Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavour or improve its taste and

appearance. Some additives have been used for centuries; for example, preserving food by pickling
(with vinegar), salting, as with bacon, preserving sweets or using sulfur dioxide as in some wines.
With the advent of processed foods in the second half of the 20th century, many more additives
have been introduced, of both natural and artificial origin.

Cont
ents
[hide]
• 1
Numbe
ring
• 2
Safety
• 3
Standar
dization
of its
derived
product
s
• 4 See
also
• 5
Referen
ces
• 6
Externa
l links

[edit] Numbering
To regulate these additives, and inform consumers, each additive is assigned a unique number.
Initially these were the "E numbers" used in Europe for all approved additives. This numbering
scheme has now been adopted and extended by the Codex Alimentarius Commission to
internationally identify all additives,[1] regardless of whether they are approved for use.
E numbers are all prefixed by "E", but countries outside Europe use only the number, whether the
additive is approved in Europe or not. For example, acetic acid is written as E260 on products sold
in Europe, but is simply known as additive 260 in some countries. Additive 103, alkanet, is not
approved for use in Europe so does not have an E number, although it is approved for use in
Australia and New Zealand. Since 1987 Australia has had an approved system of labelling for
additives in packaged foods. Each food additive has to be named or numbered. The numbers are the
same as in Europe, but without the prefix 'E'.
The United States Food and Drug Administration listed these items as "Generally recognized as
safe" or GRAS and these are listed under both their Chemical Abstract Services number and FDA
regulation listed under the US Code of Federal Regulations
• See list of food additives for a complete list of all the names.
• See E number for the numbers.
Acids
Food acids are added to make flavors "sharper", and also act as preservatives and
antioxidants. Common food acids include vinegar, citric acid, tartaric acid, malic acid,
fumaric acid, lactic acid.
Acidity regulators
Acidity regulators are used to change or otherwise control the acidity and alkalinity of foods.
Anticaking agents
Anticaking agents keep powders such as milk powder from caking or sticking.
Antifoaming agents
Antifoaming agents reduce or prevent foaming in foods.
Antioxidants
Antioxidants such as vitamin C act as preservatives by inhibiting the effects of oxygen on
food, and can be beneficial to health.
Bulking agents
Bulking agents such as starch are additives that increase the bulk of a food without affecting
its nutritional value.
Food coloring
Colorings are added to food to replace colors lost during preparation, or to make food look
more attractive.
Color retention agents
In contrast to colorings, color retention agents are used to preserve a food's existing color.
Color retention agents are often used for restoring cow's milk to its natural white color as
unhealthy cows may bleed into the milk.[citation needed]
Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers allow water and oils to remain mixed together in an emulsion, as in mayonnaise,
ice cream, and homogenized milk.
Flavors
Flavors are additives that give food a particular taste or smell, and may be derived from
natural ingredients or created artificially.
Flavor enhancers
Flavor enhancers enhance a food's existing flavors. They may be extracted from natural
sources (through distillation, solvent extraction, maceration, among other methods) or created
artificially.
Flour treatment agents
Flour treatment agents are added to flour to improve its color or its use in baking.
Humectants
Humectants prevent foods from drying out.
Tracer gas
Tracer gas allow for package integrity testing to prevent foods from being exposed to
atmosphere, thus guaranteeing shelf life.
Preservatives
Preservatives prevent or inhibit spoilage of food due to fungi, bacteria and other
microorganisms.
Stabilizers
Stabilizers, thickeners and gelling agents, like agar or pectin (used in jam for example) give
foods a firmer texture. While they are not true emulsifiers, they help to stabilize emulsions.
Sweeteners
Sweeteners are added to foods for flavoring. Sweeteners other than sugar are added to keep
the food energy (calories) low, or because they have beneficial effects for diabetes mellitus
and tooth decay and diarrhea.
Thickeners
Thickeners are substances which, when added to the mixture, increase its viscosity without
 substantially modifying its other properties.

[edit] Safety
With the increasing use of processed foods since the 19th century, there has been a great increase in
the use of food additives of varying levels of safety. This has led to legislation in many countries
regulating their use. For example, boric acid was widely used as a food preservative from the 1870s
to the 1920s,[2][3] but was banned after World War I due to its toxicity, as demonstrated in animal
and human studies. During World War II the urgent need for cheap, available food preservatives led
to it being used again, but it was finally banned in the 1950s.[2] Such cases led to a general mistrust
of food additives, and an application of the precautionary principle led to the conclusion that only
additives that are known to be safe should be used in foods. In the USA, this led to the adoption of
the Delaney clause, an amendment to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938, stating
that no carcinogenic substances may be used as food additives. However, after the banning of
cyclamates in the USA and Britain in 1969, saccharin, the only remaining legal artificial sweetener
at the time, was found to cause cancer in rats. Widespread public outcry in the USA, partly
communicated to Congress by postage-paid postcards supplied in the packaging of sweetened soft
drinks, led to the retention of saccharin despite its violation of the Delaney clause.[4]
In September 2007, research financed by Britain’s Food Standards Agency and published online by
the British medical journal The Lancet, presented evidence that a mix of additives commonly found
in children’s foods increases the mean level of hyperactivity.[5] The team of researchers concluded
that “the finding lends strong support for the case that food additives exacerbate hyperactive
behaviors (inattention, impulsivity and overactivity) at least into middle childhood.” That study
examined the effect of artificial colors and a sodium benzoate preservative, and found both to be
problematic for some children. Further studies are needed to find out whether there are other
additives that could have a similar effect, and it is unclear whether some disturbances can also occur
in mood and concentration in some adults. In the February 2008 issue of its publication, AAP
Grand Rounds, the American Academy of Pediatrics concluded that a low-additive diet is a valid
intervention for children with ADHD:
“Although quite complicated, this was a carefully conducted study in which the investigators went
to great lengths to eliminate bias and to rigorously measure outcomes. The results are hard to follow
and somewhat inconsistent. For many of the assessments there were small but statistically
significant differences of measured behaviors in children who consumed the food additives
compared with those who did not. In each case increased hyperactive behaviors were associated
with consuming the additives. For those comparisons in which no statistically significant
differences were found, there was a trend for more hyperactive behaviors associated with the food
additive drink in virtually every assessment. Thus, the overall findings of the study are clear and
require that even we skeptics, who have long doubted parental claims of the effects of various foods
on the behavior of their children, admit we might have been wrong.”
In 2007, Food Standards Australia New Zealand published an official shoppers' guidance with
which the concerns of food additives and their labeling are mediated.[6]
There has been significant controversy associated with the risks and benefits of food additives.
Some artificial food additives have been linked with cancer, digestive problems, neurological
conditions in addition to ADHD, and diseases like heart disease or obesity.[citation needed] Even
"natural" additives may be harmful in certain quantities (table salt, for example) or because of
allergic reactions in certain individuals. Safrole was used to flavour root beer until it was shown to
be carcinogenic. Due to the application of the Delaney clause, it may not be added to foods, even
though it occurs naturally in sassafras and sweet basil.[7]
 [edit] Standardization of its derived products
ISO has published a series of standards regarding the topic and these standards are covered by ICS
67.220.[8]

