be achieved.
Keywords: investment casting; one-off manufacturing; 3D scanning; surface reconstruction;

casting simulation; additive manufacturing; digital manufacturing; process chain
1. Introduction
Manufacturing copies of small mechanical parts with intricate details and associated accuracy
requirements may be easier to make by casting compared to machining or other methods. This is
due to the fact that once a suitable casting mold is made, cast metal may flow into the cavity in a
straightforward manner compared to the complexity induced by a multitude of cutting tools, tool
paths and machining operations that might be required.
Rapid casting as opposed to conventional casting involves a variety of techniques, starting
with additive manufacturing to make patterns or molds, possibly extending to 3D shape scanning
techniques to create digital models of existing physical prototypes to be copied and sometimes utilizing
casting simulation techniques in order to ensure that the feeding system designed and the process
parameters selected are appropriate.
From the advent of rapid prototyping and then rapid manufacturing, up to today’s additive
manufacturing (AM) technologies [1] the casting industry found it very tempting to exploit the relevant
possibilities offered. Initially, casting patterns were made by AM and they were then used to prepare
casting molds, typically from Room-Temperature-Vulcanization (RTV) silicone [2]. However, a casting
pattern may also be made by high-speed milling. A more sophisticated implementation is to construct
the mold itself including any cores necessary (or just the latter in some cases). This is usually feasible
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2017, 1, 17; doi:10.3390/jmmp1020017 www.mdpi.com/journal/jmmp

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2017, 1, 17 2 of 18
for very small batch manufacturing, bearing in mind the nature of materials used in these so-called
Rapid Tooling (RT) processes and the inherent low speed of AM processes [3]. These approaches are
also known as Rapid Casting [4,5].
Today, a number of direct routes using AM processes, as well as indirect routes using AM/RT
coupled with secondary processes, are available for rapid fabrication of tooling for sand and investment
casting processes. Variety of solutions reached the point that specialist software advice is needed as to
the suitability of each one depending on product characteristics [6].
Investment casting, in particular, seems to have benefited from AM [3] mainly applied to
manufacture wax patterns, which are subsequently invested in ceramic slurry to form a shell or
in plaster to form a full solid cylinder surrounding the mold cavity. However, pertinent issues
arose, namely:
• The desired thickness of the layer used to build up the full tool may not be achieved by available
machines and their positioning may not be accurate enough, leading to a gross approximation
of the desired shape [5]. In addition, even if the layer thickness is small enough, the resulting
fabrication time may be prohibitively large, especially for large parts [7].
• The material processed by AM machines may not always by appropriate for casting patterns.
Initially this was some kind of wax, thereafter some resin with appropriate melting point,
developments in this field being significant in optimizing casting quality [8].
• Shrinkage characteristics of the wax pattern [9] or generally the material used in AM is were often
unknown and needs to be determined [10].
AM needs a digital representation of the pattern to be made, usually in stl format. Thus,
CAD systems are employed and the resulting model is translated into stl. An alternative was made
available with the advent of 3D scanning technologies, allowing physical parts to be digitized into
a point cloud and then processed on a CAD system in order to create a surface and, then, a solid
model [11] or even just polynomial curves describing slices to be fed to AM machines ultimately as
G-code [12]. In this way, the Reverse Engineering paradigm was substantially supported, i.e., a part
could be copied from a physical instance of it circumventing the need for drawings, but pertinent
issues arose in this context, too, namely:
• Initially contact scanners and then laser scanners were available but they were tedious in planning
the different setups to use and also too slow when scanning usually along line patterns. White light
and image based approaches followed and were orders of magnitude faster, but they were less
accurate than the former. In addition, for intricate shapes several viewing angles should be tried
in order to fully cover the part and their determination was a matter of trial and error [13,14],
since blind areas and occlusions are inherent pitfalls of all optical methods [15].
• Accuracy of fitting surfaces to points has always been a pitfall of the pertinent CAD software,
although this is usually not admitted in applications reported in literature [16]. Typically, increased
desired accuracy results in discontinuities in the surfaces with associated dimensional tolerance
issues. This is especially the case when just one sample is available, but even if there were enough
samples, time and cost are restrictive. In addition, various techniques have been used to suppress
noise present in optical scanning to varying degrees of success [17].
• The material and microstructure of the part would need to be determined by suitable techniques,
totally different to shape digitizing. Thus, low expertise would usually keep the relevant activities
to a minimum resulting in manufacturing to incomplete or wrong specifications [18].
• Shrinkage allowance for the casting would normally be universally applied although this is
known to not hold true, leading to accuracy issues in large parts. Thus, dimensional discrepancies
between the scanned sample and the casting would be encountered unless compensated [17].
In order to construct a complete system for making affordable castings copying sample parts
current state-of-the-art in casting simulation enables try out of different scenarios concerning the
design of the feeding system and process parameters to be employed. When small batches are required
and time for experimentation is limited, simulation has proved very useful [11,19]. However, a number
of pertinent issues are associated with this domain, too, namely:
• Constructing a correct finite element mesh for the casting to be studied is often time-consuming,
requiring manual correction at several locations and intricate knit-picking work [20].
• •An experienced
Constructing caster should
a correct finite make decisions
element mesh forfor
thethe digital
casting trystudied
to be outs due to their
is often complexity and
time-consuming,
interplay, or sophisticated
requiring optimization
manual correction at several software mayintricate
locations and be used. However, work
knit-picking such [20].
software is still in
•the research
An experienced caster should make decisions for the digital try outs due to their complexity and
realm [21,22].
• The interplay, or sophisticated
so-called heat optimization
transfer coefficient (HTC) software
for themay be used.
particular However,
casting such software
and mold materialsisused,
still as
in the research realm [21,22].
well as for the particular geometry viz. combination of casting moduli characterizing the different
• The so-called heat transfer coefficient (HTC) for the particular casting and mold materials used,
sections of the casting, is generally not known, but may be determined by emerging sophisticated
as well as for the particular geometry viz. combination of casting moduli characterizing the
software [23].
different sections of the casting, is generally not known, but may be determined by emerging
AMsophisticated
technique has software [23].
been proved useful in manufacturing alternative tooling for experimentally
determining casting parameters
AM technique such as
has been proved shellinthickness
useful manufacturing [24]. AM and 3D
alternative scanning
tooling techniques have
for experimentally
beendetermining
used in enhanced rapid casting
casting parameters such toasmanufacture
shell thickness custom
[24]. AMprostheses [25], or clutch
and 3D scanning techniquesreplacement
have
partsbeen
[26].used
AM, in 3D
enhanced
scanningrapidandcasting
castingto manufacture
simulation custom prostheses
techniques have [25],
beenorreported
clutch replacement
in relation to
partspart
one-off [26].manufacturing,
AM, 3D scanningsuch and casting
as EDM simulation
electrodes techniques have been reported
[16], replacement in relation
spare parts to one-
[27] prototype
parts [28] for cars and machine elements [29], compressing the lead-time for developing a castingforfrom
off part manufacturing, such as EDM electrodes [16], replacement spare parts [27] prototype parts [28]
weekscars
toand
days machine
[29]. elements [29], compressing the lead-time for developing a casting from weeks to
days [29].
This work reports on the implementation of AM, 3D scanning and casting simulation as links
This work reports on the implementation of AM, 3D scanning and casting simulation as links of
of a rapid casting process chain targeting small parts of high precision, see Figure 1. In literature,
a rapid casting process chain targeting small parts of high precision, see Figure 1. In literature, the
the focus
focus soso far
far has
has been
been onon engineering
engineeringresults,results,i.e.,
i.e.,chiefly
chieflyonon dimensional
dimensional accuracy
accuracy of copy-casting.
of copy-casting.
However,
However,neither thethe
neither steps adopted
steps adoptedtotomake makeeacheach process
process linklinkfeasible
feasibleand androbust,
robust,
nornor integration
integration of of
the relevant techniques has been documented in any detail. Thus, this is
the relevant techniques has been documented in any detail. Thus, this is the main aim of the paper. the main aim of the paper.
A cylinder liner
A cylinder from
liner fromthethe
engine
engine ofofa amodel
modelcar carserved
served as aa characteristic
characteristicrepresentative
representative of the
of the kindkind
of parts targeted.
of parts targeted. InInSection
Section22scanning
scanning of ofthis
thispart
partonon a high
a high precision
precision laserlaser scanner
scanner is presented.
is presented. In
Section3,3,construction
In Section construction of of the solid
solid model
modelofofthis thispart
partbased
based ononthethescanning
scanning point cloud
point is outlined.
cloud is outlined.
In Section
In Section 4, the
4, the procedures
procedures followedtotoinvestigate
followed investigate material
material aspects
aspectsare arebriefly
brieflypresented.
presented. In Section 5, 5,
In Section
investment-casting simulation is described with an aim to design the casting
investment-casting simulation is described with an aim to design the casting tool and process. Section tool and process. Section 6 6
provides a condensed description of the actual implementation of the
provides a condensed description of the actual implementation of the casting process according to casting process according to
simulation findings. A discussion and conclusions are presented in Section 7.
simulation findings. A discussion and conclusions are presented in Section 7.
Figure 1. Processes and their outputs in one-off copy-casting.

