Figure 3.

line AB. In thefirst two terms of the right side of (3.8), y is constant, and we can use (3.9) if we write
∂f/∂x for f. In the last two terms of (3.8), x is constant and we can use an equation like (3.9) with y as the
variable; y1 will mean a value of y between y and y +∆y. Then (3.8) becomes (3.10) ∆z = ∂f(x1,y) ∂x ∆x +
∂f(x +∆x,y1) ∂y ∆y. If the partial derivatives of f are continuous, then their values in (3.10) at points near
(x,y) differ from their values at (x,y) by quantities which approach zero as ∆x and ∆y approach zero. Let
us call these quantities 1 and 2. Then we can write

∆z = ∂f ∂x

+ 1∆x +∂f ∂y

+ 2∆y = dz + 1 ∆x + 2 ∆y (1 and 2 →0 as ∆ x and ∆y →0),

(3.11)

where ∂f/∂xand ∂f/∂yin (3.11) are evaluated at (x,y). Equation (3.11) [like (3.5) for the y = f(x) case] tells
us algebraically what we suspected from the geometry,

196 PartialDifferentiation Chapter4

that (if ∂f/∂x and ∂f/∂y are continuous ) dz is a good approximation to ∆z for small dx and dy.
Thedifferential dz is called the principal part of ∆z. Everything we have said about functions of two
variables works just as well for functions of any number of variables. if u = f(x,y,z,···), then by definition

(3.12) du = ∂f ∂x

dx + ∂f ∂y

dy + ∂f ∂z

dz +···

and du is a good approximation to ∆u if the partial derivatives of f are continuous and dx,dy,dz, etc., are
small.

PROBLEMS,SECTION3

1. Consider afunction f(x,y) which can be expanded in a two-variable power series, (2.3) or (2.7). Let x−a
= h =∆ x, y−b = k =∆ y; thenx = a +∆x, y = b +∆y so that f(x,y) becomes f(a +∆x,b +∆y). The change ∆z in z =
f(x,y) whenx changes from a to a +∆x and y changes from b to b +∆y is then

∆z = f(a +∆x,b +∆y)−f(a,b).

Use the series (2.7) to obtain (3.11) and to see explicitly what 1 and 2 are and that they approach zero as
∆x and ∆y → 0.
4. APPROXIMATIONSUSINGDIFFERENTIALS Let’s consider some examples.

Example1. Find approximately the value of

1 √0.25−10−20 −

1 √0.25.

If f(x)=1 /√x, thedesired difference is ∆f = f(0.25−10−20)−f(0.25). But ∆fis approximately df = d(1/√x)

withx =0 .25 and dx =−10−20. d(1/√x)=(−1/2)x−3/2dx =(−1/2)(0.25)−3/2(−10−20)=4×10−20. Now why not
just use a computer or calculator for a problem like this? First note that we are subtracting two numbers
which are almost equal to each other. If your calculator or computer isn’t carrying enough digits, you
may lose all accuracy in the subtraction (see Chapter 1, Section 15, Example 1). So it may take you more
time to check on this and to type the problem into the computer than to find df which you can probably
do in your head! However, there is another important point here which is shown in the next example.
For theoretical purposes, we may want a formula rather than a numerical result.

Section4 ApproximationsusingDifferentials 197

Example2. Show that when n is very large

1 n2 −

1 (n+1) 2 ∼ =

2 n3

(∼ = means “approximately equal to”). If f(x)=1/x2, thedesired difference is ∆f = f(n)−f(n + 1). But ∆ f is
approximately df = d(1/x2) withx = n and dx =−1. d 1 x2 =− 2 x3 dx =− 2 n3 (−1) = 2 n3 . (This result is
used in obtaining the “correspondence principle” in quantum mechanics; see texts on quantum physics.)
Also see Problem 17.