emulgator

An emulsion (IPA: /ɪˈmʌlʃən/[1]) is a mixture of two or more immiscible (unblendable) liquids.

One liquid (the dispersed phase) is dispersed in the other (the continuous phase). Many emulsions
are oil/water emulsions, with dietary fats being one common type of oil encountered in everyday
life. Examples of emulsions include butter and margarine, milk and cream, and vinaigrettes; the
photo-sensitive side of photographic film, magmas and cutting fluid for metal working. In butter
and margarine, fat surrounds droplets of water (a water-in-oil emulsion). In milk and cream, water
surrounds droplets of fat (an oil-in-water emulsion). In certain types of magma, globules of liquid
NiFe may be dispersed within a continuous phase of liquid silicates. Emulsification is the process
by which emulsions are prepared.
Emulsion is also a term used in the hydrocarbon industry as untreated well production that consists
primarily of crude oil and water.[citation needed]
Emulsions tend to have a cloudy appearance, because the many phase interfaces (the boundary
between the phases is called the interface) scatter light that passes through the emulsion. Emulsions
are unstable and thus do not form spontaneously. Energy input through shaking, stirring,
homogenizing, or spray processes are needed to form an emulsion. Over time, emulsions tend to
revert to the stable state of the phases comprising the emulsion. Surface active substances
(surfactants) can increase the kinetic stability of emulsions greatly so that, once formed, the
emulsion does not change significantly over years of storage. Vinaigrette is an example of an
unstable emulsion that will quickly separate unless shaken continuously. This phenomenon is called
coalescence, and happens when small droplets recombine to form bigger ones. Emulsions can also
suffer from creaming, the migration of one of the substances to the top of the emulsion under the
influence of buoyancy or centripetal force when a centrifuge is used.
Emulsions are part of a more general class of two-phase systems of matter called colloids. Although
the terms colloid and emulsion are sometimes used interchangeably, emulsion tends to imply that
both the dispersed and the continuous phase are liquid.
There are three types of emulsion instability: flocculation, where the particles form clumps;
creaming, where the particles concentrate towards the surface (or bottom, depending on the relative
density of the two phases) of the mixture while staying separated; and breaking and coalescence
where the particles coalesce and form a layer of liquid.
Whether an emulsion turns into a water-in-oil emulsion or an oil-in-water emulsion depends on the
volume fraction of both phases and on the type of emulsifier. Generally, the Bancroft rule applies:
emulsifiers and emulsifying particles tend to promote dispersion of the phase in which they do not
dissolve very well; for example, proteins dissolve better in water than in oil and so tend to form oil-
in-water emulsions (that is they promote the dispersion of oil droplets throughout a continuous
phase of water).
The basic color of emulsions is white. If the emulsion is dilute, the Tyndall effect will scatter the
light and distort the color to blue; if it is concentrated, the color will be distorted towards yellow.
This phenomenon is easily observable on comparing skimmed milk (with no or little fat) to cream
(high concentration of milk fat). Microemulsions and nanoemulsions tend to appear clear due to the
small size of the disperse phase.
 Cont
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[hide]
• 1
Emulsif
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• 2 In
medicin
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• 3 In fire
fighting
• 4 See
also
• 5
Referen
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[edit] Emulsifier
An emulsifier (also known as an emulgent) is a substance which stabilizes an emulsion, frequently a
surfactant. Examples of food emulsifiers are egg yolk (where the main emulsifying chemical is
lecithin), honey, and mustard, where a variety of chemicals in the mucilage surrounding the seed
hull act as emulsifiers; proteins and low-molecular weight emulsifiers are common as well. Soy
lecithin is another emulsifier and thickener. In some cases, particles can stabilize emulsions as well
through a mechanism called Pickering stabilization. Both mayonnaise and Hollandaise sauce are
oil-in-water emulsions that are stabilized with egg yolk lecithin. Detergents are another class of
surfactant, and will physically interact with both oil and water, thus stabilizing the interface
between oil or water droplets in suspension. This principle is exploited in soap to remove grease for
the purpose of cleaning. A wide variety of emulsifiers are used in pharmacy to prepare emulsions
such as creams and lotions. Common examples include emulsifying wax, cetearyl alcohol,
polysorbate 20, and ceteareth 20.[2] Sometimes the inner phase itself can act as an emulsifier, and
the result is nanoemulsion - the inner state disperses into nano-size droplets within the outer phase.
A well-known example of this phenomenon, the ouzo effect, happens when water is poured in a
strong alcoholic anise-based beverage, such as ouzo, pastis, arak or raki. The anisolic compounds,
which are soluble in ethanol, now form nano-sized droplets and emulgate within the water. The
colour of such diluted drink is opaque and milky.
 [edit] In medicine