Figure 1. Processes and their outputs in one-off copy-casting.
2. Scanning
2.1. The Part

The original part to be copied is a cylinder liner from a two-stroke model engine of a car. It has
ports, 66of
8 ports, ofwhich
whichare
arepairwise
pairwisesymmetrical,
symmetrical, seesee Figure
Figure 2. Ports
2. Ports play play a vital
a vital rolerole in engine
in engine timingtiming
and
and performance in terms of the power-rotation speed diagram. It is common practice
performance in terms of the power-rotation speed diagram. It is common practice in the model car in the model
car world
world to further
to further machine
machine thethe ports
ports by by adding
adding grove-like
grove-like extensions
extensions using
using a hand
a hand tool,
tool, typically
typically a
a dremel
dremel TMTM (Robert
(Robert Bosch
Bosch ToolCorporation
Tool Corporationlocated
locatedininMount
MountProspect,
Prospect,IL, IL,USA),
USA),so sothat
that the
the fuel
fuel is
directed toto the
thecombustion
combustionpoint
pointand
and the
the exhaust
exhaust gasgas downwards.
downwards. TheseThese extensions
extensions serveserve
a duala dual
role,
role, namely
namely increasing
increasing the area
the area of theofport
the port
and and enhancing
enhancing the swirling
the swirling flowflow of fuel
of the the fuel
mix mixinto into
the
the combustion chamber yielding a more even distribution of the fuel in the
combustion chamber yielding a more even distribution of the fuel in the chamber. Swirling chamber. Swirling aids
exhaust gas outflow in a way that preventsprevents a significant
significant loss
loss of
of fuel
fuel mix
mix through
through thethe exhaust
exhaust ports.
ports.
The particular example to be copied proved to have performance much superior to its factory-made
counterpart, thus it was desirable to replicate it.
Figure
Figure 2.
2. Model
Model engine
engine liner
liner part:
part: inlet
inlet port
port (A);
(A); auxiliary
auxiliary ports
ports (Β)
(B) and
and main
main outlet
outlet port
port (C).
(C).
The part measures 30,400 mm in height and has an external diameter of 9750 mm and a mean
The part measures 30,400 mm in height and has an external diameter of 9750 mm and a mean
wall thickness of 0.750 mm. Thus, the dimensions of groove extensions of its ports are of the order of
wall thickness of 0.750 mm. Thus, the dimensions of groove extensions of its ports are of the order of a
a few mm. The radial allowance between piston and liner is typically 20–35 μm, whereas the
few mm. The radial allowance between piston and liner is typically 20–35 µm, whereas the allowance
allowance between cylinder and liner is negative. These figures indicate that the outer diameter may
between cylinder and liner is negative. These figures indicate that the outer diameter may need a light
need a light finish-turning pass after casting, whereas the inner diameter achieved by casting may be
finish-turning pass after casting, whereas the inner diameter achieved by casting may be acceptable.
acceptable. As far as port shape accuracy is concerned deviations of the order of 100 μm are
As far as port shape accuracy is concerned deviations of the order of 100 µm are considered acceptable
considered acceptable as revealed by discussions with model car engineers.
as revealed by discussions with model car engineers.
2.2.
2.2. The
The Process
Process
Scanning
Scanning of of the
thelinerlinerwas wasperformed
performed on ona Hawk
a Hawk(NEXTEC
TM
TM (NEXTEC Technologies
Technologies2001 Ltd.,
2001 Tirat
Ltd.,
Hacarmel, Israel) laser scanner with a Nextec TM (NEXTEC Technologies 2001 Ltd., Tirat Hacarmel,
TM
Tirat Hacarmel, Israel) laser scanner with a Nextec (NEXTEC Technologies 2001 Ltd., Tirat Hacarmel,
Israel)
Israel) laser
laser head.
head. If
If the
the part
part needs
needs to to be
be scanned
scanned in in different
different orientations,
orientations, it it is
is mounted
mounted on on aa reference
reference
frame
frame that can be moved in space using an articulated arm. The frame possesses three spheres
that can be moved in space using an articulated arm. The frame possesses three spheres of of
known
known diameter
diameter that
that define
define thethe local
local X-Y
X-Y coordinate
coordinate system.
system. InIn this
this way
way position
position andand orientation
orientation of of
the part with respect to the machine global coordinate system is known at
the part with respect to the machine global coordinate system is known at any setup, see Figure 3. any setup, see Figure 3.
There
There are
are 55 primitives
primitives used used in defining scanning
in defining scanning paths
paths depending
depending on on the
the geometry
geometry of of the
the part,
part,
especially
especially curvature variation as well as on its size. These are: Rectangle, Arc, Polyline, Wideline and
curvature variation as well as on its size. These are: Rectangle, Arc, Polyline, Wideline and
Polygon. The sensor
Polygon. The sensor will
will automatically
automaticallymove moveaway awayfrom
fromthe
thepart
partif ifthe
the original
original distance
distance is too
is too small
small or
or will
will move move closer
closer to the to part,
the part,
if theiforiginal
the original distance
distance were
were too too The
large. large. Themovement
latter latter movement may
may reduce
reduce the number
the number of pointsofin points in the scanning
the scanning cloud and cloud and increase
increase noise asnoise
well as as collision
well as collision
risk. risk.
Required resolution is determined in two directions, on a scale 0.01 and
Required resolution is determined in two directions, on a scale 0.01 and 0.3 mm (longitudinal 0.3 mm (longitudinal or
scan direction) and 0.03 to 1 mm (lateral direction), and determines number
or scan direction) and 0.03 to 1 mm (lateral direction), and determines number of points in the cloud of points in the cloud
and scanning time.
and scanning time. Indicatively,
Indicatively, an an area
area ofof 10
10 mmmm × × 10
10 mm
mm is is scanned
scanned in in about
about 50 50 min
min at at the best
the best
resolution 0.03 × 0.03 mm. It is set differently depending on the features to be scanned. A simple
feature, for instance, i.e., one whose shape does not change much across its extent, does not need high
resolution 0.03 × 0.03 mm. It is set differently depending on the features to be scanned. A simple
feature, for instance, i.e., one whose shape does not change much across its extent, does not need high
resolution, whereas
resolution, whereas a feature with
a feature intricate
with geometry
intricate may
geometry need
may notnot
need only high
only resolution
high but
resolution also
but alsomore
thanmore
one scanning orientations.
than one scanning orientations.
Figure 3. Laser scanning: head (A); reference frame (B) and part mounted on cantilever arm (C).
Figure 3. Laser scanning: head (A); reference frame (B) and part mounted on cantilever arm (C).
A few test scans were performed initially to conclude that the frame covered excessively large
space
A few around the part
test scans occluding
were performedsomeinitially
of its port
to features.
concludeTherefore, a special
that the frame arm was
covered constructed
excessively large
spaceand addedthe
around to the
partreference frame
occluding someto of
hold
its the
portpart as a cantilever
features. Therefore,at an angle toarm
a special the was
frame plane. This and
constructed
addedenabled
to the full accessframe
reference of the
to laser beam
hold the parttoasthe part being
a cantilever scanned,
at an angle to atthe
different complementary
frame plane. This enabled
orientations, of course. The only pitfall was a higher risk of collision between
full access of the laser beam to the part being scanned, at different complementary orientations,the out-of-frame part of
with the laser head.
course. The only pitfall was a higher risk of collision between the out-of-frame part with the laser head.
Difficulties were encountered due to intricate geometry of the part and high reflectivity of the
Difficulties were encountered due to intricate geometry of the part and high reflectivity of the
metallic surface, resulting in much higher scanning time compared to the number of cloud points for
metallic surface, resulting in much higher scanning time compared to the number of cloud points for
the regions concerned. Note that for features of known shape only a section large enough to deduce
the regions concerned.dimensions
the characteristic Note that for
wasfeatures
scanned. of A
known shape
typical onlyisa section
example large enough
the cylindrical to deduce
outer and inner the
characteristic
surface of dimensions
the liner. Thewas scanned.
complete pointAcloud
typical example
obtained is the cylindrical
is shown in Figure 4, outer and not
obviously inner surface of
covering
the liner. The complete
the full part. point cloud obtained is shown in Figure 4, obviously not covering the full part.
Figure 4.
Figure 4. Point
Point cloud.
cloud.
3. Digital Part Model

