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8th Annual Water Distribution Systems Analysis Symposium, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA, August 27-30, 2006

WATER DISTRIBUTION NETWORK OPTIMIZATION BY


MAXIMIZING THE PRESSURE UNIFORMITY AT SERVICE NODES

Diego Araque
Researcher, Water Distribution and Sewer Systems Research Center – CIACUA
Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, Universidad de los Andes,
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Carrera 1No. 18ª-10. Bogotá D.C. (Colombia)


e-mail: d-araque@uniandes.edu.co

Juan G. Saldarriaga
Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, Universidad de los Andes. Director, Water
Distribution and Sewer Systems Research Center – CIACUA
Carrera 1No. 18ª-10. Bogotá D.C. (Colombia)
e-mail: jsaldarr@uniandes.edu.co

Abstract
Todini (2000) defined the Resilience Index as the relation between the power per unit weight dissipated
by the WDN and the power per unit weight available to be dissipated. The first term is the power per unit
weight spent in form of friction and minor losses, by the configuration of pipes, to give the service
consumed in each node of the WDN in form of pressure and demand. The second term is the power per
unit weight given to the system by the reservoir (s) and/or the pump (s) minus the optimal one, which
corresponds to the case of minimum pressure in each node giving the demanded discharge.

The main objective of this research work is to look for that power per unit of weight dissipated by the
WDN which would be equal to the power available by means of replacement of certain pipes in the WDN.
In this way the reliability degree of the WDN is increased as well as the capacity of the WDN to transport
the water under minimum conditions of pressure and demand. To obtain this in an optimal form, one must
affect the power per unit of weight that is consumed by the WDN during the process; this power is the one
dissipated by hydraulic friction and minor losses inside the pipes. The developed methodology can select,
step by step, which single pipeline should be replaced to obtain the maximum increase in the Resilience
Index. In doing so, the pressure at the entrance to the network can be reduced, increasing the pressure
uniformity and decreasing water leaks. The process must stop either when there is a water quality
problem due to the increase in retention time or when the replacement costs are greater than the savings
due to leaks reduction. In that way the operator can optimize its infrastructure replacement investments.

Keywords
Water distribution networks, reliability, resilience of water networks, pipes rehabilitation and renewing.

1. INTRODUCTION

The WDN maintenance includes typically the rehabilitation and renewing repair and renovation of the
pipelines that form part of it. Most of the maintenance policies combine the development of a decision
support technique based on from the substitution of appropriate pipelines using technical judgment
acquired under a very well hydraulic knowledge of the system.

The substitution of certain pipes in the WDN affects the level of losses that occur inside the system to
achieve an optimal delivery of the service. The losses analyzed in the project object of this paper are

Copyright ASCE 2006 Water Distribution Systems Analysis Symposium 2006


Water Distribution Systems Analysis Symposium 2006
8th Annual Water Distribution Systems Analysis Symposium, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA, August 27-30, 2006

classified in two types: energy losses and water (mass) losses caused by an irregular pressure plane
present in the WDN. The developed methodology is able to optimize the delivery of the service starting
from the suitable change of certain pipes in the WDN, which diminishes the level of losses taken place by
the system.

However, the replacement of these pipes, increasing the diameters, affects the quality of the water
delivered in the consumption nodes, which establishes the grade until the rehabilitation in these pipes is
allowed to carry out in the WDN. This paper aims to present a novel water distribution network
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operational optimization methodology whose main objective is the one of maximizing the uniformity of
the state of pressures. The developed technique involves the effect of its application on the quality of the
water delivered in the consumption nodes, the rehabilitation costs and the water losses present in WDN.

2. LOSSES IN WATER DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS

As it was mentioned before, the losses analyzed on the presented project corresponds to the pressure
losses due to an unbalanced friction distribution in the pipes topology and the presence of leaks of water
over the pipes due to an irregular pressure plane on the WDN. These losses are related each other because
the presence of an irregular pressure plane, due to the poor friction distribution in the pipes, cause high
levels of leaks that are presented in the WDN. Therefore, it is necessary to affect the distribution of the
friction losses in the pipes in such a way that the plane of pressures could be balanced, with the result of
less leaks of water presented in the system.

As it will be shown later, these losses can be quantified in terms of power per unit of weight lost by the
pipes topology and the presence of leaks in the system, with the purpose of evaluating the effect of the
application of the methodology developed on the decrease of these losses.