20 ml ampule of 1% propofol emulsion suitable for intravenous injection. The manufacturers

emulsify the lipid soluble propofol in a mixture of water, soy oil and egg lecithin.
In pharmaceutics, hairstyling, personal hygiene and cosmetics, emulsions are frequently used.
These are usually oil and water emulsions, but which is dispersed and which is continuous depends
on the pharmaceutical formulation. These emulsions may be called creams, ointments, liniments
(balms), pastes, films or liquids, depending mostly on their oil and water proportions and their route
of administration.[3][4] The first 4 are topical dosage forms, and may be used on the surface of the
skin, transdermally, ophthalmically, rectally or vaginally. A very liquidy emulsion may also be used
orally, or it may be injected using various routes (typically intravenously or intramuscularly).[3]
Popular medicated emulsions include calamine lotion, cod liver oil, Polysporin, cortisol cream,
Canesten and Fleet.
Microemulsions are used to deliver vaccines and kill microbes.[5] Typically, the emulsions used in
these techniques are nanoemulsions of soybean oil, with particles that are 400-600 nm in diameter.
[6] The process is not chemical, as with other types of antimicrobial treatments, but physical. The
smaller the droplet, the greater the surface tension and thus the greater the force to merge with other
lipids. The oil is emulsified using a high shear mixer with detergents to stabilize the emulsion, so
when they encounter the lipids in the membrane or envelope of bacteria or viruses, they force the
lipids to merge with themselves. On a mass scale, this effectively disintegrates the membrane and
kills the pathogen. This soybean oil emulsion does not harm normal human cells nor the cells of
most other higher organisms. The exceptions are sperm cells and blood cells, which are vulnerable
to nanoemulsions due to their membrane structures. For this reason, these nanoemulsions are not
currently used intravenously. The most effective application of this type of nanoemulsion is for the
disinfection of surfaces. Some types of nanoemulsions have been shown to effectively destroy HIV-
1 and various tuberculosis pathogens, for example, on non-porous surfaces.

[edit] In fire fighting

Emulsifying agents are effective at extinguishing fires on small thin layer spills of flammable
liquids (Class B fires). Extinguishment is achieved by encapsulating the fuel in a fuel-water
emulsion thereby trapping the flammable vapors in the water phase. This emulsion is achieved by
applying an aqueous surfactant solution to the fuel through a high pressure nozzle.
Emulsifiers are not effective at extinguishing large Class B fuel in depth fires. This is because the
amount of agent needed for extinguishment is a function of the volume of the fuel whereas agents
such as aqueous film forming foam (AFFF) need only cover the surface of the fuel to achieve vapor
mitigation.

[edit] See also

Färgämnen

Food coloring (colouring) is any substance that is added to food or drink to change its color. Food
coloring is used both in commercial food production and in domestic cooking. Due to its safety and
general availability, food coloring is also used in a variety of non-food applications, for example in
home craft projects and educational settings.[citation needed]
 Cont
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[hide]
• 1
Purpose
of food
colorin
g
• 2
Regulat
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• 3
Natural
food
dyes
• 4
Artifici
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colorin
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United
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• 4
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1

C
u
r
r
e
n
t
s
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v
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• 4
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2

D
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i
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t
e
 [edit] Purpose of food coloring
People associate certain colors with certain flavors, and the color of food can influence the
perceived flavor in anything from candy to wine. [1] For this reason, food manufacturers add dyes
to their products. Sometimes the aim is to simulate a color that is perceived by the consumer as
natural, such as adding red coloring to glacé cherries (which would otherwise be beige), but
sometimes it is for effect, like the green ketchup that Heinz launched in 2000.
While most consumers are aware that food with bright or unnatural colors (such as the green
ketchup mentioned above, or children's cereals such as Froot Loops) likely contain food coloring,
far fewer people know that seemingly "natural" foods such as oranges and salmon are sometimes
also dyed to mask natural variations in color.[2] Color variation in foods throughout the seasons and
the effects of processing and storage often make color addition commercially advantageous to
maintain the color expected or preferred by the consumer. Some of the primary reasons include:
• Offsetting color loss due to light, air, extremes of temperature, moisture, and storage
conditions.
• Masking natural variations in color.
• Enhancing naturally occurring colors.
• Providing identity to foods.
• Protecting flavors and vitamins from damage by light.
• Decorative or artistic purposes such as cake icing.

[edit] Regulation
Food colorings are tested for safety by various bodies around the world and sometimes different
bodies have different views on food color safety. In the United States, FD&C numbers (which
generally indicates that the FDA has approved the colorant for use in foods, drugs and cosmetics)
are given to approved synthetic food dyes that do not exist in nature, while in the European Union,
E numbers are used for all additives, both synthetic and natural, that are approved in food
applications.
Most other countries have their own regulations and list of food colors which can be used in various
applications, including maximum daily intake limits.
Natural colors are not required to be tested by a number of regulatory bodies throughout the world,
including the United States FDA. The FDA lists "color additives exempt from certification" for food
in subpart A of the Code of Federal Regulations - Title 21 Part 73. However, this list contains
substances which may have synthetic origins.

[edit] Natural food dyes

A growing number of natural food dyes are being commercially produced, partly due to consumer
concerns surrounding synthetic dyes. Some examples include:
• Caramel coloring, made from caramelized sugar, used in cola products and also in
cosmetics.
• Annatto, a reddish-orange dye made from the seed of the Achiote.
• A green dye made from chlorella algae.
• Cochineal, a red dye derived from the cochineal insect, Dactylopius coccus.
• Betanin extracted from beets.
• Turmeric
• Saffron
• Paprika
 • Elderberry juice
To ensure reproducibility, the colored components of these substances are often provided in highly
purified form, and for increased stability and convenience, they can be formulated in suitable carrier
materials (solid and liquid).