3. Digital Part Model
The point cloud resulting from the scanning process as coordinate triplets can be imported by
The point
various CADcloud resulting
programs. from
In this the SolidWorks
work, scanning process as coordinate
TM (Dassault Systèmes triplets can be
S.A., Vélizy, imported
France) was by
various CAD including
programs.itsInScan
thistowork, SolidWorks TM
employed 3D plugin. The aim is(Dassault
to convertSystèmes
the point S.A.,
cloud Vélizy, France)
to a surface andwas

employed including its Scan to 3D plugin. The aim is to convert the point cloud to a surface and
ultimately to
ultimately to aa solid
solid model
modelof ofacceptable
acceptablequality,
quality,ininorderordertotostudy
studypossible
possible feeding
feeding alternatives in
alternatives
digital simulation as well as to manufacture casting models. No noise
in digital simulation as well as to manufacture casting models. No noise reduction was applied, reduction was applied, since
the number
since of cloud
the number points
of cloud werewere
points already few in
already fewsome regions,
in some due due
regions, to reflectivity etc. etc.
to reflectivity problems, see
problems,
Section
see 2, and
Section 2, andtheytheywould
would have
havedisappeared
disappearedaltogether.
altogether.Thus,Thus,points
pointsthatthat were
were considered
considered toto
constitute “noise” were removed manually using group selection
constitute “noise” were removed manually using group selection tools such as lassoing. tools such as lassoing.
An initial
An initial mesh
mesh is is automatically
automatically fitted
fitted toto the
the point
point cloud;
cloud; see
see Figure
Figure 5a. 5a. Voids
Voids in in the
the point
point mesh
mesh
were subsequently repaired manually using the respective software tools.
were subsequently repaired manually using the respective software tools. Automatic recognition and Automatic recognition and
fitting of surface splines might be a good choice, if a complete mesh of the
fitting of surface splines might be a good choice, if a complete mesh of the whole part is available, whole part is available,
since it
since it does
does not
not usually
usually allow
allow any
any editing,
editing, surface
surface extensions,
extensions, repairs
repairs etc.,
etc., but
but this
this was
was obviously
obviously
impossible in the present case; therefore the manual process was employed. First, the parts of theof
impossible in the present case; therefore the manual process was employed. First, the parts the
mesh
that seemingly belong to the same surface are automatically identified and painted with a differenta
mesh that seemingly belong to the same surface are automatically identified and painted with
different
color color for visualization.
for visualization. SensitivitySensitivity
of recognition of recognition
is manually is adjustable,
manually adjustable,
resulting inresulting
larger orinsmaller
larger
or smaller groups of surfaces. Selecting the right level of sensitivity is relatively
groups of surfaces. Selecting the right level of sensitivity is relatively easy when the part is known easy when the part
is known
and and understood
understood correctly,
correctly, as as insee
in this case, thisFigure
case, see Figureregistered
5b. Each 5b. Each surfaces
registered hassurfaces has to be
to be assigned a
assigned a surface type based on the selections available, e.g., plane, cylinder,
surface type based on the selections available, e.g., plane, cylinder, cone, B-spline etc. During the whole cone, B-spline etc.
During the
process, wholeofprocess,
handling the wholehandling of thecloud
of the point whole of the
at the same point
timecloud
proved at computationally
the same time proved heavy,
computationally
hindering heavy, flow.
task execution hindering task execution
In addition, some flexibilityflow.would
In addition, someregarding
be necessary flexibility would be
intermediate
necessaryorregarding
progress piecewiseintermediate progress
storage of surfaces or piecewise
fitted and accepted. storage of surfaces fitted and accepted.
Figure5.5.(a)
Figure (a)Mesh
Meshconstruction
construction (b)
(b) Registration of surfaces through painting
painting (c)
(c) Spline
Splinesurface
surfacefitting.
fitting.
Ports, in
Ports, in particular,
particular, posed
posed several
several problems.
problems. Each
Each side
side of the port
of the port could
could only
only be
be identified
identified as
as aa
separate spline surface with a need for extension, trimming and knitting, see Figure 6a. The
separate spline surface with a need for extension, trimming and knitting, see Figure 6a. The process process
is tedious
is tedious and
and error-prone,
error-prone, e.g.,
e.g., surface
surface patches
patches could
could not
not always
always be
be extended
extended asas much
much asas the
the user
user
desired, or extension resulted in wrinkling or intersection with neighboring surfaces was
desired, or extension resulted in wrinkling or intersection with neighboring surfaces was not achieved not
achieved at expected regions obliging to patching up the voids. The net result after tedious
at expected regions obliging to patching up the voids. The net result after tedious manual repairs wasmanual
repairs
not was notsee
acceptable; acceptable; see Figure 6b.
Figure 6b.
Thus, a different approach was adopted involving selection of the points defining the outer port
profile and from there defining profile splines. This is tedious again, due to the cognitive lack of
depth of the selected points but the result is fully controllable. The outer and the inner profile of
the port were defined in this way and, where required, intermediate profiles were added. In order
to avoid unrealistic wrinkles that emerged when extending the surface radially inward the cylinder,
see Figure 7a, guiding (rail) lines were defined; see Figure 7b. Surface lofting operation produced the
final surface; see Figure 7c. Symmetrical ports were created about a plane of symmetry.
The main wall of the part was modeled by first constructing the outer surface mesh corresponding
to a cylinder of radius 9.75 mm and the inner surface mesh corresponding to a cone of radius
8.096 mm–8.223 mm and height 25.31 mm. The regions between the cone and the cylinder were
filled and all surfaces were knitted to construct a solid. The surfaces of revolution at both ends of
the partFigure
(cone6.and
Portrectangular
surface fitting (a) extension
shaped flange)and trimming
were of separate
constructed surfaces;
by first fitting(b) discontinuities.
a spline curve to cloud
points as a generatrix, see Figure 8. The final part model is shown in Figure 9 and was stored as a
binary stl file with Deviation tolerance 0.013 mm and Angle tolerance 5 deg.
profile and from there defining profile splines. This is tedious again, due to the cognitive lack of depth
of the selected points but the result is fully controllable. The outer and the inner profile of the port
were defined in this way and, where required, intermediate profiles were added. In order to avoid
Ports, in particular, posed several problems. Each side of the port could only be identified as a
separate spline surface with a need for extension, trimming and knitting, see Figure 6a. The process
is tedious and error-prone, e.g., surface patches could not always be extended as much as the user
desired, or extension resulted in wrinkling or intersection with neighboring surfaces was not
achieved at expected regions obliging to patching up the voids. The net result after tedious manual
repairs was not acceptable; see Figure 6b.
unrealistic wrinkles that emerged when extending the surface radially inward the cylinder, see Figure 7a,
guiding (rail) lines were defined; see Figure 7b. Surface lofting operation produced the final surface;
see Figure 7c. Symmetrical ports were created about a plane of symmetry.
see Figure 7c. Symmetrical ports were created about a plane of symmetry.
Figure
Figure
see Figure 7c. Port
6. 6. Portsurface
surfacefitting
Symmetrical ports(a)
fitting (a)extension
extension
were createdand
and trimming
trimming
about ofseparate
of
a plane separate
of surfaces;(b)
surfaces;
symmetry. (b)discontinuities.
discontinuities.
profile and from there defining profile splines. This is tedious again, due to the cognitive lack of depth
of the selected points but the result is fully controllable. The outer and the inner profile of the port
were defined in this way and, where required, intermediate profiles were added. In order to avoid
Figure 7. Port modeling (a) Extension of port entering the void volume; (b) Profile (1) controlling
Figure 7. Port modeling (a) Extension of port entering the void volume; (b) Profile (1) controlling
surface shape and guiding lines (2); (c) Part of point cloud with spline profiles, spline guides and
surface shape and guiding lines (2); (c) Part of point cloud with spline profiles, spline guides and
lofted spline surface.
lofted spline surface.
The main wall of the part was modeled by first constructing the outer surface mesh
corresponding to a cylinder of radius 9.75 mm and the inner surface mesh corresponding to a cone
of radius 8.096 mm–8.223 mm and height 25.31 mm. The regions between the cone and the cylinder
were filled and all surfaces were knitted to construct a solid. The surfaces of revolution at both ends
Figure 7. Port modeling (a) Extension of port entering the void
Thevolume; (b)ofProfile
were filled
of Figure
the part7. and
Portall
(cone
surfaces(a)
modeling were knittedof
Extension
and rectangular
toport
construct
shaped flange)
a solid.
entering the void
were constructed
surfaces
volume; Profile(1)
revolution
(b) fitting
by first
controlling
a(1)
at both ends
controlling
spline curve to
surface
of surface
the part shape
(cone and
and guiding lines
rectangular (2);
shaped(c) Part of
flange) point
were cloud with
constructedspline profiles,
by firstspline spline guides
fittingguides
a spline and to
curve
cloudlofted shape
points as and
a guiding lines
generatrix, see (2); (c)
Figure Part
8. of
The point cloud
final part with
modelspline
is profiles,
shown in Figure 9 andand
was lofted
stored
cloud spline
points as asurface.
generatrix, see Figure 8. The final part model is shown in Figure 9 and was stored
spline surface.
as a binary stl file with Deviation tolerance 0.013 mm and Angle tolerance 5 deg.
were filled and all surfaces were knitted to construct a solid. The surfaces of revolution at both ends
of the part (cone and rectangular shaped flange) were constructed by first fitting a spline curve to
cloud points as a generatrix, see Figure 8. The final part model is shown in Figure 9 and was stored
Figure 8. Modeling the lower conical area of the part (a) Generatrix spline construction; (b) Surface
Figure Modelingthethe
Figure8.8. Modeling lower
lower conical
conical area ofarea of the
the part part (a) Generatrix
(a) Generatrix spline construction;
spline construction; (b) Surface
generation.
(b)generation.
Surface generation.
Figure 8. Modeling the lower conical area of the part (a) Generatrix spline construction; (b) Surface
generation.
Figure 9. Part model.