2.1 Energy losses

The power per unit of weight given to the WDN can be quantified in terms of the entrance discharge and
the pressure at the network entrance of that discharge, which should guarantee the delivery of the water at
service nodes under some requirements of minimum pressure and minimum water quality at those nodes.
At service nodes of the system the exit power per unit of weight is also quantified as the sum of the power
by unit of weight delivered in each one of the nodes.

The delivery of the service is carried out through the pipes topology of the system where part of the
power by unit of weight given to the WDN is used; this power will be defined as the power per unit of
weight of operation of the system. The operational power per unit of weight corresponds to the losses of
pressure due to the friction in the pipes of the WDN. It will be demonstrated that with the application of
the methodology developed in this project, these losses are redistributed to achieve the optimal operation
of the WDN keeping in mind the existent restrictions under which the service should be delivery.

The energy per unit of weight of operation of the system corresponds to the sum of energy per unit of
weight of operation of each pipe of the WDN. Each one of these can be calculated individually using the
Darcy-Weisbach equation, to calculate the friction losses in a pipe, equation (1). (Saldarriaga 2001).

l V2
hf = f (1)
d 2g

Copyright ASCE 2006 Water Distribution Systems Analysis Symposium 2006


Water Distribution Systems Analysis Symposium 2006
8th Annual Water Distribution Systems Analysis Symposium, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA, August 27-30, 2006

where hf is the operation energy per unit of weight of the pipe (friction loss), f is Darcy’s friction factor, l
is the pipe length in which hf is loosed, d is the pipe diameter, V is the average water speed in the pipe
and g is the gravity acceleration.

Since f is a function of Reynolds Number and pipe diameter, and that number is function of the pipe
diameter also, this parameter cause severe changes in the operation energy per unit of weight of the pipe,
hf. Therefore, the pipe diameter must be the parameter that has to be changed in order to affect the energy
losses present in the WDN.
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2.2 Water losses

In all WDNs there is a problem caused mainly by the high levels of pressure. Because the junctions
between pipes and between pipes and fittings represent points with high stresses caused by water
pressure, they are vulnerable points from the mechanical point of view and there is a high possibility of
leakages there. The presence of leaks in these areas causes an increase of the power per unit of weight of
operation of the system to be delivered. Besides of the demanded discharge at each service node, there is
a leak flow caused by fittings and junctions malfunction and affected by the irregular pressure plane in the
WDN.

Also, from the economic point of view, the additional power per unit of weight is reflected in a quantity
of unaccounted water, generating economic losses on the utilities in charge of the supply. The presence
of leaks in WDN is affected by the following factors:

• The length of the pipelines of the WDN.

• The number of service connections in the WDN. The service connections can be considered as
weak points of the distribution systems. The leak discharges are generally low but they occur for
long time periods.

• Regarding the soil conditions, two parameters can be observed that affect the presence of leaks in
the WND. First the corrosion caused to the pipes due to the continuous movement of the water
among the soil, and second the leak detection processes, because leaks detection becomes more
difficult in granular soils.

• High levels of pressure at service nodes generated by a high average operation pressure. This
causes that the rate of unaccounted reaches levels in which is not possible to predict its theoretical
relationship with the pressure.

The process of leaks decrease in WDN can be achieved by an optimization process of the pressure level at
service nodes. The problem arises because the operator must guarantee a correct service in the far away
nodes with pressures close but above to the minimum pressure allowed by legislation. The simplest form
to do that is to generate a high pressure level in the system to assure that in any moment the pressure is
below to a minimum one at service nodes. But this unbalanced pressure, high close to the entrance and
very low far away, causes the increase of the power per unit of weight of operation of the system,
accompanied by the increase in the number and the magnitude of leaks with the rising hydraulic and
economic losses. The optimization process looks for a way to reduce the entrance pressure replacing some
of the network pipelines.

Copyright ASCE 2006 Water Distribution Systems Analysis Symposium 2006


Water Distribution Systems Analysis Symposium 2006
8th Annual Water Distribution Systems Analysis Symposium, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA, August 27-30, 2006

To reduce the additional power per unit of weight of operation generated by the presence of leaks in the
system, the high level of pressure in the pipes should be diminished, at the same time that the pressure
uniformity in the system is maximized.

To calculate the unaccounted water volume and therefore the additional power per unit of weight of
operation generated to deliver the service, it is necessary to model leaks in the WDN hydraulic model
used to calculate pressure at nodes and discharges inside pipelines, under a steady flow condition. The
leak flow at node i (Qf,i), is a term that should be included in the equation of conservation of mass at the
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nodes under steady flow, by means of modeling the leak as an orifice. The mathematical expression for
the leak flow is presented in the equation (2) (Sisa 2003).