[edit] Artificial coloring in United States

Seven dyes were initially approved under the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906, but several have
been delisted and replacements have been found. [3]

[edit] Current seven

In the USA, the following seven artificial colorings are permitted in food (the most common in
bold) as of 2007[update]:
• FD&C Blue No. 1 – Brilliant Blue FCF, E133 (Blue shade)
• FD&C Blue No. 2 – Indigotine, E132 (Dark Blue shade)
• FD&C Green No. 3 – Fast Green FCF, E143 (Bluish green shade)
• FD&C Red No. 40 – Allura Red AC, E129 (Red shade)
• FD&C Red No. 3 – Erythrosine, E127 (Pink shade) [4]
• FD&C Yellow No. 5 – Tartrazine, E102 (Yellow shade)
• FD&C Yellow No. 6 – Sunset Yellow FCF, E110 (Orange shade)
The above are known as "primary colors"; when they are mixed to produce other colors, those
colors are then known as "secondary colors".

[edit] Delisted
• FD&C Red No. 2 – Amaranth (dye)
• FD&C Red No. 4 [5]
• FD&C Red No. 32 was used to color Florida oranges. [3] [5]
• FD&C Orange No. 1, was one of the first water soluble dyes to be commercialized, and one
of seven original food dyes allowed under the Pure Food and Drug Act of June 30, 1906.[3]
[5]
• FD&C Orange No. 2 was used to color Florida oranges. [3]
• FD&C Yellows No. 1, 2, 3, and 4 [5]
• FD&C Violet No. 1 [5]

[edit] Dyes and lakes

Color additives are available for use in food as either "dyes" or "lakes".
Dyes dissolve in water, but are not soluble in oil. Dyes are manufactured as powders, granules,
liquids or other special purpose forms. They can be used in beverages, dry mixes, baked goods,
confections, dairy products, pet foods, and a variety of other products. Dyes also have side effects
which lakes do not, including the fact that large amounts of dyes ingested can color stools.
Lakes are the combination of dyes and insoluble material. Lakes tint by dispersion. Lakes are not
oil soluble, but are oil dispersible. Lakes are more stable than dyes and are ideal for coloring
products containing fats and oils or items lacking sufficient moisture to dissolve dyes. Typical uses
include coated tablets, cake and doughnut mixes, hard candies and chewing gums, lipsticks, soaps,
shampoos, talc, etc.
 [edit] Other uses
Because food dyes are generally safer to use than normal artistic dyes and pigments, some artists
have used food coloring as a means of making pictures, especially in forms such as body-painting.
Food colorings can be used to dye fabric, but are usually not wash-fast when used on cotton, hemp
and other plant fibers. Some food dyes can be fixed on Nylon and animal fibers. Red food dye is
often used as theatrical blood.

[edit] Criticism and health implications

Though past research showed no correlation between Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD) and food dyes,[6][7] new studies now point to synthetic preservatives and artificial
coloring agents as aggravating ADD and ADHD symptoms, both in those affected by these
disorders and in the general population.[8][9] Older studies were inconclusive quite possibly due to
inadequate clinical methods of measuring offending behavior. Parental reports were more accurate
indicators of the presence of additives than clinical tests.[10] Several major studies show academic
performance increased and disciplinary problems decreased in large non-ADD student populations
when artificial ingredients, including artificial colors, were eliminated from school food programs.
[11][12]
• Norway banned all products containing coal tar and coal tar derivatives in 1978. New
legislation lifted this ban in 2001 after EU regulations. As such, many FD&C approved
colorings have been banned.
• Tartrazine causes hives in less than 0.01% of those exposed to it.[2]
• Erythrosine is linked to thyroid tumors in rats.[13]
• Cochineal, also known as carmine, is derived from insects and therefore is neither vegan nor
vegetarian. It has also been known to cause severe, even life-threatening, allergic reactions
in rare cases.[14]
This criticism originated during the 1950s. In effect, many foods that used dye (such as red velvet
cake) became less popular.
Brilliant Blue (BBG) food coloring was cited in a recent study in which rats that had suffered a
spinal injury were given an injection of the dye immediately after the injury, and were able to regain
or retain motor control. BBG helps protect spine from ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which the
body sends to the area after a spinal injury, which further damages the spine by killing motor
neurons at the site of the injury [15]

natriumglutamat

Monosodium glutamate, also known as sodium glutamate and MSG, is a sodium salt of the non-
essential amino acid glutamic acid. It is used as a food additive and is commonly marketed as a
flavour enhancer. It has the HS code 29224220 and the E number E621. Trade names of
monosodium glutamate include Ajinomoto, Vetsin, and Accent. It was once predominantly made
from wheat gluten, but is now mostly made from bacterial fermentation; it is acceptable for celiacs
following a gluten-free diet.[1][2][3][4]
Although traditional Asian cuisine had often used seaweed extract, which contains high
concentrations of glutamic acid, MSG was not isolated until 1907 by Kikunae Ikeda. MSG was
subsequently patented by Ajinomoto Corporation of Japan in 1909. In its pure form, it appears as a
white crystalline powder; when immersed in water or saliva, it rapidly dissociates into sodium
cations and glutamate anions (glutamate is the anionic form of glutamic acid, a naturally occurring
amino acid).
 Cont
ents
[hide]
• 1
Product
ion and
chemic
al
properti
es
• 2
Comme
rcializat
ion
• 3
Health
concern
s
• 3
.
1

U
n
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S
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• 3
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A
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• 3
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A
 [edit] Production and chemical properties
MSG is normally obtained by the fermentation of carbohydrates, using bacterial or yeast species
from genera such as Brevibacterium, Arthrobacter, Microbacterium, and Corynebacterium. Yields
of 100 g/litre[citation needed] can be prepared in this way. From 1909 to the mid 1960s, MSG was
prepared by the hydrolysis of wheat gluten, which is roughly 25% glutamic acid. Glutamic acid is
one of the least soluble amino acids, which facilitates its purification.[5]
Like the sodium salts of other amino acids, MSG is a stable colourless solid that is degraded by
strong oxidizing agents. It exists as a pair of mirror image stereoisomers (enantiomers), but only the
naturally occurring L-glutamate form is used as a flavour enhancer.