Figure 9.
Figure 9. Part
Part model.
model.
4.
4. Material
Material Investigation
Investigation
The materialofofthe
The material thesample
sample part
part hadhad toinvestigated
to be be investigated in order
in order to acquire
to acquire specifications
specifications for
for casting.
casting. The part was examined in a Scanning Electron Microscope (JEOL 6390, JEOL
The part was examined in a Scanning Electron Microscope (JEOL 6390, JEOL Ltd, Tokyo, Japan) with Ltd, Tokyo,
Japan)
Energywith Energy X-ray
Dispersive Dispersive X-Ray
Analysis Analysis
(EDX) and (EDX) and of
a number a number of measurements
measurements were taken were taken at
at different
different points in the bulk and in the thin layer of coating in the inner cylindrical surface to ensure
points in the bulk and in the thin layer of coating in the inner cylindrical surface to ensure credibility,
credibility, see Figure 10a,b respectively. The results are shown
see Figure 10a,b respectively. The results are shown in Table 1. in Table 1.
Figure 10.
Figure SEM micrographs
10. SEM micrographs (a)
(a) main
main material;
material; (b)
(b) internal
internal coating
coating (upper
(upper layer).
layer).
Table 1. Scanning Electron Microscopy results.

Table 1. results.
MainMain
Body Body Coating
Coating
Element
Element
C
CCu Cu Zn Zn C
C
O O Si Si
Cr Cr
Weight % Weight
4.49% 4.49
61.40 61.40 34.11
34.11 13.82
13.82 16.59
16.59 0.86 68.73
0.86 68.73
Atomic % Atomic
20.06% 20.06
51.91 51.9128.03
28.03 32.50
32.50 29.29
29.29 0.86 0.86
37.34 37.34
It was established
It was established that
that the
the liner
liner consists
consists mainly
mainly of
of copper
copper and
and zinc,
zinc, i.e.,
i.e., aa brass
brass alloy.
alloy. A
A low
low
percentage of carbon found is considered to be due to combustion residuals.
percentage of carbon found is considered to be due to combustion residuals.
The coating consists
The coating consists of chromium and
of chromium and is
is usually
usually applied
applied for
for reasons
reasons of
of resistance
resistance primarily
primarily to
to
wear and secondarily to corrosion. According to the scale depicted in Figure 10b coating thickness
wear and secondarily to corrosion. According to the scale depicted in Figure 10b coating thickness is is
44 μm.
44 µm.
5.
5. Casting
Casting Simulation
Simulation
Casting
Casting simulation
simulation is
is performed
performed on on specialized
specialized software
software with
with an
an aim
aim to trying out
to trying out different
different
vacuum casting parameters and feeding alternatives before physically implementing
vacuum casting parameters and feeding alternatives before physically implementing the process. the process. In
this case,
In this Procast
case, Procast (ESI
TMTM Group,
(ESI Group,Paris, France)
Paris, France)waswasemployed
employed[30],
[30],aalong-established
long-established platform
platform that
that
can solve the thermal, fluid flow (mold cavity filling) and mechanical stress problem at the same
can solve the thermal, fluid flow (mold cavity filling) and mechanical stress problem at the same time. time.
5.1. Simulation Setup

