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1.

Catalytic chemical vapour deposition (CCVD) or simply CVD with variants like thermal
and plasma-assisted is the dominant commercial technique for the fabrication of VGCF
and VGCNF. Here, gas-phase molecules are decomposed at high temperatures and
carbon is deposited in the presence of a transition metal catalyst on a substrate where
the subsequent growth of the fibre around the catalyst particles is realized. In general,
this process involves separate stages such as gas decomposition, carbon deposition,
fibre growth, fibre thickening, graphitization, and purification and results in hollow fibres.
The nanofiber diameter depends on the catalyst size. The CVD process for the
fabrication of VGCF generally falls into two categories:
1) fixed-catalyst process (batch), and
2) floating-catalyst process (continuous).
In the batch process developed by Tibbetts, a mixture of hydrocarbon/hydrogen/helium was
passed over a mullite (crystalline aluminium silicate) with fine iron catalyst particle deposits
maintained at 1000 °C. The hydrocarbon used was methane in the concentration of 15% by
volume. Fibre growth in several centimetres was achieved in just 10 minutes with a gas
residence time of 20 seconds. In general, fibre length can be controlled by the gas residence
time in the reactor. Gravity and direction of the gas flow typically affect the direction of the fibre
growth.
The continuous or floating-catalyst process was patented earlier by Koyama and Endo[7] and was
later modified by Hatano and coworkers. This process typically yields VGCF with sub-micrometre
diameters and lengths of a few to 100 µm, which accords with the definition of carbon nanofibers.
They utilized organometallic compounds dissolved in a volatile solvent like benzene that would
yield a mixture of ultrafine catalyst particles (5–25 nm in diameter) in hydrocarbon gas as the
temperature rose to 1100 °C. In the furnace, the fibre growth initiates on the surface of the
catalyst particles and continues until catalyst poisoning occurs by impurities in the system. In the
fibre growth mechanism described by Baker and coworkers, only the part of catalyst particle
exposed to the gas mixture contributes to the fibre growth and the growth stops as soon as the
exposed part is covered, i.e. the catalyst is poisoned. The catalyst particle remains buried in the
growth tip of the fibre at a final concentration of about a few parts per million. At this stage, fibre
thickening takes place
The most commonly used catalyst is iron, often treated with sulfur, hydrogen sulfide, etc. to lower
the melting point and facilitate its penetration into the pores of carbon and hence, to produce
more growth sites. Fe/Ni, Ni, Co, Mn, Cu, V, Cr, Mo, Pd, MgO, and Al2O3 are also used as a
catalyst. Acetylene, ethylene, methane, natural gas, and benzene are the most commonly used
carbonaceous gases. Often carbon monoxide (CO) is introduced in the gas flow to increase the
carbon yield through reduction of possible iron oxides in the system.
In 2017, a research group in Tsinghua University reported the epytixial growth of aligned,
continuous, catalyst-free carbon nanofiber from a carbon nanotube template. The fabrication
process includes thickening of continuous carbon nanotube films by gas-phase pyrolytic carbon
deposition and further graphitization of the carbon layer by high-temperature treatment. Due to
the epitaxial growth mechanism, the fibre features superior properties including low density, high
mechanical strength, high electrical conductivity, high thermal conductivity.

2. It is a high-capacity capacitor with capacitance values much higher than other


capacitors (but lower voltage limits) that bridge the gap between electrolytic
capacitors and rechargeable batteries. They typically store 10 to 100 times more energy
per unit volume or mass than electrolytic capacitors, can accept and deliver charge
much faster than batteries, and tolerate many more charge and discharge cycles
than rechargeable batteries.
 EDLC use carbon electrodes or derivatives with much higher electrostatic double-layer
capacitance than electrochemical pseudocapacitance, achieving separation of charge in
a Helmholtz double layer at the interface between the surface of a conductive electrode
and an electrolyte. The separation of charge is of the order of a few ångströms (0.3–
0.8 nm), much smaller than in a conventional capacitor.
 Electrochemical pseudocapacitors use a metal oxide or conducting polymer electrodes
with a high amount of electrochemical pseudocapacitance additional to the double-layer
capacitance. Pseudocapacitance is achieved by Faradaic electron charge-
transfer with redox reactions, intercalation or electrosorption.