[edit] Commercialization
The Ajinomoto company was formed to manufacture and market MSG in Japan; the name 'Aji no
moto' translates to "essence of taste". It was introduced to the United States in 1947 as Ac'cent
flavor enhancer.[6]
Modern commercial MSG is produced by fermentation[7] of starch, sugar beets, sugar cane, or
molasses. About 1.5 million tonnes were sold in 2001, with 4% annual growth expected.[8] MSG is
used commercially as a flavour enhancer. Although once associated with foods in Chinese
restaurants, MSG is now used by most fast food chains and in many foodstuffs, particularly
processed foods.[9]
Examples include:
• Pre-prepared stocks often known as stock cubes or bouillon cubes.
• Condiments such as barbecue sauce and salad dressing.
• Canned, frozen, or dried prepared food
• Common snack foods such as flavoured jerky, flavoured potato chips and flavoured tortilla
chips.
• Seasoning mixtures
Only the L-glutamate enantiomer has flavour-enhancing properties.[10] Manufactured MSG
contains over 99.6% of the naturally predominant L-glutamate form, which is a higher proportion of
L-glutamate than found in the free glutamate ions of naturally occurring foods. Fermented products
such as soy sauce, steak sauce, and Worcestershire sauce have levels of glutamate similar to foods
with added MSG. However, glutamate in these brewed products may have 5% or more of the D-
enantiomer.[10]

[edit] Health concerns

Main article: Glutamic acid (flavor)#Research into health effects
MSG as a food ingredient has been the subject of health studies. A report from the Federation of
American Societies for Experimental Biology (FASEB) compiled in 1995 on behalf of the FDA
concluded that MSG was safe for most people when "eaten at customary levels." However, it also
said that, based on anecdotal reports, some people may have an MSG intolerance which causes
"MSG symptom complex" — commonly referred to as Chinese restaurant syndrome — and/or a
worsening of asthmatic symptoms.[11] Subsequent research found that while large doses of MSG
given without food may elicit more symptoms than a placebo in individuals who believe that they
react adversely to MSG, the frequency of the responses was low and the responses reported were
inconsistent, not reproducible, and were not observed when MSG was given with food.[12] While
many people believe that MSG is the cause of these symptoms, a statistical association has not been
demonstrated under controlled conditions, even in studies with people who were convinced that
they were sensitive to it.[12][13][14][15] Adequately controlling for experimental bias includes a
placebo-controlled double-blinded experimental design and the application in capsules because of
the strong and unique after-taste of glutamates.[13]

[edit] United States

Monosodium glutamate is one of several forms of glutamic acid found in foods, in large part
because glutamic acid is pervasive in nature, being an amino acid. Glutamic acid and its salts can
also be present in a wide variety of other additives, including hydrolyzed vegetable proteins,
autolyzed yeast, hydrolyzed yeast, yeast extract, soy extracts, and protein isolate, any one of which
may appear as "spices" or "natural flavorings." The food additives disodium inosinate and disodium
guanylate are usually used along with monosodium glutamate-containing ingredients, and provide a
likely indicator of the presence of monosodium glutamate in a product. For this reason, the FDA
considers labels such as "No MSG" or "No Added MSG" to be misleading if the food contains
ingredients that are sources of free glutamate, such as hydrolyzed protein.
In 1993, the FDA proposed adding the phrase "(contains glutamate)" to the common or usual names
of certain protein hydrolysates that contain substantial amounts of glutamate.
In the 2004 version of his book, On Food and Cooking, food scientist Harold McGee states that
"[after many studies], toxicologists have concluded that MSG is a harmless ingredient for most
people, even in large amounts."

[edit] Asia
The INTERMAP Cooperative Research Group conducted a study of 752 healthy Chinese (48.7%
women), age 40–59 years, randomly sampled from three rural villages in north and south China and
determined that MSG intake may be positively correlated to an increased BMI (Body Mass Index).
[16]

[edit] Australia and New Zealand

Standard 1.2.4 of the Australia and New Zealand Food Standards Code requires the presence of
MSG as a food additive to be labeled. The label must bear the food additive class name (e.g. flavour
enhancer), followed by either the name of the food additive, MSG, or its International Numbering
System (INS) number, 621.

förtjockningsmedel

Thickening agents, or thickeners, are substances which, when added to an aqueous mixture,
increase its viscosity without substantially modifying its other properties, such as taste. They
provide body, increase stability, and improve suspension of added ingredients. Thickening agents
are often used as food additives and in cosmetics and personal hygiene products.
 Cont
ents
[hide]
• 1 Food
• 2
Cosmet
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• 3
Incendi
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devices
• 4 See
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• 5
Externa
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[edit] Food
Food thickeners frequently are based on either polysaccharides (starches, vegetable gums, and
penicillin), or proteins. A flavourless powdered starch used for this purpose is a fecula (from the
Latin faecula, diminutive of faex meaning "dregs"). This category includes arrowroot, cornstarch,
katakuri starch, potato starch, sago, and tapioca. Vegetable gums used as food thickeners include
alginin, guar gum, locust bean gum, and xanthan gum. Proteins used as food thickeners include
collagen, egg whites, furcellaran, gelatin. Sugars include agar and carrageenan. Other thickening
agents act on the proteins already present in a food. One example is sodium pyrophosphate, which
acts on casein in milk during the preparation of instant pudding.
Different thickeners may be more or less suitable in a given application, due to differences in taste,
clarity, and their responses to chemical and physical conditions. For example, for acidic foods,
arrowroot is a better choice than cornstarch, which loses thickening potency in acidic mixtures. At
(acidic) pH levels below 4.5, guar gum has sharply reduced aqueous solubility, thus also reducing
its thickening capability. If the food is to be frozen, tapioca or arrowroot are preferable over
cornstarch, which becomes spongy when frozen.
Many other food ingredients are used as thickeners, usually in the final stages of preparation of
specific foods. These thickeners have a flavor and are not markedly stable, thus are not suitable for
general use. However, they are very convenient and effective, and hence are widely used.
Flour is often used for thickening gravies, gumbos, and stews. It must be cooked in thoroughly to
avoid the taste of uncooked flour. Roux, a mixture of flour and fat (usually butter) cooked into a
paste, is used for gravies, sauces and stews. Cereal grains (oatmeal, couscous, farina, etc.) are used
to thicken soups. Yogurt is popular in Eastern Europe and Middle East for thickening soups. Soups
can also be thickened by adding grated starchy vegetables before cooking, though these will add
their own flavour. Tomato puree also adds thickness as well as flavour. Egg yolks have rich flavor
and offer a velvety smooth texture but can prove to be difficult to use. Other thickeners used by
cooks are nuts (including rehan) or glaces made of meat or fish.
Many thickening agents require extra care in cooking. Some starches lose their thickening quality
when cooked for too long or at too high a temperature, and thickened food may burn more easily
during cooking. As an alternative to adding more thickener, recipes may call for reduction of the
food's water content by lengthy simmering. When cooking, it is generally better to add thickener
cautiously; if over-thickened, more water may be added but loss of flavour and texture may result.
Food thickening can be important for people facing medical issues with chewing or swallowing, as
foods with a thicker consistency can reduce the chances of choking, or of inhalation of liquids or
food particles, which can lead to aspiration pneumonia.