It was straightforward to scale up the digital model derived in Section 3 to account for shrinkage
allowance. In the case of brass shrinkage is 1.5% [31].
Automatic generation of the finite element tetrahedral mesh was restricted by the user-defined
aspect ratio between the largest and the smallest dimension of the three-dimensional elements, elements,
called“delta
conventionally called “deltavalue”.
value”.The The delta
delta values
values determines
determines the of
the size size of elements
elements and, asand, as a
a result,
their
result,number, too. Delta
their number, too.values
Deltainvalues
the range 0.8–0.9
in the rangeyielded anyielded
0.8–0.9 acceptable match between
an acceptable matchcontinuous
between
and discreteand
continuous domain geometry
discrete domain in geometry
the liner case, whereas
in the for values
liner case, exceeding
whereas 1.0exceeding
for values ports start1.0
missing
ports
important shape
start missing details.shape details.
important
The
The mold
mold can can be be “virtual”
“virtual” or or normal.
normal. In In the
the first
first case
case mold
mold the the software
software performs
performs design
design and and
meshing
meshing automatically,
automatically, whereas whereas in in the
the second
second case case the
the user
user designs
designs the the mold,
mold, specifies
specifies element
element size size
and creates a surface mesh first and a volume mesh subsequently.
and creates a surface mesh first and a volume mesh subsequently. Mesh density should be lower Mesh density should be lower at
regions of the mold where temperature is not expected to vary
at regions of the mold where temperature is not expected to vary intensely, since this is crucial inintensely, since this is crucial in
lowering simulation time.
lowering simulation time. Indicatively,
Indicatively,1.5 1.5million
millionelements
elements correspond
correspond to atomodel
a model sizesize of 700
of 700 MB
MB and
and simulation time of 11 h, whereas 0.5 million elements slash file size
simulation time of 11 h, whereas 0.5 million elements slash file size to 250 MB and execution time to to 250 MB and execution time
to 2 h.
2 h. TheThe mesh
mesh is ischecked
checkedwith withthe
theavailable
availabletoolstoolsfor
forunacceptable
unacceptabletriangles.
triangles. The The latter
latter occur
occur when
when
mismatches between mesh size at neighboring domains occur, e.g.,
mismatches between mesh size at neighboring domains occur, e.g., the mold and the casting domains. the mold and the casting domains.
In
In the
the case
case of unacceptable triangles,
of unacceptable triangles, manual
manual correction
correction is is necessary,
necessary, essentially
essentially isolating
isolating
problematic
problematic mesh mesh areas areas and
and commanding
commanding an an automatic
automatic regeneration
regeneration of of nodes
nodes so so as
as to
to equalize
equalize
internode distances as much as possible, see Figure 11a. An annoying
internode distances as much as possible, see Figure 11a. An annoying problem is that fixing triangles problem is that fixing triangles
in
in one
one region
region may may render
render triangles
triangles in inanother
anotherregion
regionunacceptable.
unacceptable.Thus, Thus,surface
surfacemeshmeshcorrection
correctionisisa
atedious
tediousprocess,
process, if if
tootoo many
many unacceptable
unacceptable triangles
triangles occur.
occur. In In
thatthat case,
case, a new
a new delta
delta value
value hashas to set
to be be
set and the meshing process repeated in the hope of improved quality
and the meshing process repeated in the hope of improved quality triangles. The mesh achieved is triangles. The mesh achieved
is shown
shown inin Figure
Figure 11b.11b.
Mesh
Mesh sensitivity
sensitivity analysis
analysis in in this
this case
case was
was not
not performed
performed in in the
the traditional
traditional way, way, which
which is is “to
“to get
get
the
the coarser mesh that produces the mesh-insensitive results”. In our case, a coarse mesh would not
coarser mesh that produces the mesh-insensitive results”. In our case, a coarse mesh would not
converge
converge at at all,
all, while
while aa very very dense
dense mesh
mesh wouldwould exceed
exceed thethe system
system memory
memory limits limits and
and the
the simulation
simulation
would
would not run with the resources available. Thus, a relatively dense mesh was used from the
not run with the resources available. Thus, a relatively dense mesh was used from the start,
start,
such
such that it would allow the analysis to run without failure and in realistic times. The final mesh was
that it would allow the analysis to run without failure and in realistic times. The final mesh was
very dense in the region of the casting part, and was getting coarser towards
very dense in the region of the casting part, and was getting coarser towards the external surface of the the external surface of
the mold. Criterion for the mesh sensitivity was solidification time, cooling
mold. Criterion for the mesh sensitivity was solidification time, cooling rate and porosity at two nodes, rate and porosity at two
nodes,
i.e., onei.e.,
nearone thenearportthe andport and a second
a second one on one on the cylinder
the cylinder surface.surface. Acceptability
Acceptability of theismesh
of the mesh tied tois
tied to invariability
invariability of performance
of performance according according to thecriteria
to the three three criteria
mentioned mentioned
above. above.
Figure 11. (a) Mesh correction: unacceptable triangles clipping to desired nodes and smoothing; (b) the
Figure 11. (a) Mesh correction: unacceptable triangles clipping to desired nodes and smoothing; (b)
two volumetric meshes for mold and casting, respectively; (c) Dimensioned casting with feeding
the two volumetric meshes for mold and casting, respectively; (c) Dimensioned casting with feeding
system (units in mm).
system (units in mm).
After meshing
After meshingisiscompleted
completedmaterials
materialsneed
needto to
bebe assigned,
assigned, in this
in this casecase plaster
plaster for mold
for the the mold
and
and brass CuZn33 for the casting. Their properties are retrieved from the database
brass CuZn33 for the casting. Their properties are retrieved from the database available in ProcastTMavailable in.
Procast TM . As described in Section 4, two different alloys are present: a copper alloy for the main
As described in Section 4, two different alloys are present: a copper alloy for the main material, and
amaterial,
chromiumandalloy
a chromium alloy forTo
for the coating. themodel
coating.
theTo modelofthe
casting thecasting
copperofalloy,
the copper alloy, temperature
temperature dependent
material properties are required. This information is not available in the literature. ProCASTProCAST
dependent material properties are required. This information is not available in the literature. features
afeatures
databasea database
of certain of certain materials,
materials, including
including pure copper pure copper
(Cu), (Cu),(Zn)
pure zinc pure
etc.zinc (Zn)
Based onetc.
the Based on
chemical
composition of Table 1, rule of mixtures is applied to result in the “calculated material properties” of
this particular copper alloy. The calculated material properties presented in Figure 12 include
temperature-dependent
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2017, 1,density,
17 thermal conductivity, specific heat, viscosity, as well as the
10 of 18
characteristic temperatures (Liquidus–Solidus). The Liquidus temperature used was 931 °C and
Solidus was 886 °C (see Figure 12, solid fraction curve), and the latent heat was 205 KJ/kg. In brief,
the
J. chemical
SEM/EDX
Manuf. composition
2017, 1, 17of
information
Mater. Process. Table
is fed into1, the
rulemodel.
of mixtures is applied to result in the “calculated material
10 of 18
properties” of this particular copper alloy. The calculated material properties presented in Figure 12
temperature-dependent
include temperature-dependent density,density,
thermal conductivity,
thermal specific
conductivity, heat,heat,
specific viscosity, as aswell
viscosity, wellasas the
characteristic
characteristic temperatures
temperatures (Liquidus–Solidus).
(Liquidus–Solidus). The The Liquidus
Liquidus temperature
temperature used
used was
was 931 ◦
931 °C C and
Solidus
Solidus was 886 °C ◦ C (see Figure 12, solid fraction curve), and the latent heat heat was
was 205
205 KJ/kg.
KJ/kg. InIn brief,
brief,
the SEM/EDX
SEM/EDXinformation
informationisisfed fedinto
intothethemodel.
model.
Figure 12. Temperature-dependent material properties used for the casting simulation.
Next, their interface characteristics need to be assigned, in this case according to experimental
investigation of the heat transfer coefficient (HTC) between plaster and brass, see Figure 13. The value
of HTC peaks at a high value for the first 2.5 s (stage I), representing the intense heat flow when the
molten metal Figure
Figure 12.
is in Temperature-dependent
12.very good contact with
Temperature-dependent material properties
the mold.
material Veryused
properties for the
quickly
used for thethecasting simulation.
HTCsimulation.
casting reduces to smaller
numbers of about 45 W/mm K (stage II), that correspond to a reduced heat flow due to the air gap
2
Next, during
formation their interface characteristics
solidification. Finally, need
HTC to be assigned, in this case according to experimental
Next, their interface characteristics need slightly increasing
to be assigned, (stage
in this case III)according
since good to solid-to-solid
experimental
investigation
contact of the heat
is occurring undertransfer coefficientvacuum
the prevailing (HTC) between
conditions plaster and
and and brass,
for this see Figure
particular 13. The value
geometry. This
investigation of the heat transfer coefficient (HTC) between plaster brass, see Figure 13. The value
of HTC peaks
time-dependent, at a high
3-stage value
form for
is the
commonfirst 2.5
ins (stage
the I), representing
literature [31] and the
is aintense
functionheatofflow
the when the
materials
of HTC peaks at a high value for the first 2.5 s (stage I), representing the intense heat flow when
molten
involved,metal casting
is in very good contact with theetc. mold. Very
it isquickly the HTC reduces to smaller
the moltenthe metal is inconditions,
very good the geometry,
contact with the mold. Since Very aquickly
key parameter,
the HTC and dependent
reduces to smalleron
numbers
various of about 45 W/mm 2K (stage II), that correspond to a reduced heat flow due to the air gap
numbersfactors,
of about it should
45 W/mm be estimated
2 K (stage for II), each casting casetoseparately.
that correspond a reducedThe heatvalue
flow used
due to inthe
thisair
study
gap
formation
was during
calculated solidification.
based on the Finally, HTC
methodology slightlyinincreasing
described [23]. (stage III) since good solid-to-solid
formation during solidification. Finally, HTC slightly increasing (stage III) since good solid-to-solid
contact is occurring
Boundary under include
conditions the prevailing
setting vacuum
temperature conditions and nodes
at specific for this particular geometry. onThis
contact is occurring under the prevailing vacuum conditions and fororthis nodeparticular
groups, i.e., the
geometry.
time-dependent,
mold 3-stage
external surface,3-stage form
as well is common
as ismelt in
pouringthe literature
velocity [31]
or mass and is a
flowis ratefunction of the
(approximated materials
using
This time-dependent, form common in the literature [31] and a function of the materials
involved,
Bernoulli the casting
equation at conditions,
1.10672 Kg/s) theandgeometry,
pressure etc.
at Since
the it is a key parameter,
mold-casting interface andbar
(0.03 dependent
for vacuum on
involved, the casting conditions, the geometry, etc. Since it is a key parameter, and dependent on
various
casting) factors,
and onit should be surface
estimated of for
theeach casting caseInitial
separately. The value usedmainly
in this study
various factors, itthe outer
should be estimated for mold
each (1 bar).
casting conditions
case separately. concern
The value used in this initial
study
was calculated
temperature of based
the on
mold the
and methodology
the melt. described in [23].
was calculated based on the methodology described in [23].
Boundary conditions include setting temperature at specific nodes or node groups, i.e., on the
mold external surface, as well as melt pouring velocity or mass flow rate (approximated using
Bernoulli equation at 1.10672 Kg/s) and pressure at the mold-casting interface (0.03 bar for vacuum
casting) and on the outer surface of the mold (1 bar). Initial conditions concern mainly initial
temperature of the mold and the melt.
Figure 13.
Figure Plaster-Brass Heat
13. Plaster-Brass Heat Transfer
Transfer Coefficient as a function of time, according to [20,23].
Boundary conditions include setting temperature at specific nodes or node groups, i.e., on the
mold external surface, as well as melt pouring velocity or mass flow rate (approximated using Bernoulli
Figure 13. Plaster-Brass Heat Transfer Coefficient as a function of time, according to [20,23].
equation at 1.10672 Kg/s) and pressure at the mold-casting interface (0.03 bar for vacuum casting) and
on the outer
J. Manuf. Mater. surface of the
Process. 2017, 1, 17mold (1 bar). Initial conditions concern mainly initial temperature 11
of of
the18
mold and the melt.
Furthermore, computational
Furthermore, computational process
process parameters
parameters referring
referring to
to numerical
numerical solution
solution procedure
procedure were
were
set according
set according to to the
the software
software guide
guiderules
rules[30].
[30].
5.2.
5.2. Results
Three
Three sets
setsofofdigital
digitalexperiments
experimentswerewereperformed,
performed,namely
namely (i)(i)
a set with
a set withfixed mold
fixed mold temperature
temperature in
which three
in which threedifferent feeding
different system
feeding systemdesigns
designsandandtwo different
two differentmold
mold temperatures
temperatures were
weretried
tried(ii)(ii)
a
set with
a set a fixed
with feeding
a fixed system
feeding andand
system a melt temperature
a melt selected
temperature fromfrom
selected the previous set, inset,
the previous which three
in which
mold
three temperatures were tried
mold temperatures were(iii) a fixed
tried (iii) a case
fixedselected from the
case selected fromsecond set of experiments
the second in order
set of experiments in
to simulate
order in detailinshrinkage
to simulate and dimensional
detail shrinkage accuracy accuracy
and dimensional of the casting.
of theThe full setThe
casting. of conditions
full set of
examined
conditionsisexamined
presentedisinpresented
Table 2. in Table 2.
Table 2. The
Table 2. The full
full set
set of
of digital
digital experiments
experiments performed.
performed.
Digital Experiment—Set
Digital Experiment—Set
1 2 3
1 2 3
Number of runners 3 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5
Number of runners 3 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5
Melt temperature
Melt temperature (◦ C) (°C) 970
970 1000 1000
9709701000
1000 970
970 1000
1000 1000
10001000 10001000
1000 970 970
Mold temperature
Mold temperature (◦ C) (°C) 730
730 730 730730730 730
730 730
730 730730 660660 730730800 800
730 730
5.2.1. Different
5.2.1. Different Feeding
Feeding System
System and
and Melt
Melt Temperatures
Temperatures
For aafixed
For fixedmold
moldtemperature
temperature at at
730730
◦ C°Ctwotwo melt
melt temperatures,
temperatures, i.e., ◦970
i.e., 970 °C 1000
C and and 1000 °C, tried
◦ C, were were
tried each on a different feeding system consisting of 3, 4 and 5 runners. The results
each on a different feeding system consisting of 3, 4 and 5 runners. The results concerning porosity are concerning
porosity
shown inare shown
Figure 14. in Figureis14.
Porosity Porosity
reduced asisthe
reduced
number asofthe number
runners of runners
increases. At increases. At the melt
the melt temperature
of 1000 C porosity is generally lower but the number of local defects (voids and porosity)(voids
temperature
◦ of 1000 °C porosity is generally lower but the number of local defects and
near ports
porosity) near ports increases. The five-runner case is obviously
increases. The five-runner case is obviously better than the other two. better than the other two.
Figure 14.
Figure 14. Porosity
Porosity for
for melt
melt temperatures
temperatures (a) 970 ◦°C
(a) 970 and (b)
C and 1000 ◦°C
(b) 1000 and three
C and three feeding
feeding alternatives.
alternatives.
Based on previous experience, casting conditions outside the temperature range presented in
Based on previous experience, casting conditions outside the temperature range presented in
this paper, were usually resulting in incomplete filling (e.g., Tmelt ~950 °C) of the cavity or significant
this paper, were usually resulting in incomplete filling (e.g., Tmelt ~ 950 ◦ C) of the cavity or significant
levels of surface oxidation (e.g., Tmelt > 1000 °C). Therefore, the temperatures of 970 °C and 1000 °C
levels of surface oxidation (e.g., Tmelt > 1000 ◦ C). Therefore, the temperatures of 970 ◦ C and 1000 ◦ C
were selected as possibly viable conditions to try. Note that it is the temperature difference between
were selected as possibly viable conditions to try. Note that it is the temperature difference between
the melt and the mold that matters. To sum up, for the purposes of this study, the requirements of
the melt and the mold that matters. To sum up, for the purposes of this study, the requirements of the
the trials were: to identify casting parameters that would produce a faithful reproduction of casting
trials were: to identify casting parameters that would produce a faithful reproduction of casting shape,
shape, not extreme oxidation/burn-outs, acceptable levels of porosity and reasonably low
not extreme oxidation/burn-outs, acceptable levels of porosity and reasonably low solidification time.
solidification time.
5.2.2. Different Mold Temperatures