Q f ,i = K p (H i )
np
(2)

where Kp is the orifice coefficient, np it is the orifice exponent, and Hi is the pressure at node i. It is
assumed that the leak only occurs at the nodes of the WDN, not along the pipelines. The orifice
coefficient, Kp, defines the size of the leak, while the orifice exponent, np, defines the freedom level of the
leak, which is 0.5 for a completely circular orifice leak and it increases for irregular forms of orifices,
specially in plastic pipes.

3. WATER QUALITY IN DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS

After analyzing the water quality modules of different WDN hydraulic modeling programs, it was
concluded that these were based, for water quality calculations, on the program EPANET of the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Thus, for this research project, EPANET was used to carry out the
analysis of the effects that has the developed methodology has over the water quality delivered at service
nodes.

Besides the calculation of discharges in the pipes and the pressures at service nodes, given a WDN pipes
topology, EPANET can be used to analyze problems such as the age of the water through the system,
growth or decay of disinfection products, pollutants propagation events and the loss of residual Chlorine
in the service nodes. As was mentioned previously, during the present research an analysis of the effects
of the methodology over the water quality was carried out, using the evaluation of the loss of residual
Chlorine at service nodes. The effects were evaluated on the Chlorine because it is the main substance
used for the disinfection of water delivered at the service nodes.

The water quality module of EPANET can evaluate residual Chlorine decay while it travels through a
WDN, using an extended period simulation of its hydraulics. In order to do so, it is necessary to know the
reaction speed of Chlorine. The reaction happens in both the water body and with the pipe wall material.
EPANET allows the use of different reaction speeds, by means of different reaction constants, for both
cases. For the purpose of the research project, a Chlorine level was assumed at entrance node.

3.1 Factors for the Chlorine decay

The Chlorine reaction is mainly affected by the storage time of the water in the pipes, which corresponds
to the time that a certain particle of water remains inside the net. The analysis of the storage time is the
simplest form of evaluating the quality of the water in the WDN (EPA 2000). The residual Chlorine
decay is mainly affected by the increase in the storage time of the water in the pipes caused by the

Copyright ASCE 2006 Water Distribution Systems Analysis Symposium 2006


Water Distribution Systems Analysis Symposium 2006
8th Annual Water Distribution Systems Analysis Symposium, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA, August 27-30, 2006

increase in the diameters of some of them, in order to redistributing the power per unit of weight of
operation at the same time of maximizing the uniformity of pressures at service nodes.

The modification carried out in the diameters of certain pipes of the system consists on the increase from
the current diameter to the following commercial available diameter in order to diminishing the individual
power per unit of weight of operation of a chosen pipeline using the methodology. Of course, the
increase of the storage is caused by a larger storage capacity in the WDN and/or smaller average flow
velocities, which increases the reaction speed of the Chlorine in the water body and with the wall of
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pipelines. Due to the increase in the diameters of certain pipes (chosen by the developed methodology)
the storage volume of the water is increased and at the same time, the average flow speeds decrease,
which diminishes the quantity of residual Chlorine in the system and therefore the quality of the given
service.

4. PERFORMANCE INDICATORS

The developed methodology required some WDN performance indicators to evaluate how well a
topology change behaves. The implementation of performance indicators as control tools are the only way
to guarantee that the state of service of a WDN will be the best possible given some restrictions. This
state of service involves the demand discharge and the pressure at service nodes. As the demand remains
constant in most cases, then the pressure is the only variable in the operation of the WDN that can be
controlled.

The indicators implemented in the present project were defined in order to represent, in the best way, the
behavior of a WDN with the purpose of making the most convenient decision about the pipes that should
be modified, to maximize the uniformity of pressures in the whole system. In the same way, the hydraulic
behavior of the WDN must be understood to evaluate the effects taken place by the modification on one
or several changes in pipe diameters. The behavior indicators used by the developed methodology are
presented herein with a brief explanation of each one.