[edit] Cosmetics
This section requires expansion.
Thickening agents used in cosmetics or personal hygiene products include polyethylene glycol,
synthetic polymers such as carbomer (a trade name for polyacrylic acid) and vegetable gums. Some
thickening agents may also function as stabilizers when they are used to maintain the stability of an
emulsion. Some emollients, such as petroleum jelly and various waxes may also function as
thickening agents in an emulsion.

[edit] Incendiary devices

Many fuels used in incendiary devices require thickening for increased performance. Aluminium
salts of fatty acids are frequently used. Some formulations (e.g. Napalm-B) use polymeric
thickeners, namely polystyrene. Thickened pyrophoric agent, a pyrophoric variant to napalm, is a
triethylaluminium thickened with polyisobutylene.what a loaf of ?

Sötningsmedel

Aspartame (or APM) (pronounced /ˈæspərteɪm/ or /əˈspɑrteɪm/) is the name for an artificial, non-
saccharide sweetener. In the European Union, it is known under the E number (additive code)
E951. Aspartame is the methyl ester of a phenylalanine/aspartic acid dipeptide. It has been the
subject of controversy since its initial approval in 1974. A 2007 safety evaluation found that the
weight of existing scientific evidence indicates that aspartame is safe at current levels of
consumption as a non-nutritive sweetener.[2]
 Cont
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Marketi
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• 2
Chemis
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Properti
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Discov
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approva
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Metabo
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Contro
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Referen
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[edit] Marketing
This sweetener is marketed under a number of trademark names, including Equal, NutraSweet, and
Canderel, and is an ingredient of approximately 6,000 consumer foods and beverages sold
worldwide, including (but not limited to) diet sodas and other soft drinks, instant breakfasts, breath
mints, cereals, sugar-free chewing gum, cocoa mixes, frozen desserts, gelatin desserts, juices,
laxatives, chewable vitamins supplements, milk drinks, pharmaceutical drugs and supplements,
shake mixes, tabletop sweeteners, teas, instant coffees, topping mixes, wine coolers and yogurt. It is
provided as a table condiment in some countries. However, aspartame is not always suitable for
baking because it often breaks down when heated and loses much of its sweetness. Aspartame is
also one of the main sugar substitutes used by people with diabetes.
Because sucralose, unlike aspartame, retains its sweetness after being heated, it has become more
popular as an ingredient. This, along with differences in marketing and changing consumer
preferences, has caused aspartame to lose market share to sucralose.[3][4]
 [edit] Chemistry
Aspartame is the methyl ester of the dipeptide of the natural amino acids L-aspartic acid and L-
phenylalanine. Under strongly acidic or alkaline conditions, aspartame may generate methanol by
hydrolysis. Under more severe conditions, the peptide bonds are also hydrolyzed, resulting in the
free amino acids.[5]
In certain markets aspartame is manufactured using a genetically modified variation of E. coli.[6][7]

[edit] Properties and use

Aspartame is an artificial sweetener. It is 200 times sweeter than sugar in typical concentrations,
without the high energy value of sugar. While aspartame, like other peptides, has a caloric value of
4 kilocalories (17 kilojoules) per gram, the quantity of aspartame needed to produce a sweet taste is
so small that its caloric contribution is negligible, which makes it a popular sweetener for those
trying to avoid calories from sugar. The taste of aspartame is not identical to that of sugar: the
sweetness of aspartame has a slower onset and longer duration than that of sugar. Blends of
aspartame with acesulfame potassium—usually listed in ingredients as acesulfame K—are
alleged[who?] to taste more like sugar, and to be sweeter than either substitute used alone.
Like many other peptides, aspartame may hydrolyze (break down) into its constituent amino acids
under conditions of elevated temperature or high pH. This makes aspartame undesirable as a baking
sweetener, and prone to degradation in products hosting a high-pH, as required for a long shelf life.
The stability of aspartame under heating can be improved to some extent by encasing it in fats or in
maltodextrin. The stability when dissolved in water depends markedly on pH. At room temperature,
it is most stable at pH 4.3, where its half-life is nearly 300 days. At pH 7, however, its half-life is
only a few days. Most soft-drinks have a pH between 3 and 5, where aspartame is reasonably stable.
In products that may require a longer shelf life, such as syrups for fountain beverages, aspartame is
sometimes blended with a more stable sweetener, such as saccharin.[8]
In products such as powdered beverages, the amine in aspartame can undergo a Maillard reaction
with the aldehyde groups present in certain aroma compounds. The ensuing loss of both flavor and
sweetness can be prevented by protecting the aldehyde as an acetal.
Some claim that aspartame leaves an odd after-taste to some people, while some describe it as a
non-flavor or something such as a watery after-taste. [9]