Taking the five-runner case at a melt temperature of 1000 °C three mold temperatures were tried
at 660 °C, 730 °C and 800 °C. Figure 15 depicts the results in terms of solidification time and porosity.
The criteria for the selection of the best mold temperature are:
5.2.2. Different Mold Temperatures

Taking the five-runner case at a melt temperature of 1000 ◦ C three mold temperatures were tried
at 660 ◦ C, 730 ◦ C and 800 ◦ C. Figure 15 depicts the results in terms of solidification time and porosity.
The criteria for the selection of the best mold temperature are:
• The porosity levels to be within an “acceptable” limit, which in this case, was set to 0.01 in line
with the simulation software user guide, in order to avoid macroporosity [30]),
• Uniformity of porosity levels within the cast part (excluding the feeding system),
• Uniformity of solidification time throughout the cast part volume,
• Avoidance of gaps (voids), especially in the regions around the “ports”.
It is clearly shown that at 730 ◦ C mold temperature best results are achieved. At 800 ◦ C the
melt cools down slowly, solidification starting from the runner outlet. The inner part remains at high
temperatures, i.e., in the intermediate liquid-solid phase for a relatively long time, resulting in intense
macroporosity. At 660 ◦ C the problem is not so pronounced, but it still exists. In general, porosity is
increased at the top of the part just after the runner outlet.
Concerning the porosity levels, it is true that the values are rather low. Porosity values might range
from
• 0 to The1, porosity
anythinglevels
largertothan 0.01 being
be within considered as
an “acceptable” macroporosity.
limit, which in thisThe appearing
case, was set tomicro-porosity
0.01 in line
is actually
with the simulation software user guide, in order to avoid macroporosity [30]),values, the effect of
an indication of acceptable quality in both casting cases. Despite the low
the•casting parameters
Uniformity on the formation
of porosity of porosity
levels within is prominent.
the cast part (excludingThethe tendency of preferable formation
feeding system),
of porosity
• in certain locations is shown. Uniformity in the casting
Uniformity of solidification time throughout the cast part volume, was the criterion used to select the
one• casting scenario over the other.
Avoidance of gaps (voids), especially in the regions around the “ports”.
Figure 15.15.Best
Figure Bestfeeding
feedingalternative
alternative for
for three
three mold temperatures(a)
mold temperatures (a)Solidification
Solidificationtime;
time;
(b)(b) Porosity.
Porosity.
It is clearly
5.2.3. Stress shown that
and Distortion foratthe
730Best
°C mold
Castingtemperature
Case best results are achieved. At 800 °C the melt
cools down slowly, solidification starting from ◦the runner outlet. The inner part remains at high
◦ C which appeared to
For a 5-runner system, melt temperature 970 C and mold temperature 730
temperatures, i.e., in the intermediate liquid-solid phase for a relatively long time, resulting in intense
be macroporosity.
a good combination, At 660shrinkage
°C the problemdistortion
is notofso
the part was simulated
pronounced, but it stillduring
exists. the whole process
In general, porosity down
is
to increased
room temperature. In particular, two different
at the top of the part just after the runner outlet. boundary conditions were applied, i.e., standard
vacuumConcerning
conditions thefor the first 511
porosity s and
levels, then
it is truefull atmospheric
that the values condition
are ratherwithlow. cooling
Porosityinvalues at 15 ◦ C.
water might
The latter
range corresponded
from to removal
0 to 1, anything larger than of the
0.01flask
beingfrom the vacuum
considered casting machine
as macroporosity. and immersion
The appearing micro- in
water, constituting standard practice in investment casting processes. Total displacement
porosity is actually an indication of acceptable quality in both casting cases. Despite the low values, of the part is
shown in Figure
the effect 16a,
of the while parameters
casting the gap formed on thebetween
formationmoldofand castingisowing
porosity to shrinkage
prominent. is shown
The tendency of in
Figure 16b. formation of porosity in certain locations is shown. Uniformity in the casting was the
preferable
criterion
Maximum used displacement
to select the one ofcasting
0.323 mm scenario over the other.
is manifested in the feeding system, but in the part itself
maximum shrinkage is 0.022 mm. However, displacement is not homogenous, see Figure 16a.
At 5.2.3. Stress
regions and most
where Distortion for the
material Best Casting Case
is concentrated, e.g., when ports are small, displacement is largest,
whereas Forunderneath larger ports
a 5-runner system, it is reduced.
melt temperature 970In°Caddition,
and mold taking
temperatureinto account
730 °C whichthe gap formed,
appeared
seetoFigure 16b it
be a good is easy to note
combination, the differences
shrinkage distortionbetween thewas
of the part mold and theduring
simulated casting. theThe largest
whole gap is
process
observed
down to at room
the lowest part conical
temperature. ending, whereas
In particular, in the inner
two different part of
boundary the cylinder
conditions wereand underneath
applied, i.e.,
standard vacuum
the ports gap is minimal. conditions for the first 511 s and then full atmospheric condition with cooling in
water at 15 °C. The latter corresponded to removal of the flask from the vacuum casting machine and
immersion in water, constituting standard practice in investment casting processes. Total
displacement of the part is shown in Figure 16a, while the gap formed between mold and casting
owing to shrinkage is shown in Figure 16b.
Maximum displacement of 0.323 mm is manifested in the feeding system, but in the part itself
J. Manuf.
J. Manuf. Mater.
Mater. Process.
Process. 2017, 1, 17
2017, 1, 17 13 of
13 of 18
18
Figure 16.
Figure16. Casting distortion
Castingdistortion
16.Casting for
distortionfor the
forthe best
thebest casting
bestcasting case
castingcase (a)
case(a) Total
(a)Total displacement;
Totaldisplacement; (b) Gap
displacement;(b)
(b) Gap prediction.
prediction.
Figure Gap prediction.
6. Casting Implementation
6.6.Casting
CastingImplementation
Implementation
A standard investment casting procedure of the lost-wax type was implemented [31] as briefly
AAstandard
standardinvestment
investmentcasting
castingprocedure
procedureof ofthe
thelost-wax
lost-waxtype
typewas
wasimplemented
implemented[31][31]as
asbriefly
briefly
described
describednext.next. Note
next.Note that
Notethat the
thatthe best
thebest of the
bestofofthe alternatives
thealternatives tried
alternativestried using
triedusing casting
usingcasting simulation
castingsimulation was
simulationwas implemented,
wasimplemented,
implemented,
described
i.e.,
i.e.,aaa5-runner
5-runner system,
5-runnersystem, 970 ◦°C
system,970
970 melt temperature and 730
730 ◦°C mold temperature, see Section
Section 5.
i.e., °CCmelt
melttemperature
temperatureand and 730 °C Cmold
moldtemperature,
temperature,seeseeSection 5.5.
6.1. Procedure
6.1.Procedure
Procedure
6.1.
If just one casting needs to be made, then
thenaaa3D
3D printer can be used
used to to make
make thethe casting
casting model
model
IfIfjust
justone
onecasting
castingneeds
needstotobe
bemade,
made,then 3Dprinter
printer canbe
can be used to make the casting model
directly without
directlywithout
withoutuseuse of
useof dies.
ofdies. Due
dies.Due
Duetoto the
tothe fine
thefine resolution
fineresolution required
resolutionrequired fabrication
requiredfabrication time
fabricationtime is high
timeisishigh and
highand special
andspecial
special
directly
3D
3D printers are
printers are employed,
employed, inin this
this case
case Solidscape
Solidscape R66
R66TMTM (Solidscape, Inc., Merrimack, NH, USA)
TM (Solidscape, Inc., Merrimack, NH, USA)
3D printers are employed, in this case Solidscape R66 (Solidscape, Inc., Merrimack, NH, USA)
dedicated
dedicatedto to casting
tocasting of
castingof jewelry
ofjewelry and
jewelryand dental
anddental restorations.
dentalrestorations. Wax-like
restorations.Wax-like resins
Wax-likeresins are
resinsare used
areused as
usedas pattern
aspattern material
patternmaterial
material
dedicated
with zero
with zero shrinkage
shrinkageandandenhanced
enhancedstrength.
strength. The
The wax
wax model
model produced
produced is is shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 17. 17. Note
Note that
with zero shrinkage and enhanced strength. The wax model produced is shown in Figure 17. Note
that
some some remains
remains of of support
support structure
structure are are visible
visible as as darker
darker blobs.blobs.
that some remains of support structure are visible as darker blobs.
Figure 17.
Figure Wax model
17. Wax model resulting from 3DP.
Figure 17. Wax model resulting from 3DP.
The feeding system

