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Persistent Phi:

The geometric basis of proportional geometric harmony in selected examples of Greek

sculpture and Greek literature, and one example of modern architecture

(Illustration: Doryphoros by Polykleitos, copy, Pompeii)

The first selected visual artwork is a full round sculpture by

Polykleitos titled Doryphoros (translation: “Spear-bearer.”) A

Roman marble copy, discovered in Pompeii, and currently housed

in the Uffizi Gallery can be considered representative, since the

bronze original of this work is lost. The original sculpture’s creation

date is 440 BCE, the date attributed to the marble Pompeiian copy is

150 BCE. The original has been lost, its original location is

unknown. The marble copy is now in the Uffizi Art Gallery in Florence, Italy.

The literary artwork chosen for analysis is The Iliad, an epic

poem attributed to the poet Homer, with an origination date of

around 800 BCE. The poem was transmitted orally for many

years. The Iliad as we know it today could be the result of a long

poetic tradition that was already ancient before it was ever written

down. Many consider it the earliest example of Western literature

(Schein p.1). The poem’s subject matter deals with the wrath of Achilles, and his quarrel with

Agamemnon, as he and other Greek hero warriors prepare to sack the city of Ilium (Troy,) from
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which the epic derives its name. (Illustration: Achilles binding the wounds of

Patroclus)

Although some contest it, there is strong scholarly evidence to support the deliberate use

of what is popularly called the “Golden Ratio” (Φ) to achieve symmetry and proportion in both

selected artworks. If true, the theme of using a shared geometrically defined and intuitively

appreciated proportional ratio to achieve harmony can connect these two artifacts. In addition,

this special ratio is still being employed in the design of modern artifacts. Thus, this theme of

mathematically defined proportional harmony spans a period of more than 2700 years and cuts

across disparate cultures.

Both selected works are directly related to the culture that produced it. Homer’s poem

reflects the ancient Greeks' cultural beliefs in heroism and nobility and reflected cultural

standards that were embraced by all Greeks. Shameful disgrace is abhorrent and a short and

glory-filled life is the best that mortals can attain, especially when a man’s memory is eternally

recounted in legend. Homer’s portrayal of the gods reflects his culture’s view that although they

are powerful, they have their faults, and sometimes lose their dignity, and sometimes behave

badly, even worse than the heroes they rule (PBS). The Doryphoros is a manifestation of the

cultural Greek concept of the ideal definition of masculine corporeal beauty. It served as an

example for other artists. The idea that it was beneficial to follow a proportional rule for works

of art was an idea the Greeks adopted from the Egyptians. Polykleitos related beauty to ratio

through a canon of proportion, and used such a rule, to produce the measurements for the

Doryphoros (Harris and Zucker).

The historical setting for the performance of the Homeric epics were festivals where

traditional stories of legendary heroes were featured. The well-known traditional myths and
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cultural legends about the gods and heroes are Homer’s sources. But Homer’s genius lies in the

way he reshapes the old Achaean treatment of these heroes, for example, in his treatment of

Agamemnon as a petty and greedy warlord -- a characterization which was surely unlike the

public treatment of the king in other art forms -- or his portrayal of Achilles as a churlish pouting

warrior who is surly and refuses to fight (Whitman p155-156). The Doryphoros reflected the

Greek ideal of physical masculinity and symmetry. Thus, Polykleitos presents Doryphoros as the

perfect Greek citizen, in both body and bearing. In the High Classical Period in which the statue

was created symmetry was not only about proportion and a sense of balance, it also encompassed

dynamic contrast, which accounts for why the spear-bearer is posed in contrapposto (Annenberg

Learner). One Greek tradition of philosophical thought was that the stable eternal qualities of the

universe were best expressed through geometric forms, and the use of these forms to define a

pleasing ratio of proportion would naturally play a primary role in shaping art.