[edit] Discovery and approval

Aspartame was discovered in 1965 by James M. Schlatter, a chemist working for G.D. Searle &
Company. Schlatter had synthesized aspartame in the course of producing an anti-ulcer drug
candidate. He discovered its sweet taste serendipitously when he licked his finger, which had
accidentally become contaminated with aspartame.[10]
Following initial safety testing, two activists against food additives asserted these tests had
indicated aspartame may cause cancer in rats; as a result, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) did not approve its use as a food additive in the United States for many years.[11] In 1980,
the FDA convened a Public Board of Inquiry (PBOI) consisting of independent advisors charged
with examining the purported relationship between aspartame and brain cancer. The PBOI
concluded that aspartame does not cause brain damage, but it recommended against approving
aspartame at that time, citing unanswered questions about cancer in laboratory rats. A U.S. FDA
task force teams investigated allegations of errors in the pre-approval research conducted by the
manufacturer and found only minor discrepancies that did not affect the study outcomes.[12][13]
Citing data from a Japanese study that had not been available to the members of the PBOI,[14] and
after seeking advice from an expert panel that found fault with statistical analyses underlying the
PBOI's hesitation,[15] FDA commissioner Hayes approved aspartame for use in dry goods.[16] In
1983, the FDA further approved aspartame for use in carbonated beverages, and for use in other
beverages, baked goods, and confections in 1993. In 1996, the FDA removed all restrictions from
aspartame allowing it to be used in all foods.
In 1985, Monsanto Company bought G.D. Searle—and the aspartame business became a separate
Monsanto subsidiary, the NutraSweet Company. On May 25, 2000, Monsanto sold it to J.W. Childs
Equity Partners II L.P.[17] The U.S. patent on aspartame expired in 1992. Since then, the company
has competed for market share with other manufacturers, including Ajinomoto, Merisant and the
Holland Sweetener Company. The latter stopped making the chemical in late 2006 because "global
aspartame markets are facing structural oversupply, which has caused worldwide strong price
erosion over the last five years", making the business "persistently unprofitable".[18]
Several European Union countries approved aspartame in the 1980s, with EU-wide approval in
1994. The European Commission Scientific Committee on Food reviewed subsequent safety studies
and reaffirmed the approval in 2002. The European Food Safety Authority reported in 2006 that the
previously established Acceptable Daily Intake was appropriate, after reviewing yet another set of
studies.[19]

[edit] Metabolism and phenylketonuria

Upon ingestion, aspartame breaks down into natural residual components, including aspartic acid,
phenylalanine, methanol, and further breakdown products including formaldehyde,[20] formic acid,
and a diketopiperazine.
High levels of the naturally-occurring essential amino acid phenylalanine are a health hazard to
those born with phenylketonuria (PKU), a rare inherited disease that prevents phenylalanine from
being properly metabolized. Since individuals with PKU must consider aspartame as an additional
source of phenylalanine, foods containing aspartame sold in the United States must state
"Phenylketonurics: Contains Phenylalanine" on their product labels.
In the UK, foods that contain aspartame are legally required by the country's Food Standards
Agency to list the chemical among the product's ingredients and carry the warning "Contains a
source of phenylalanine" – this is usually at the foot of the list of ingredients. Manufacturers are
also required to print '"with sweetener(s)" on the label close to the main product name' on foods that
contain "sweeteners such as aspartame" or "with sugar and sweetener(s)" on "foods that contain
both sugar and sweetener".[21]

[edit] Controversy
Main article: Aspartame controversy
The artificial sweetener aspartame has been the subject of controversy since its initial approval by
the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1974. Concerns have been raised about the
quality of the research supporting its safety and the long-term effects that increased consumption
could have on the public.[22][23][24] Some scientific studies, combined with allegations of
conflicts of interest in the sweetener's FDA approval process, have been the focus of vocal activism,
conspiracy theories and hoaxes regarding postulated risks of aspartame.[25][26]
A 2007 safety evaluation found that the weight of existing scientific evidence indicates that
aspartame is safe at current levels of consumption as a non-nutritive sweetener.[2] Some sources of
claims regarding postulated aspartame dangers and conspiracies have been the subject of critical
examination.[27] In 1987, the U.S. Government Accountability Office concluded that the food
additive approval process had been followed for aspartame.[22][28] Based on government research
reviews and recommendations from advisory bodies such as the European Commission’s Scientific
Committee on Food and the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, aspartame has
been found to be safe for human consumption by more than ninety countries worldwide.[29][30] In
1999, FDA officials described the safety of aspartame as "clear cut" and stated that the product is
"one of the most thoroughly tested and studied food additives the agency has ever approved."[31]

Saccharin[2] is an artificial sweetener. The basic substance, benzoic sulfinide, has effectively no
food energy and is much sweeter than sucrose, but has an unpleasant bitter or metallic aftertaste,
especially at high concentrations. In countries where saccharin is allowed as a food additive, it is
used to sweeten products such as drinks, candies, medicines, and toothpaste.

Cont
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• 1
Properti
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• 2
History
• 3
Chemis
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• 4
Govern
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regulati
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• 5
Cancer
• 6 See
also
• 7 Notes
and
referen
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• 8
Externa
l links

[edit] Properties
Saccharin is unstable when heated but it does not react chemically with other food ingredients. As
such, it stores well. Blends of saccharin with other sweeteners are often used to compensate for each
sweetener's weaknesses. A 10:1 cyclamate:saccharin blend is common in countries where both these
sweeteners are legal; in this blend, each sweetener masks the other's off-taste. Saccharin is often
used together with aspartame in diet soda, so that some sweetness remains should the fountain
syrup be stored beyond aspartame's relatively short shelf life. Saccharin is believed to be an
important discovery, especially for diabetics, as it goes directly through the human digestive system
without being digested. Although saccharin thus has no food energy, it can trigger the release of
insulin in humans and rats, apparently as a result of its taste.[3] [4][5]
In its acid form, saccharin is not water-soluble. The form used as an artificial sweetener is usually
its sodium salt. The calcium salt is also sometimes used, especially by people restricting their
dietary sodium intake. Both salts are highly water-soluble: 0.67 grams per milliliter water at room
temperature.[6][7]