Thefeeding
feeding system consisting
consistingof of thesprue
sprue basin,thethe sprueand and the feeding runners is made up
The system consisting of the
the sprue basin,
basin, thesprue
sprue andthe thefeeding
feedingrunners
runnersisismade
madeupupof
of standard
standard wax parts assembled together by hand using a soldering iron, which is a delicate process.
of standardwax waxparts
partsassembled
assembledtogether
togetherby byhand
hand using
using aa soldering iron, which
soldering iron, whichisisaadelicate
delicateprocess.
process.
The
The same technique
same technique is is used
used to
to assemble the
assemble the feeding
feeding system
system to
to the
the wax
wax model, thus
model, thus making
making up the
upthe
the
The same technique is used to assemble the feeding system to the wax model, thus making up
wax tree.
wax tree.
wax tree.
As soon
Assoon
soonas as the
asthe wax
thewax tree
waxtree (in
tree(in this
(inthis case
thiscase with
casewith just
withjust one
justone part)
part)isis
onepart) prepared,
prepared,itit
isprepared, itisis put
isput
putonon the
onthe rubber
therubber base,
rubberbase,
base,
As
see
see Figure
Figure 18a
18a and
and surrounded
surrounded byby the
the metal
metal flask.
flask. Plaster
Plaster (R&R(R&R Argentum
Argentum Investment
Investment TM ,
TM, Ransom
Ransom and
see Figure 18a and surrounded by the metal flask. Plaster (R&R Argentum Investment , Ransom TM
and Randolph,
Randolph, Maumee,
Maumee, OH,OH, OH, USA)
USA)USA) is gradually
is gradually mixed mixed with de-ionized
with de-ionized water
waterwater
(mixing (mixing proportion
proportion 100:39
and Randolph, Maumee, is gradually mixed with de-ionized (mixing proportion
100:39 by weight) and de-aired for about 1.5 min, see Figure 18b, then it is filled into the flask trying
100:39 by weight) and de-aired for about 1.5 min, see Figure 18b, then it is filled into the flask trying
to avoid direct feeding onto the wax tree and this is de-aired again for 2 min, Figure 18c. De-airing
to avoid direct feeding onto the wax tree and this is de-aired again for 2 min, Figure 18c. De-airing
by weight) and de-aired for about 1.5 min, see Figure 18b, then it is filled into the flask trying to
avoid direct feeding onto the wax tree and this is de-aired again for 2 min, Figure 18c. De-airing takes
placeJ.on
Manuf. Mater. Process. 2017, 1, 17
a special machine whose table can vibrate at the same time, see Figure 18d. After 14 of 18
about
1hr the
takes place on a special machine whose table can vibrate at the same time, see Figure 18d. After about and
plastered flask has acceptable hardness to be removed together with the rubber base
be placed
takes
1hr the into
place the
on adewaxing
plastered special
flask has ovenwhose
machine for 3.5
acceptable h, see
table
hardness cantoFigure
vibrate 18e.
at
be removedthe This
same is followed
time,
together by 18d.
see Figure
with the rubber heating the
Afterand
base plaster
about
be
mold1hrin the
a separate oven, seeovenFigure 18f, ◦ ◦
placed plastered
into flask has
the dewaxing acceptable
for 3.5 h, at
see350
hardness toCbe
Figure for 2This
h and
removed
18e. then atwith
is together
followed 730
by theCrubber
heating fortheanother
base and
plaster 3.5beh, see
mold
Section
in a5.2.
placed Thethe
into
separate plaster
oven, see material
dewaxing oven
Figure 18f,used
forat3.5 has
350h, aFigure
seefor
°C shrinkage
2 h and18e. ofatless
This
then is
730 than
°C for1.6%
followed in 3.5
theh,
by heating
another temperature
the plaster
see Section 5.2.range
mold
in
The ◦
a separate
plaster oven,
material see Figure
used has ◦
18f,
a at 350
shrinkage °C for
of2 h
lessand then
than at
1.6%
20–900 C. However, above 600 C shrinkage is practically zero, thus dimensional accuracy 730
in °C
thefor another
temperature 3.5 h, see
range Section
20–900 5.2.
°C.of the
The plaster
However, material
above 600 used
°C has
shrinkage
casting is not expected to be affected. a shrinkage
is practically of less
zero,than
thus 1.6% in
dimensionalthe temperature
accuracy of range
the 20–900
casting is °C.
not
However,
expected is
Casting toabove 600 °C shrinkage
be affected.
performed by placing is practically
the moldzero, intothus
the dimensional
vacuum casting accuracy of the casting
machine, is not 18g,
see Figure
expected to beisaffected.
Casting performed by placing the mold into the vacuum casting machine, see Figure 18g,
melting the appropriate quantity of brass in the inbuilt crucible and allowing it to fill the mold cavity
meltingCasting is performed
the appropriate by placing
quantity of brasstheinmold into the
the inbuilt vacuum
crucible andcasting
allowing machine, see mold
it to fill the Figure 18g,
cavity
with vacuum assistance. After 8.5 min the mold is removed from the machine and immersed in water,
melting the appropriate
with vacuum assistance. quantity
After 8.5 ofminbrass
the in the is
mold inbuilt
removedcrucible
fromand the allowing
machine andit toimmersed
fill the mold cavity
in water,
whichwith
causes
which its shattering
vacuum
causes assistance.
its shatteringto to
Afterreveal the
8.5 min
reveal casting,
the
the mold issee
casting, Figure
removed
see Figurefrom19a.the machine and immersed in water,
19a.
which causes its shattering to reveal the casting, see Figure 19a.
Figure 18. (a) Wax pattern with runners on rubber base before placement in the flask; (b) plaster de-
Figure 18. (a) Wax pattern with runners on rubber base before placement in the flask; (b) plaster
airing; (c)
Figure 18.flask de-airing;
(a) Wax pattern(d) degasser;
with runners(e)on
dewaxing oven;
rubber base (f) plaster
before bakinginoven;
placement (g) vacuum
the flask; casting
(b) plaster de-
de-airing; (c) flask de-airing; (d) degasser; (e) dewaxing oven; (f) plaster baking oven; (g) vacuum
machine.
airing; (c) flask de-airing; (d) degasser; (e) dewaxing oven; (f) plaster baking oven; (g) vacuum casting
casting machine.
machine.
Figure 19. Casting (a) uncleaned tree (b) cleaned part.

6.2. Casting Quality
6.2. Casting Quality
6.2. CastingTheQuality
casting after cutting of the feeding system and cleaning is shown in Figure 18b. Part accuracy
was The casting using
measured after cutting of theequipment
the same feeding systemand and cleaning is
procedures shown in to
employed Figure
scan18b.
thePart accuracy
original. In
The
was casting
measured
particular, after
three cutting
using
types of of the feeding
themeasurements
same equipment system
were and
madeand
oncleaning
procedures
the Hawk isTMshown
employed in Figure
to
laser scannerscanand
the18b. Part
original.
were used accuracy
In
to
was measured
fit surfacesusing
particular, three the same
types
and obtain the equipment
of measurements
main dimensions andofprocedures
were made
the onThe
part. employed
the HawkTM laser
measurement to scan the
scanner
areas original.
and
were: wereIn
a narrow particular,
used to
stripe
threefit surfaces
covering
types and
ofthe fullobtain
heightthe
measurements of main
the dimensions
part,
were on of
two areas
made the
on
the part.
the
Hawk TM
Thelaser
externalmeasurement
cylindrical areas
scannersurface were:
and were arestricted
narrow
and aused stripe
to fitarea
surfaces
covering
and obtain the
of the inner
the full height
surface
main of theof part,
dimensions the part,
of two
to the
the areasThe
extent
part. on the
allowed external cylindrical
by the available
measurement areas surfaceaThe
opening.
were: and a restricted
main
narrow stripe area
dimensions
covering
of the
the full inner
height surface
original,
of the of the
thepart,
wax twopart,
model to the
and
areas the
onextent
cast allowed
the copy by
obtained
external theare
available
shown
cylindrical opening.
in Table
surface and3.The
Themain dimensions
relative
a restricted error
areaofof the
of
thethe original,
copy the waxtomodel
with respect and theiscast
the original copy obtained
generally are shown
low, especially in Table 3.
concerning theThe relative
height error of
dimension.
inner surface of the part, to the extent allowed by the available opening. TheTMmain dimensions of
the
Mean copy with finish
surface respect of to
thethe original
part is generally
was measured low,
using especially
a Taylor concerning
Hobson Surtronicthe3height dimension.
(AMETEK Inc.,
the original, the wax model and the cast copy obtained are shown in Table 3. TMThe relative error of
Mean
Berwyn, surface finishinstrument
PA, USA) of the partas was
Ra measured using athan
= 3.2 μm, higher Taylor
the Hobson
original’sSurtronic 3 (AMETEK
1.2 μm, which indicatesInc.,
the
the copy
need with
Berwyn, respect
PA,
for some USA) to the original
instrument
finishing. as Ra is generally
= 3.2 μm, higherlow, especially
than concerning
the original’s the height
1.2 μm, which dimension.
indicates the
need for some finishing.
Mean surface finish of the part was measured using a Taylor Hobson Surtronic 3TM (AMETEK Inc.,
Berwyn, PA, USA) instrument as Ra = 3.2 µm, higher than the original’s 1.2 µm, which indicates the
need for some finishing.
Table 3. Main dimensions of the parts constructed.
Part Height (mm) External Diameter (mm) Max Internal Diameter (mm)
Original 30.400 9.750 8.204
Wax 30.862 9.898 8.328
Cast copy 30.440 9.668 8.161
Absolute error (µm) 40 −82 −43
Relative error (%) 0.13 −0.84 −0.52
7. Discussion
This work aimed at investigating the details and decisions involved in the individual links of
the process chain concerning production of one (or very few) castings based on a prototype to be
replicated. It is assumed that the techniques involved are mature enough to warrant acceptable results
in terms of quality, as explained in the “Introduction”, provided that these techniques are applied
appropriately, the issue being how the latter is ensured.
A general note on methodology is that in many reverse engineering studies reported in literature
a 3D printed part is scanned and compared with the part model, typically employing color plots of
deviations. The casting is also scanned and similarly compared with the original part when applying
copy-casting. This is followed, if the emphasis is put on engineering analysis in order to prove that the
3D printing technique and the casting method are accurate enough. However, this was not the aim of
this study, since the scanning technique, the 3D printing technique (including material shrinkage) and
the casting technique (including material shrinkage. too) are all mature enough to be have an associated
guaranteed maximum error as provided by the pertinent manufacturers. In addition, in a production
environment the laser scanning and reconstruction technique employed is too time-consuming to be
applied twice after scanning the original part, i.e., once for the 3D printed part and once for the casting.
Thus, it is neither practical nor necessary to plot pairwise deviations of complete models. Instead, a good
indication of the overall accuracy achieved was obtained by measuring the main dimensions of the part,
of the wax model and of the casting by conventional means or by scanning selected areas of the objects.
7.1. Part Digitising