4.1 Resilience Index

The internal pressure losses caused by friction lower the reliability of the system. The increment of power
per unit weight for system operation during pipe failure conditions can be known if the available power to
be dissipated by the system exceeds the one that is really dissipate by it. Based on this premise, the
Resilience Index is defined. Todini (2000) proposed the following Resilience Index, based on the concept
that the entrance power in a network is equal to the lost power per the system caused by the effects of the
friction plus the power per unit weight delivered at demand nodes, as it is shown in equation 3:

Pinp = Pint + Pout (3)

The total entrance power per unit weight includes the power given by possible pumps plus the one given
by the reservoirs, in the following way (equation 4):

ne n´ pu

Pinp = ∑ Qe H e + ∑ Pi (4)
e =1 i =1

Copyright ASCE 2006 Water Distribution Systems Analysis Symposium 2006


Water Distribution Systems Analysis Symposium 2006
8th Annual Water Distribution Systems Analysis Symposium, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA, August 27-30, 2006

where Qe y He are the entrance discharge and head; ne: number of reservoirs; Pi: power per unit of weight
given by the pump i; and npu: number of pumps in the network. The total power per unit weight given at
the service nodes is defined by equation (5):

nn
Pout = ∑ Q j H j (5)
j =1
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where Qj: is the water demand in the node j; Hj: is the pressure which assures that the demand Qj is
satisfied; and nn: it is the number of nodes of the whole distribution network. Therefore the Resilience
Index of the net is defined as in equation (6):

Pint (6)
I r = 1−
Pintmax

where Pint: is the power per unit weight dissipated by the network; and Pintmax: is the maximum power per
unit weight that can be dissipated internally by the network to guarantee the demand Qj and the minimum
pressure H* required in each node of the WDN. When substituting the appropriate values, the general
form of equation 6 is defined in equation 7:

⎡ ne n pu
⎤ nn
( )
nn
⎢∑ (Qe H e )i + ∑ Pi ⎥ − ∑ Q j H j ∑ Q j H j − H *j
Ir = 1− ⎣
i =1 i =1 ⎦ j =1
=
j =1 (7)
⎡ ne n pu
⎤ nn
⎡ ne n pu
⎤ nn
⎢∑ (Qe H e )i + ∑ Pi ⎥ − ∑ Q j H j ⎢∑ (Qe H e )i + ∑ Pi ⎥ − ∑ Q j H j
* *

⎣ i =1 i =1 ⎦ j =1 ⎣ i =1 i =1 ⎦ j =1

4.2 Unaccounted Water Index (UWI) and Unaccounted Water Cost (UWC).

The unaccounted water corresponds to the volume of water given by the treatment plants that is not billed
by the water utilities. The UWI relates the water given by the treatment plant and the water billed by the
water utility (equation 8) (Wilches 2004).
Vp − V f
IANC = (8)
Vp

where Vp is the volume of water given by the treatment plant during a fixed time period and Vf is the
volume of water billed in the same period of time.

The unaccounted water is lost in either of the following two ways: as commercial losses, related with the
operation of the water utility (illegal connections, customers data base problems, inaccurate micrometers,
etc,), and the technical losses caused by the presence of leaks and pipe bursts in the WDN. The present
project carried out an analysis of the new methodology on the technical losses, represented by means of a
modeled UWI in the WDN. The behavior of the UWI was analyzed using the theoretical modeling of
service nodes losses (See section 2b of the present document).

On the other hand, in order to establish the time to stop the rehabilitation of certain pipes in the WDN,
from the economic point of view, an investment analysis was carried out using the effect of the
methodology on the decrease of the unaccounted water in the WDN. The decrease in the volume of

Copyright ASCE 2006 Water Distribution Systems Analysis Symposium 2006


Water Distribution Systems Analysis Symposium 2006
8th Annual Water Distribution Systems Analysis Symposium, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA, August 27-30, 2006

unaccounted water saves water cost, represented by the decrease of the operational costs of the water
utilities.

The saving on the unaccounted water cost per year (SavingUWCn), generated after modeling the
rehabilitation of the n chosen pipes, corresponds to the difference among the initial unaccounted water
cost (UWC0), before methodology application, and the unaccounted water cost after carrying out the
rehabilitation of the n pipes (UWCn); it is calculated by means of the equation 9.
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SavingUWCn = UWC0 − UWC n (9)

where n corresponds to the number of modifications carried out.

The time until the developed rehabilitation methodology should be carried out is when the UWCn per year
(amortized into a fixed number of years) is less than the SavingUWCn (calculated without amortize the
UWCn) generated by the modification of the n chosen pipes. Using this economic analysis, the time until
the rehabilitation process is carried out could be calculated. It depends on the number of years in which
the initial unaccounted water cost UWC0 must be amortized.

4.3 Rehabilitation cost

The pipe rehabilitation cost used for the developed methodology is presented in the equation 10
(Gutiérrez 2002).