An obvious proportional similarity that both the Doryphoros and the Iliad share is simple

reflective symmetry. If a point A is placed on a line, and two other points, B and C, are placed

on the line equally distant from the center like this: _____B______A______C_____, where the

pair of points mirror each other at the same distance from the center, then there is bilateral

symmetry (Weyl). A line drawn through a frontal view of the human body from the center of the

forehead down through the navel can be taken as the center reference point, and the outer parts of

the body will mirror each other equidistantly from either side. Most of the known animal

kingdom, including humans, has this kind of symmetry. The bilateral symmetry in the Iliad is

less obvious, but it can be found. J. T. Sheppard, an English Homeric scholar, describes it

thoroughly. He points out that for every scene in the beginning books of the epic poem, there is a

correspondingly similar scene in the ending books, only presented in reverse. Thus, the content
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of scenes in the epic are arranged like this: __(first book)___scene A_____scene B______scene

C_____.......__(last book)__scene C______scene B_____scene A. Of course, the scenes are not

presented by the poet exactly word for word, but the situations they depict are mirror images of

each other even if the characters portrayed in them are different. This structure can be found

consistently around a central point -- the episode about Dolon -- all throughout the Iliad

(Sheppard).

But there is also a subtler mathematical principle in both works of art that was known and

cherished by the ancient Greeks; one that they felt resulted in a sense of cosmic harmony and

proportional balance whenever it was used. And they used it everywhere -- in art, in architecture,

and even in literature. This proportional canon is built upon a geometric principle, defined by

Euclid. Take a line and divide it into 2 unequal pieces, if the ratio of the lengths of the two pieces

is equal to the ratio between the larger piece and the whole line’s length, then you have a very

special ratio, with very special qualities. So special, that the Greeks considered it worth as much

as gold. Later devotees of its use would name it the Golden Ratio. Euclid defined this ratio as the

“mean and extreme ratio” (Livio p.78). Its use reinforces the sense of the human scale, and

confirms the link between man and nature because it is found all throughout nature. By

guaranteeing a sense of order and measure when used, any “toxic ugliness” can be avoided, and

harmony can be achieved (Bangs p.18-19). Acknowledging the ratio’s intrinsic existence both in

art, nature, and humanity establishes a connecting link between all three.

Both the sculpture and the epic poem are linked thematically by using this

mathematically defined ratio to determine their proportional structure. Richard Tobin theorizes

that to produce the finished dimensions of the Doryphoros, Polykleitos used a canon of

measurement based on the length of the distal phalange of the little finger and that “…he used it
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as a point of departure for determining all the proportions of the human figure. By applying the

most basic concepts of Greek geometry -- ratio, proportion, symmetria -- he developed a system

which used a geometric mean in continuous progression” (Tobin p.307). This is the mean and

extreme ratio referred to by Euclid. The same use of geometric proportion can be found in the Iliad.

Scholar Catalin Anghelina argues for the presence of the Golden Section in the Iliad’s structure both in

the number of books and the number of verses, and that this distinctive organization was intentional

because it could not have possibly occurred accidentally by chance (Anghelina p23).

One outstanding difference in the use of the proportion/ratio theme between the two

works lies primarily in the way that the audience of each work would have perceived it. In the

visual appreciation of the Doryphoros, the viewer feels directly and immediately the pleasing and

satisfying harmony of the figure. But the Iliad’s presentation of symmetry, and its effect on the

listener, would have been much less direct, since hearing the entire poem would have lasted over

many hours. It is conceivable that the listener would not have a direct sense of the overall epic

poem’s symmetry, but still could have been impacted by an unconscious awareness of it. But

since the symmetry was also applied to individual episodes, as well as to the entire epic, listeners

would have certainly been able to directly appreciate it during these shorter presentation periods.

The thrust of development for Greek history and culture is towards the recognition of

perfect ideal form: ideal government, ideal thought, ideal art, ideal heroes, ideal warfare, etc. The

Doryphoros expresses this ideal in an image of masculine bodily perfection and citizenship, one

which humans can all aspire to, but never achieve. The ideal Greek polis would have been

composed of multitudes of these spear-bearer men, all gathered together on occasions such as

sacred festivals, to manifest in real-time their concept of the ideal community. Presenting epic

poetry or drama to such a community, in which ideals of heroism, courage, and historic glory
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were themes, would have been a logical endeavor that meshed with Greek historic and cultural

needs.

The theme of math/ratio/proportion that the Doryphoros and Iliad both utilize is not

confined to ancient Greek art, but has expression in many modern works. One of the best

examples is the Farnsworth House, a private residence architectural commission designed and

built by Mies Van der Rohe, completed in 1951 and sited in Plano, Illinois.

The structure was designed as a private country retreat house on the Fox River for Dr.