Besides laser scanning, CMM and optical scanning are used to record point clouds from which
a 3D mesh and ultimately a solid model are created. Industrial computer tomography can also be
used, but its accuracy is relatively low [13]. Laser scanning and CMM possess high accuracy, of the
order of a few µm down to 1 µm and can yield structured point clouds along programmed scanning
paths. However, CMM is too slow for scanning, though good for digitizing, whereas laser scanning is
faster by an order of magnitude. Optical scanning using CCD cameras, often with structured light,
records potentially thousands of points and very quickly, too, i.e., orders of magnitude quicker than its
laser counterpart. However, accuracy is worse, typically around 8–10 µm and there may be problems
in ensuring complete coverage of the object, e.g., in the case of deep recesses and blind spots due
to occlusion [28]. In the case of small intricate parts, such as in the case study, laser scanning seems
to offer the best compromise between accuracy, time and coverage. In addition, in order to reduce
scanning time the type of surface being scanned should be exploited, e.g., just the generatrix of a
cylinder may be scanned instead of its full surface.
7.2. Part Modelling

Fitting sculptured surfaces to cloud points may be extremely time-consuming, if the wrong
strategy is adopted. The fitting strategy depends on experience, since it is connected to available
coverage of the region by cloud points and to the shape details as such. In particular, if a large number
of points were available to define a surface, then the only perceivable obstacle would be the uniformity
of digitizing accuracy in order to avoid local deformations. On the contrary, if parts of the point cloud
are absent, patching or generally repair work is needed using appropriate software, which normally
requires also knowledge of nature of the missing area, its continuity constraints etc. As far as surfaces
of known type are concerned the fitting process proved to be straightforward, as expected.
7.3. Material Identification

Material identification has been pinpointed as an issue often overlooked in reverse engineering
projects [18]. Determining the part’s material follows a standard procedure; however, if multiple
materials are combined, this typically being the case with coatings, measurements on part sections
need to be made and appropriate techniques for measuring thickness of different layers must be
adopted. The difficulty in this case lies in the destructive nature of most of these techniques.
7.4. Virtual Casting

Casting simulation is a novel link that was introduced in the digital manufacturing chain in this
work. It was found to be very useful in that it enables elimination of feeding system designs that
are obviously useless as well as focus on promising values of casting parameters. Among all papers,
mainly case studies, that were found in literature dealing with rapid casting of parts based on an
original to be replicated [1,2,5–7,11,13,16,17,19,25,26,29], all but three tacitly admit that a right-first-time
casting can be achieved, obviously by selecting casting feeding and process parameters according
to experience. The three exceptions [16,19,29] used simulation to check that the single envisaged
casting system design was suitable, i.e., without trying out alternatives. By contrast, in this work it is
advocated that casting simulation needs to be used to streamline feeding system design of the casting.
In addition, note that this paper does not concentrate on validating casting simulation. Thus,
one has to accept simulation models as validated elsewhere, e.g., [20,23]. It is worth noting that
simulation does not suggest good solutions, but rather assesses solutions suggested by the human.
In addition, the HTC to be used which depends on the materials of the mold and the casting as well
on their shape is a potential pitfall. HTC needs to be adopted from similar cases found in technical
literature, or otherwise it needs to be determined numerically by reference to experiments, see for
instance [23], which is time consuming.
7.5. Casting Tool Construction

The casting implementation used is typically employed in jewelry casting, especially for larger
items, i.e., for relatively few wax models on the same tree, and it is not considered specific to either
materials or shapes. In cases where just one or a few small parts need to be cast, 3D printing of
the relevant patterns followed by mold construction as adopted in this work is perfectly acceptable,
since the extra time devoted to mold construction is a few hours. This delay could obviously be
eliminated if the mold were directly constructed using appropriate AM technology. Many advanced
rapid casting systems in use today follow this route but the cost of making a wax model is by no means
comparable to the cost of making the corresponding ceramic mold using AM [4].
Besides, making the wax tree by AM for one or a few parts may take time comparable to the
time that it would have taken for the corresponding metal parts to be directly manufactured on
similar equipment following the Selective Laser Sintering/Melting paradigm. However, in the latter
case surface quality would have been worse than that obtained by precision casting [1]. In addition,
there are large differences in wax-based prototyping in terms of time, which are attributed to the
printers’ fundamental technology employed, e.g., spraying mode, droplet size etc. [4].
On the other hand, if a larger number of castings were needed, 3D printing would probably be
too expensive and would need to be replaced by a process where a metal pattern is manufactured and
used to make a die from silicon rubber, which, in turn, would be used to make wax models as many
times as necessary. Alternatively, direct wax injection into a die may be preferable [4].
8. Conclusions
Precision casting is an interesting alternative to machining for small and intricate parts such as the
cylinder liner tackled in this work. The digital manufacturing process chain involves point-digitizing
the original with an accurate enough scanner, constructing a digital model on a CAD system,
determining the material of which the original part consists, simulating the casting process with
different alternatives concerning feeding system and casting parameters, constructing the wax model
using AM, manually constructing the mold, and finally performing the casting on a precision casting
machine. Each individual step of this chain was found to involve a number of intricacies.
The following “recipe” is advisable when just one part is to be replicated: digitize the part
using an accurate enough scanner. When accuracy required is below 10 µm a laser scanner is
necessary, in which case smart selective scanning of specific areas as opposed to a point cloud covering
the whole part slashes scanning duration. As a result, similarly smart surface fitting and object
reconstruction is necessary on a geometric modeling system afterwards. Material investigation using
SEM or analogous techniques, depending on whether part destruction (locally or not at all) is allowed,
is also necessary to complete part design specifications. Casting simulation on specific software
using validated input data, esp. heat transfer coefficient for the materials and shapes employed,
is strongly advised in order to save a lot of experimentation with molds and casting parameters.
The main parameters to be investigated by simulation refer to the feeding system design, starting
with the number of runners and their dimensions, and the casting parameters, starting with melt
and mold temperature. The main criteria on which casting quality is judged should be shape fidelity,
porosity, solidification time and shrinkage distribution. The best alternative identified by simulation
should be implemented. Wax or wax-like models are worth making on a 3D printer of casting caliber.
Casting implementation does involve the human, mainly in making the mold using plaster or similar
materials and apparatus, whereas automated vacuum casting machines remove most ambiguities
associated with manual handling.
All in all in this chain, mold making in the casting process is the crucial link in terms of assuring
part quality. Still, interlinked digital tools were shown to contribute a great deal towards ensuring
acceptable quality and time in making one-off copies of precision parts.
Author Contributions: G.-C. Vosniakos supervised the research and wrote up the paper, S. Mihail performed all
experimental work and A. Vasileiou directed casting simulations.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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Digital Manufacturing Process Chain For One-Off Replacement Parts: A Precision Casting Case Study

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1 School of Mechanical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Heroon Polytehneiou 9,

Received: 31 August 2017; Accepted: 9 November 2017; Published: 13 November 2017

Keywords: investment casting; one-off manufacturing; 3D scanning; surface reconstruction;

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2017, 1, 17; doi:10.3390/jmmp1020017 www.mdpi.com/journal/jmmp

Figure 1. Processes and their outputs in one-off copy-casting.

2.1. The Part

3. Digital Part Model

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2017, 1, 17 6 of 18

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2017, 1, 17 7 of 18

Figure 9. Part model.

Table 1. Scanning Electron Microscopy results.

5.1. Simulation Setup

5.2.2. Different Mold Temperatures

5.2.2. Different Mold Temperatures

The feeding system

Figure 19. Casting (a) uncleaned tree (b) cleaned part.

Table 3. Main dimensions of the parts constructed.

7.1. Part Digitising

7.2. Part Modelling

7.3. Material Identification

7.4. Virtual Casting

7.5. Casting Tool Construction

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