[edit] History
Saccharin was first produced in 1878 by Constantin Fahlberg, a chemist working on coal tar
derivatives in Ira Remsen's laboratory at the Johns Hopkins University. It was Fahlberg who,
accidentally, discovered its intensely sweet nature.[citation needed] Fahlberg and Remsen published
articles on benzoic sulfinide in 1879 and 1880. In 1884, now working on his own in New York City,
Fahlberg applied for patents in several countries describing methods of producing this substance
that he named saccharin. Fahlberg would soon grow wealthy, while Remsen merely grew irate,
believing that he deserved credit for substances produced in his laboratory. On the matter, Remsen
commented, "Fahlberg is a scoundrel. It nauseates me to hear my name mentioned in the same
breath with him."
Although saccharin was commercialized not long after its discovery, it was not until sugar shortages
during World War I that its use became widespread. Its popularity further increased during the
1960s and 1970s among dieters, since saccharin is a calorie-free sweetener. In the United States
saccharin is often found in restaurants in pink packets; the most popular brand is "Sweet'N Low". A
small number of soft drinks are sweetened with saccharin, the most popular[citation needed] being
the Coca-Cola Company's cola drink Tab, introduced in 1963 as a diet cola soft drink.

[edit] Chemistry
Saccharin has the chemical formula C7H5NO3S and it can be produced in various ways.[8] The
original route starts with toluene, but yields from this starting point are low. In 1950, an improved
synthesis was developed at the Maumee Chemical Company of Toledo, Ohio. In this synthesis,
anthranilic acid successively reacts with nitrous acid, sulfur dioxide, chlorine, and then ammonia to
yield saccharin. Another route begins with o-chlorotoluene. It is also known as ortho sulfobenzoic
acid.[9]
Saccharin is an acid with a pKa of about 2.[10][11]
Saccharin can be used to prepare exclusively disubstituted amines from alkyl halides via a Gabriel
synthesis. [12]

[edit] Government regulation

Starting in 1907, the USDA began investigating saccharin. Problems with saccharin and the USDA
have not been resolved since then. The initial series of investigations begun by the USDA in 1907
was a direct result of the Pure Food and Drug Act. This act was passed in 1906 in the wake of a
storm of health controversies concerning the meat-packing industry.
Harvey Wiley was one particularly well-known figure involved in the investigation of saccharin.
Wiley, then the director of the bureau of chemistry for the USDA, had suspected saccharin to be
damaging to human health. Wiley first battled saccharin in 1908. In a clash that epitomizes the
controversial history of saccharin, Harvey told then President Theodore Roosevelt directly that
"Everyone who ate that sweet corn was deceived. He thought he was eating sugar, when in point of
fact he was eating a coal tar product totally devoid of food value and extremely injurious to health."
In a heated exchange, Roosevelt angrily answered Harvey by stating "Anybody who says saccharin
is injurious to health is an idiot."[13] In 1911, the Food Inspection Decision 135 stated that foods
containing saccharin were adulterated. However in 1912, Food Inspection Decision 142 stated that
saccharin was not harmful. The government's stance on saccharin has continued to waver ever
since. More controversy was stirred in 1969 with the discovery of files from the Food and Drug
Administration's investigations of 1948 and 1949. These investigations, which had originally argued
against saccharin use, were shown to prove little about saccharin being harmful to human health. In
1972 the USDA made an attempt to completely ban the substance.[14] However, this attempt was
unsuccessful and the sweetener remains widely available in the United States; it is the third-most
popular after sucralose and aspartame. Cyclamate, however, was banned in the U.S. in 1969 and
saccharin was banned in Canada in 1977, leading to different product formulations being marketed
in these countries.
In the European Union saccharin is also known by the E number (additive code) E954.

[edit] Cancer
This section needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and
removed. (July 2007)

Saccharin warning on a diet soda can.

Sweet 'n Low packet with cancer warning printed on the back
Throughout the 1960s, various studies suggested that saccharin might be an animal carcinogen.
Concern peaked in 1977, after the publication of a study indicating an increased rate of bladder
cancer in rats fed large doses of saccharin. In that year, Canada banned saccharin while the United
States Food and Drug Administration also proposed a ban. At the time, saccharin was the only
artificial sweetener available in the U.S., and the proposed ban met with strong public opposition,
especially among diabetics. Eventually, the U.S. Congress placed a moratorium on the ban,
requiring instead that all saccharin-containing foods display a warning label indicating that
saccharin may be a carcinogen.
Many studies have since been performed on saccharin, some showing a correlation between
saccharin consumption and increased frequency of cancer in rats (especially bladder cancer) and
others finding no such correlation. No study has ever shown a clear causal relationship between
saccharin consumption and health risks in humans at normal doses, though some studies have
shown a correlation between consumption and cancer incidence.[15] It appears that there is
insufficient data to test hypotheses about humans from certain animal studies that have been
performed.[16] According to saccharin.org, a group which represents the low-calorie and reduced-
fat food and beverage industry, the products of those it represents containing saccharin are perfectly
safe: "Concerns over saccharin's safety were first raised twenty years ago after a flawed study that
administered huge quantities of the sweetener to laboratory rats produced bladder tumors in rats.
New and better scientific research has decisively shown that the earlier rat studies are not at all
applicable to humans." The U.S. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences came to the
same conclusion in 2000, recommending that saccharin be removed from the list of known or
suspected human carcinogens.[17] The mechanism appears to be due the way that rats metabolize
sodium, and bladder cancer which cannot be replicated in other mammals has also been observed
with rat consumption of other sodium salts such as sodium citrate and bicarbonate. Saccharin has,
however, also been linked to thyroid cancer in mice. [18]
In 1991, after fourteen years, the FDA formally withdrew its 1977 proposal to ban the use of
saccharin, and in 2000, the U.S. Congress repealed the law requiring saccharin products to carry
health warning labels.