Advantages:
 High charge-discharge rate
 Long lifespan
 High power density
 Small size
 Flexibility
3. Liquid crystal phases are generally cloudy in appearance, which means that they scatter
light in much the same way as colloids such as milk. This light scattering is a
consequence of fluctuating regions of non-uniformity as small groups of molecules
form and disperse.
The anisotropy of liquid crystals causes them to exhibit birefringence. That is, light
that enters the crystal is broken up into two oppositely-polarized rays that travel at
different velocities. Observation of a birefringent material between crossed polarizing
filters reveals striking patterns and colour effects.
Liquid crystals, like all other kinds of matter, are subject to thermal expansion. As the
temperature rises, the average spacing between the aligned molecules of a nematic
phase (see below) increases, thus causing the e-ray to be increasingly retarded with
respect to the o-ray. If a suitable liquid crystal mixture is painted onto the surface of a
patient's body, it can often reveal the sites of infection or tumours, which cause
increases or reductions in local blood flow giving rise to temperature anomalies.
Inexpensive thermometers can be made by printing a succession of suitably formulated
LC mixtures on a paper or plastic strip which is held in contact with the surface whose
temperature is to be measured.
In a nematic phase (the term means "thread-like") the molecules are aligned in the
same direction but are free to drift around randomly, very much as in an ordinary liquid.
Owing to their polarity, the alignment of the rod-like molecules can be controlled by
applying an electric field; this is the physical basis for liquid crystal displays and certain
other electro-optic devices.
In smectic ("soap-like") phases the molecules are arranged in layers, with the long
molecular axes approximately perpendicular to the laminar planes. The only long-range
order extends along this axis, with the result that individual layers can slip over each
other (hence the "soap-like" nature) in a manner similar to that observed in graphite.
Within a layer, there is a certain amount of short-range order. There are a large number
of sub-categories of smectic phases which we will not go into here.
special cases of nematic and smectic phases are sometimes formed by molecules that
display chirality — that is, they can exist in either left- or right-handed forms that
cannot be superposed on each other. In the resulting chiral phase, successive molecules
positioned along the long axis are rotated around this axis, giving rise to a periodicity
that repeats itself at distances corresponding to a complete rotation. These twisted
phases are able to rotate the plane of polarized light that passes along the axis. If the
molecules are polar, this twisting can be turned off by imposing an external electric
field at either end of the long axis. Besides the very important application of this
property (known as ferroelectricity) to liquid crystal displays, these materials can be
used to make electrooptic shutters which can be switched open and closed in
microseconds.
4. G
5. G
6. Phage display is a laboratory technique for the study of protein–protein, protein–peptide,
and protein–DNA interactions that uses bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) to
connect proteins with the genetic information that encodes them.[1] In this technique, a
gene encoding a protein of interest is inserted into a phage coat protein gene, causing the
phage to "display" the protein on its outside while containing the gene for the protein on
its inside, resulting in a connection between genotype and phenotype. These displaying
phages can then be screened against other proteins, peptides or DNA sequences, in order
to detect interaction between the displayed protein and those other molecules. In this way,
large libraries of proteins can be screened and amplified in a process called in
vitro selection, which is analogous to natural selection.