Example 3. The reduced mass µ of a system of two masses m1 and m2 is defined by µ−1 = m−1 1 + m−1 2
. Ifm1 is increased by 1%, what fractional change in m2 leaves µ unchanged? Taking differentials of the
equation and substituting dm1 =0 .01m1, we find 0=−m−2 1 dm1 −m−2 2 dm2, dm2 m2 2 =−dm1 m2 1
=− 0.01m1 m2 1 or dm2 m2 =−0.01m2/m1.

For example, if m1 = m2, m2 should be decreased by 1%; if m2 =3m1, m2 should be decreased by 3%;
and so on.

Example4. The electricalresistance R of a wire is proportionalto its length and inversely proportional to
the square of its radius, that is, R = kl/r2. If the relative error in length measurement is 5% and the
relative error in radius measurement is 10%, find the relative error in R in the worst possible case.

Therelativeerrorin l meansthe actualerrorinmeasuring l dividedbythelength measured. Since we might

measure l either too large or too small, the relative error dl/l might be either +0.05 or −0.05 in the worst
cases. Similarly |dr/r| might be as large as 0.10. We want the largest value which |dR/R| could have; we
can find dR/R by differentiating lnR. FromR = kl/r2 we find lnR = lnk +lnl−2lnr. Then dR R = dl l −2dr r . In
the worst case (that is, largest value of |dR/R|), dl/l and dr/r might have opposite signs so the two terms
would add. Then we would have:

Largest

dR R

dl l

+2

dr r

=0 .05+2(0.10) = 0.25 or 25%.

198 PartialDifferentiation Chapter4

Example5. Estimate the change in

f(x)= x 0

sint t

dt

when x changes from π/2 to (1+)π/2 where <<1/10. Recall from calculus that df/dx = (sinx)/x. Then we
wantdf =(df/dx)dx with x = π/2 anddx = π/2. Thus df = sinπ/2 π/2 (π/2) = . Note that the
approximationswe havebeen making correspondto using a Taylor series through the f term. We can write
Chapter 1 equation (12.8) with the replacements x → x +∆x, a → x, x−a →∆x, to get f(x+∆x)=f(x)+f(x)∆x +
f(x)(∆x)2/2!+···. Dropping the (∆x)2 and higher terms we have the approximation we have been using: df
∼ = ∆f = f(x +∆x)−f(x)∼ = f(x)∆x = f(x)dx. PROBLEMS,SECTION4

1. Use differentials to show that, for very large n,

1 (n + 1) 3 −

1 n3 ∼ = −

3 n4
. 2. Use differentials to show that, for large n and small a, √n + a−√n ∼ =

a 2√n.

Find the approximate value of √1026 +5−√1026. 3. The thin lens formula is 1 i + 1 o = 1 f , where f is the
focal length of the lens and o and i are the distances from the lens to the object and image. If i = 15
wheno = 10, use differentials to find i when o = 10 .1.

4. Do Problem 3 if i = 12 wheno = 18, to find i if o = 17 .5.

5. Let R be the resistance of R1 = 25 ohms andR2 = 15 ohms in parallel. (See Chapter 2, Problem 16.6.) If
R1 is changed to 25.1 ohms, find R2 so that R is not changed.

6. The acceleration of gravity can be found from the length l and period T of a pendulum; the formula is g
=4π2l/T2. Find therelative error in g in the worst case if the relative error in l is 5%, and the relative error
in T is 2%.

7. Coulomb’s law for the force between two charges q1 and q2 at distance r apart is F = kq1q2/r2. Find
therelative error in q2 in the worst case if the relative error in q1 is 3%; in r, 5%; and inF, 2%. 8. About
how much (in percent) does an error of 1% in a and b affect a2b3?

9. Show that the approximate relative error (df )/f of a product f = gh is the sum of the approximate
relative errors of the factors.

10. A forceof 500 nt is measured with a possible error of 1 nt. Its component in a direction 60◦ away from
its line of action is required, where the angle is subject to an error of 0.5◦. What is (approximately) the
largest possible error in the component?