Edith Farnsworth, and is now considered an iconic representation of the use of the ratio in

architecture. “All aspects of the elevations and floor plan are based on golden section

proportions. The shape and configuration of the front elevation windows and the floor plan of the

living spaces and deck are all based on a module of a single golden section rectangle that is

repeated and turned. Even the overhangs of the roof and the deck correspond to the square in the

golden section construction diagram” (Elam).

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Stories about Greek heroes, gods, and legends, just like the ones Homer related in the

Iliad, are still popular today. There are many examples in recent film media: The 300, Alexander,

Troy, and Percy Jackson and the Olympians. Modern culture still idolizes the physical bodily

perfection demonstrated in the Doryphoros, and uses it as a standard of beauty. We celebrate that

standard in performers and fashion models, and still use it in the hero/warrior archetype. This

archetype is seen, for example, on the television series “American Ninja,” and in Duane

Johnson’s hero character “Riddick.” The study and application of the Phi ratio continues to be

popular in our modern culture, just as it was during the Renaissance. A good contemporary

indication of this is to execute a search on Amazon’s website under the “books” category for the

term “Golden Ratio.” The returned results will list hundreds of modern published works on the

subject, applied to every conceivable field of human interest. It appears to be as important today

as it was to Polykleitos and Homer in the expression of their art. What can be construed from this

is evidence of the enduring influence of ancient Greek achievement, which through humanistic

movements like the Renaissance, comprise the very basis of Western culture.

Yet, our current world culture is very different from that of the classical Greeks. We do not

share a commonly agreed-upon concept of what is ideal across all human society’s varied

segments. However, in our progress towards a multicultural world, we do display some of the

Greek openness and willingness to assimilate diversity. And, there are other parallels, like our

preference for the logical validation of ideas, and our technology’s dependence upon mathematics

for practical science and engineering.

Even though it’s not universally accepted, enough authoritative scholars have given

serious consideration to the presence of the Phi ratio in art, literature, and architecture to merit

strong support for it as a unifying theme across many platforms of humanistic expression since
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the time of the ancient Greeks. In our own chaotic times, when pluralistic values seem to

fragment and isolate cultures rather than unify them, a conceptual archetypal standard like Phi is

refreshing to discover. The ratio’s use, continuing across two and a half millennia of Western

cultural artifacts, exemplifies the reason that broad study of the humanities is critically

important: Phi can be considered a persistent fundamental concept that reflects our common

humanity and binds us all together.

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Works Cited

Bangs, Herbert. The Return of Sacred Architecture: The Golden Ratio and the End of
Modernism. Inner Traditions, Vermont. 2007. Pp.4-12.

Schein, Seth L. The Mortal Hero, An Introduction to Homer’s Iliad. University of California
Press, Berkeley. 1984

PBS Documentary, “Empires.” Episode: The Greeks. Retrieved from

www.pbs.org/empires/thegreeks/background/3b_pl.html on 10-6-2017.

Harris, Dr. Beth & Dr. Steven Zucker. Essay: Polykleitos, Doryphoros. Retrieved from
www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/greek-
art/classical/a/polykleitos-doryphoros-spear-bearer

Whitman, Cedric. Homer and the Homeric Tradition. W. W. Norton and Co. New York. 1965.

Annenberg Learner. Art Through Time: A Global View. 13 -The Body. Retrieved from
www.learner.org/courses/globalart/work/138/index.html on 10-5-2017

Weyl, Hermann. Symmetry. Princeton University Press, New Jersey. 1952

Sheppard, J. T. The Pattern of the Iliad. Methuen and Co. London. 1922.

Livio, Mario. The Golden Ratio: The story of the world’s most astonishing number. Broadway
Books, Random House Inc. New York 2002.

Tobin, Richard. The Canon of Polykleitos. American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 79, No. 4
(Oct. 1975), pp. 307-321 Published by: Archaeological Institute of America. Retrieved
from www.jstor.org/stable/503064 on 9-13-2017

Anghelina, Catalin. The Golden Homer: The Geometry of the Iliad and the Homeric Question.
Classica et mediaevalia. Vol 59. 2008. Stechart & Co. New York. 2008. Pp 5-27

Elam, Kimberly. Geometry of Design. Princeton Architectural Press. 2011. Excerpt retrieved
from www.behance.net/gallery/12471003/van-der-Rohes-Farnsworth-House-Geometric-
Analysis on 10-6-2017