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line AB. In thefirst two terms of the right side of (3.8), y is constant, and we can use (3.9) if we write
∂f/∂x for f. In the last two terms of (3.8), x is constant and we can use an equation like (3.9) with y as the
variable; y1 will mean a value of y between y and y +∆y. Then (3.8) becomes (3.10) ∆z = ∂f(x1,y) ∂x ∆x +
∂f(x +∆x,y1) ∂y ∆y. If the partial derivatives of f are continuous, then their values in (3.10) at points near
(x,y) differ from their values at (x,y) by quantities which approach zero as ∆x and ∆y approach zero. Let
us call these quantities 1 and 2. Then we can write
∆z = ∂f ∂x
+ 1∆x +∂f ∂y
(3.11)
where ∂f/∂xand ∂f/∂yin (3.11) are evaluated at (x,y). Equation (3.11) [like (3.5) for the y = f(x) case] tells
us algebraically what we suspected from the geometry,
that (if ∂f/∂x and ∂f/∂y are continuous ) dz is a good approximation to ∆z for small dx and dy.
Thedifferential dz is called the principal part of ∆z. Everything we have said about functions of two
variables works just as well for functions of any number of variables. if u = f(x,y,z,···), then by definition
(3.12) du = ∂f ∂x
dx + ∂f ∂y
dy + ∂f ∂z
dz +···
and du is a good approximation to ∆u if the partial derivatives of f are continuous and dx,dy,dz, etc., are
small.
PROBLEMS,SECTION3
1. Consider afunction f(x,y) which can be expanded in a two-variable power series, (2.3) or (2.7). Let x−a
= h =∆ x, y−b = k =∆ y; thenx = a +∆x, y = b +∆y so that f(x,y) becomes f(a +∆x,b +∆y). The change ∆z in z =
f(x,y) whenx changes from a to a +∆x and y changes from b to b +∆y is then
Use the series (2.7) to obtain (3.11) and to see explicitly what 1 and 2 are and that they approach zero as
∆x and ∆y → 0.
4. APPROXIMATIONSUSINGDIFFERENTIALS Let’s consider some examples.
1 √0.25−10−20 −
1 √0.25.
1 n2 −
1 (n+1) 2 ∼ =
2 n3
(∼ = means “approximately equal to”). If f(x)=1/x2, thedesired difference is ∆f = f(n)−f(n + 1). But ∆ f is
approximately df = d(1/x2) withx = n and dx =−1. d 1 x2 =− 2 x3 dx =− 2 n3 (−1) = 2 n3 . (This result is
used in obtaining the “correspondence principle” in quantum mechanics; see texts on quantum physics.)
Also see Problem 17.
Example 3. The reduced mass µ of a system of two masses m1 and m2 is defined by µ−1 = m−1 1 + m−1 2
. Ifm1 is increased by 1%, what fractional change in m2 leaves µ unchanged? Taking differentials of the
equation and substituting dm1 =0 .01m1, we find 0=−m−2 1 dm1 −m−2 2 dm2, dm2 m2 2 =−dm1 m2 1
=− 0.01m1 m2 1 or dm2 m2 =−0.01m2/m1.
For example, if m1 = m2, m2 should be decreased by 1%; if m2 =3m1, m2 should be decreased by 3%;
and so on.
Example4. The electricalresistance R of a wire is proportionalto its length and inversely proportional to
the square of its radius, that is, R = kl/r2. If the relative error in length measurement is 5% and the
relative error in radius measurement is 10%, find the relative error in R in the worst possible case.
Largest
dR R
dl l
+2
dr r
f(x)= x 0
sint t
dt
when x changes from π/2 to (1+)π/2 where <<1/10. Recall from calculus that df/dx = (sinx)/x. Then we
wantdf =(df/dx)dx with x = π/2 anddx = π/2. Thus df = sinπ/2 π/2 (π/2) = . Note that the
approximationswe havebeen making correspondto using a Taylor series through the f term. We can write
Chapter 1 equation (12.8) with the replacements x → x +∆x, a → x, x−a →∆x, to get f(x+∆x)=f(x)+f(x)∆x +
f(x)(∆x)2/2!+···. Dropping the (∆x)2 and higher terms we have the approximation we have been using: df
∼ = ∆f = f(x +∆x)−f(x)∼ = f(x)∆x = f(x)dx. PROBLEMS,SECTION4
1 (n + 1) 3 −
1 n3 ∼ = −
3 n4
. 2. Use differentials to show that, for large n and small a, √n + a−√n ∼ =
a 2√n.
Find the approximate value of √1026 +5−√1026. 3. The thin lens formula is 1 i + 1 o = 1 f , where f is the
focal length of the lens and o and i are the distances from the lens to the object and image. If i = 15
wheno = 10, use differentials to find i when o = 10 .1.
5. Let R be the resistance of R1 = 25 ohms andR2 = 15 ohms in parallel. (See Chapter 2, Problem 16.6.) If
R1 is changed to 25.1 ohms, find R2 so that R is not changed.
6. The acceleration of gravity can be found from the length l and period T of a pendulum; the formula is g
=4π2l/T2. Find therelative error in g in the worst case if the relative error in l is 5%, and the relative error
in T is 2%.
7. Coulomb’s law for the force between two charges q1 and q2 at distance r apart is F = kq1q2/r2. Find
therelative error in q2 in the worst case if the relative error in q1 is 3%; in r, 5%; and inF, 2%. 8. About
how much (in percent) does an error of 1% in a and b affect a2b3?
9. Show that the approximate relative error (df )/f of a product f = gh is the sum of the approximate
relative errors of the factors.
10. A forceof 500 nt is measured with a possible error of 1 nt. Its component in a direction 60◦ away from
its line of action is required, where the angle is subject to an error of 0.5◦. What is (approximately) the
largest possible error in the component?