NTE
Cost Re hab = K cos to ∑ Li (Di )
ncosto
(10)
i =1

where Kcost is a constant that involves the costs of the manpower, the complementary works carried out
for the operation of the pipe i and the pipe cost per unit of length which depends on the diameter; NTE is
the number of pipes that should be rehabilitated, Li and Di are the length and the diameter (in meters) of
the pipe i respectively and ncosto is a constant which depends on the pipe diameter.

4.4 Selection function

The above mentioned behavior indicators are divided in two groups: The first one corresponds to the
indicators that evaluate the global effects of the application of the methodology; these are UWI, CostUWC
and CostRehab. The second group of indicators corresponds to those used to find the pipe that should be
modified in order to maximize the uniformity of pressures in the WDN; these are to Ir and DESV.

The method of the pondered sum of objective functions was implemented to carry out the process of
search of the pipe which should be modified in its diameter. This method transforms the multiobjective
problem of maximizing Ir and minimizes DESV, in a monobjective optimization problem (Collette &
Siarry 2003).

Equation 11, represents the selection function (FO) of the pipe to be modified into the process of
maximization of the uniformity of pressures in the WDN.

⎛ I r ,i DESVi ⎞
max FO = max⎜ λ − (1 − λ ) ⎟ (11)
⎜ f I ,i f DESV i ⎟
⎝ r ⎠

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Water Distribution Systems Analysis Symposium 2006
8th Annual Water Distribution Systems Analysis Symposium, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA, August 27-30, 2006

where Ir,i corresponds to the value of the Resilience Index founded after changing pipe i, DESVi is the
obtained standard deviation of pressures after changing pipe I, λ is the weighted factor of the FO that
establishes the relative importance between Ir,i and DESVi for the pipe selection process, f I r ,i and
f DESV i are the normalization factors for Ir,i and DESVi respectively (see equations 12 and 13).

(I )
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− I rmin
max
f I r ,i = r
(12)
⎛ I rmin ⎞
⎜1 − ⎟
⎜ I r ,i ⎟⎠

f DESV ,i =
(DESV max
− DESV min ) (13)
⎛ DESV min

⎜1 − ⎟
⎜ DESVi ⎟
⎝ ⎠

where I rmax , I rmin and DESV max , DESV min are the maximum and minimum values of the respective
behavior indicators at each step. These values are settle down during the procedure of search of the pipe
and they are defined after calculating Ir,i and DESVi for each one of the pipes of the WDN.

5. CASE STUDY EXAMPLE NETWORK.

The developed methodology was applied in the Sector 35th of the water system distribution of the Bogotá
D.C. Colombia; (8 million population); where the following modeling parameters were used:

• Hydraulic modeling parameters:


3
- np= 1289 pipes; nn= 1190 nodes; ne= 1 reservoirs; Qe= 0.0605 m / s (total flow at entrance
node); He= 47.7 wcm.; Total pipe length of 39.42 Kms.

• Unaccounted water index (UWI) modeling parameters:


- Kp= 0.01 l / s m ; np=0.5.

• Cost parameters:
- Kcost= $ 734.450; ncost= 1.0138; Kagua= $ 300 (Cost per cubic meter of lost water).

•Water quality modeling parameters:


2
- Kr= 1.44e-9 m / s (diffusivity coefficient of the Chlorine); Kb= -0.0398 1/día (Water bulk reaction
coefficient); Kw= -0.05 m/día (Wall reaction coefficient); C= 0.5 mg/l (Chlorine concentration at
entrance node); n= 1 (reaction order).
• Constraint parameters:
- H* = 15 wcm.; Cmin= 0.2 mg/l (Minimum concentration allowed); Dmax= 0.508 m (Maximum
diameter allowed).
1. Selection function parameters:
- λ=0.3, 0.5 and 0.7.

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Water Distribution Systems Analysis Symposium 2006
8th Annual Water Distribution Systems Analysis Symposium, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA, August 27-30, 2006

5.1 Effect on the pressure uniformity

The evolution of the resilience index of the WDN, according the modifications made over it, is presented
in the Figure 1. The effect of the methodology application over the pressure uniformity is presented in the
Figure 2. Finally, the Figures 3 and 4 shows the final pressures range obtained and the entry pressure at
Sector 35th of Bogota´s, respectively.
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Figure 1. Resilience index evolution. Figure 2. Pressure uniformity evolution.

Figure 3. Pressures range evolution. Figure 4. Entrance pressure evolution.