7. surface density: reducing roughness, hiretical roughness at both micro and nanometer
scales
surface topography: chemical functionalities
surface nanostructuring has been demonstrated as an effective way to control
hydrophobicity. the surfaces must be highly textured (rough) combined with extremely
low water affinity, super-hydrophobicity so that water forms near-spherical shapes that
roll on the surface
8. The concept of self-healing is that a damaged structure is repaired by materials already
contained within it, analogous to the biological healing process in living organisms.
The key is that no external action is required, unlike conventional repair. The
technology must sense and respond to damage, restoring the materials performance
without affecting the overall properties of the system. This would make the material
safer, more reliable, longer lasting, and require less maintenance and thus reduce costs.
During a damage event, some of these hollow fibres (glass or carbon fibres) will
fracture, thus, initiating two processes. Firstly, the enhanced visualization of the
damage site by seepage of a highly conspicuous medium (e.g., UV fluorescent dye),
thus, aiding the practical inspection for BVID (Barely Visible Impact Damage) and
identifying areas for permanent repair. Secondly, the recovery of properties by healing
whereby a repair agent (e.g. Superglue, DCPD–dicyclopentadiene monomer, vinyl
ester 411-C50 and EPON-862 epoxy) passes (with the aid of heating and vacuum) from
within any broken hollow fibres to infiltrate the damage zone and acts to ameliorate (to
make better or more tolerable) its effect on mechanical properties. This repair process
will act to reduce the critical effects of matrix cracking and delamination between plies
and, most importantly, prevent further damage propagation.

Why is epoxy used in self-healing?


Because epoxy viscosity is very low and low temperature can make cross-linking.

9. All SF-100 systems provide users with the ability to manipulate materials using light.
The mercury arc lamp provides optical energy at g-line (435nm), h-line (405nm), and
i-line (365nm) wavelengths, which are projected onto substrate materials in user-
designed patterns using the SF-100 XPRESS's patented technology. The most common
application of SF-100 systems is to transfer micro patterns onto a substrate. This pattern
transfer technique is called Photolithography. Standard photolithography process steps
are detailed below.
step 1 : Photoresist Coating
A substrate, an object onto which the image is transferred or projected, is coated with
photoresist, a liquid polymeric material. The photoresist is the material that the image
will be transferred to during the photolithography process. The coating process is
typically performed by spinning the substrates at speeds between 1000 and 5000 rpm.
Photoresist is deposited onto the substrate surface during this dynamic movement to
ensure even coating over the entire substrate surface. Another alternative is to employ
dry film photoresists which can be laminated into place to create the photopatternable
surface.
Step 2: Exposure
Once the substrate has been coated with photoresist, the substrate is then exposed on
an exposure tool. This is the process step that the SF-100 performs. In standard
processes, the system shines light through a glass plate which is partially coated with
chrome. This plate, termed a photomask or mask, has the master image of the device
on it. By shining light through it and onto the substrate, individual areas of the
photoresist are selectively exposed to light. This exposure causes a chemical change in
the photoresist. The SF-100 is able to perform this process step without the need for a
photomask, providing the user many financial and technical benefits over conventional
techniques. After exposure, the photoresist that was exposed to light changes
chemically on the substrate.
Step 3: Development
Once exposed, the substrate is then immersed in a developer solution. Developer
solutions are typically aqueous and will dissolve away areas of the photoresist that were
exposed to light. Therefore, after successful development, the photoresist is patterned
with the master image that was provided by the user.
Step 4: Hardbake
After development, the substrate is baked in an oven or hot plate at temperatures
between 100-120C. This is needed to drive off liquids that may have been absorbed on
the substrate and to crosslink the remaining photoresist. Crosslinking the polymer
increases the mechanical and chemical stability of the material, allowing it to be used
in further substrate processing.

10. Carbon-based electrodes exhibit a predominantly static double-layer capacitance, even


though a small amount of pseudocapacitance may also be present depending on the
pore size distribution. Pore sizes in carbons typically range from micropores (less than
2 nm) to mesopores (2-50 nm), but only micropores (<2 nm) contribute to
pseudocapacitance. As pore size approaches the solvation shell size, solvent molecules
are excluded and only unsolved ions fill the pores (even for large ions), increasing ionic
packing density and storage capability by faradaic H
2 intercalation owing to their large surface area whereas graphites and carbon blacks
are the most common conductive materials due to their low cost and easy processability
and their great electrical properties.

11. The hollow particle is a promising material with the special properties of low densities,
thermal insulation and distinct optical activity. applications can be in the fields of drug
delivery, catalysis and optics

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