5.2 Effect on the UWI.

Figure 5 shows the evolution of the CostUWC for a one year period analysis of unaccounted water index
in the WDN related to the number of modifications for weighted factors (λ) of 0.3, 0.5 and 0.7. Figure 6
shows the economic analysis to establish the moment until the found pipes must be rehabilitated, for a
weight factor of 0.5. The rehabilitated pipe length corresponds to a percentage of the total pipe length of
the WDN.

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Figure 5. Unaccounted water cost (CostUWC) and unaccounted water index (UWI) evolution.

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Figure 6. Saving on the unaccounted water cost (SavingUWCn), unaccounted water cost
(UWC amortized) and rehabilitation cost evolution (CostRehab). (λ=0.5)

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Water Distribution Systems Analysis Symposium 2006
8th Annual Water Distribution Systems Analysis Symposium, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA, August 27-30, 2006

5.3 Effect over pressures plane

The following figures show the evolution of the pressures plane of the WDN from the initial state to the
final optimal state found. Figure 7 shows the initial pressures plane, Figure 8 shows the optimal pressures
plane for λ equal to 0.5, which corresponds to 38 pipe diameter’s changes. The number of changes
correspond to the point where the annual UWCn (amortized in a defined number of years) is less than the
SavingUWCn (calculated without amortize the UWCn).
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Figure 7. Inicial pressures plane.

Figure 8. Pressures plane after 38 changes . (λ=0.5)

5.4 Effect over the water quality

In order to analyze the effect over the water quality of the network, it was used a demand pattern (shown
in Figure 9), looking to modeling the real behavior of the water consumption in the service. Figure 10
shows the effect over the water quality in node 571, due the pipes changes. This node was chosen because
it presented a minimum concentration of residual during the analysis period (1 day). It was used a
weighted factor (λ) of 0.5.

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8th Annual Water Distribution Systems Analysis Symposium, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA, August 27-30, 2006
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Figure 9. Demand pattern. Figure 10. Residual Chlorine decay evolution at node
571.

6. CONCLUSIONS

- Figure 7 shows the initial pressures plane which is irregular due to the presence of leaks in the WDN.
This irregularity decreases the hydraulic reliability of the WDN, because of the presence of high
pressures areas, necessary to give a minimum pressure level in critical areas, increasing the number
and magnitude of the leaks at high pressure areas. At the same time, the power per unit of weight of
operation of the WDN is increased, which decrease the mechanical behavior of the WDN pipes.

- After modeling the rehabilitation of approximately 5.6% of the total pipe length, corresponding to 38
diameters changes in the pipes chosen by the methodology, the pressures plane became more uniform
compared with its initial state.

- When the WDN unaccounted water index decreases, due to the maximization of the uniformity of the
pressure state, also the power per unit of weight of operation of the system decrease, increasing the
saving of the unaccounted water in the system.

- From the economic point of view, it was possible to establish the moment until the found pipes must
be rehabilitated in the WDN. For the studied WDN, it corresponds to rehabilitate a 5.6% of the total
pipe length, reaching a uniformity of 94% and a pressures variation of around 2 wcm.

- Each found pipe represents a change of the WDN configuration, varying the power per unit of weight
of operation of the WDN, and modifying flow hydraulic of the all network.

- The change on the hydraulic flow conditions due the methodology application, could improve or not
the residual Chlorine concentration at the network nodes, as shown in Figure 10.

References

Collette Yann, Siarry Patrick. (2003). Multiobjective optimization. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
EPA, US Environmental Protection Agency (2000). “EPANET 2” Users Manual.
Gutierrez Gabriel (2002). Diseño óptimo de redes bajo ambiente de fugas. Pregrado Thesis. University of
los andes.
Saldarriaga Juan Guillermo (2001). Hidráulica de Tuberías. Bogotá, Colombia: McGraw Hill.

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8th Annual Water Distribution Systems Analysis Symposium, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA, August 27-30, 2006

Sisa Augusto (2003). Cálculo de emisores en redes de distribución a través del método del gradiente.
Reserach Article. University of los Andes.
Todini Ezio.(2000). Looped water distribution networks design using a resilience index based heuristic
approach. Urban water journal, 2, 115-122.
Todini Ezio. (2004). Multiobjective Genetic Algorithms for Design of Water Distribution Networks.
Journal of Water resources Planning and Management, ASCE, 130(1), 73-82.
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Copyright ASCE 2006 Water Distribution Systems Analysis Symposium 2006


Water Distribution Systems Analysis Symposium 2006

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