Journal of International Council on Electrical Engineering

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Optimal neutral ground resistor rating of the

medium voltage systems in power generating
stations

Choong-Koo Chang

To cite this article: Choong-Koo Chang (2015) Optimal neutral ground resistor rating of the
medium voltage systems in power generating stations, Journal of International Council on Electrical
Engineering, 5:1, 55-63, DOI: 10.1080/22348972.2015.1110878

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Journal of International Council on Electrical Engineering, 2015
Vol. 5, No. 1, 55–63, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/22348972.2015.1110878

Optimal neutral ground resistor rating of the medium voltage systems in power generating
stations
Choong-Koo Chang*
Professor, Department of Nuclear Power Plant Engineering, KEPCO International Nuclear Graduate School
(Received 25 August 2015; accepted 19 October 2015)

Neutral grounding resistors (NGRs) are used to protect insulation breakdown in faulty electrical equipment. These faults
are caused by transient over-voltages produced by arcing ground on ungrounded systems. NGR also reduces mechanical
stresses in circuits and apparatus carrying fault currents in solidly grounded systems. In the medium voltage auxiliary
power systems of power generating stations, low resistance grounding system is widely used with a NGR. The purpose
of this paper is to present the method determining optimal NGR size for the medium voltage systems in power
generating stations.
Keywords: system grounding; impedance grounding; neutral grounding resistor; phase to ground fault

1. Introduction In general, system grounding is practiced based on

To determine optimal neutral grounding resistor (NGR)
size, many items should be considered. The maximum
ground fault current allowed by the resistor has to be
large enough to actuate the applied ground fault protec-
tion relay. The allowable fault current must be decided
in accordance with the protection scheme and nominal
current of equipment (generator or transformer). How-
ever, the most of literatures related to resistance ground-
ing system design describe only the approximate range
of the NGR rating for low and high resistance grounding
system. And the only existing standard specific for NGR
is the IEEE – 32 standards – where the allowed tempera-
ture rise and time rating are defined. Sophisticated NGR
sizing and verification method is not introduced in any
literature. Therefore, design, construction and operation
engineers in the job field experience difficulties due to
the mismatch of NGR rating and ground protection sys-
tem during commissioning and operation. Throughout
this study a procedure for the determination of optimal
NGR will be proposed, and it will be verified through a
case study.
2. System grounding
Power system grounding is very important, particularly
because the majority of faults involve grounding. Thus,
it has a significant effect on the protection of all the
components of the power system. The principal pur-
pose of grounding is to minimize potential transient
overvoltages to comply with local, state, and national
codes for personnel safety requirements; and to assist
in the rapid detection and isolation of trouble or fault
areas.
past experience or an extension to the grounding methods
in existing installations. There are three types in system
grounding: (1) ungrounded, (2) resistance or impedance,
and (3) effective or solid grounding. Each has its applica-
tion in practice, along with advantages and disadvantages.
The recommendations are based on general practices and
some personal preferences. [1]
2.1. Ungrounded systems
An ungrounded system is one in which there is no inten-
tional connection between the conductors and the
ground. However, in any system, a capacitive coupling
exists between the system conductors and the adjacent
grounded surfaces. Consequently, the ‘ungrounded sys-
tem’ is, in reality, a ‘capacitively grounded system’ by
virtue of the distributed capacitance. This is shown in
Figure 1.[2,3]
The voltages and impedances indicated in Figure 2
are as follows:
VPN: the applied phase to neutral system voltage (infinite
source)
Z1(sys), Z2(sys), Z0(sys): the equivalent positive, negative,
and zero sequence source impedance values, respectively
ZTX: the transformer impedance (since the return path for
the transformer has negligible impedance, the positive,
negative, and zero sequence impedance values, for the
transformer are all the same)
Z1(line), Z2(line), Z0(line): the impedance values for the line
between the transformer secondary terminals and the PG
(phase to ground) fault.

*Email: ckchang@kings.ac.kr

© 2015 The Author(s). Published by Taylor & Francis.

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
56
Figure 1. Ungrounded system.
Figure 2. Sequence network model for phase to ground fault
on an ungrounded system.
The equal positive and negative sequence components
of the total distributed shunt capacitive reactance (XC1
and XC2), shown in Figure 2, are so large compared
to the system impedances parallel to them that they
can be neglected.[2] In terms of the applied voltage
and the system impedance values given, the bolted PG
fault current magnitude would be determined as
follows:
3VPN
IPG ¼
½2Z1ðsysÞ þ 2ZTX þ 2Z1ðlineÞ þ Z0ðlineÞ þ XC0 
Because XC0 dwarfs the other system impedance
values, the simplified Equation 1 gives a close approxi-
mation:
3VPN
IPG ¼
XC0
As a result, the PG fault current on an ungrounded
system has a very small magnitude, very small for
overcurrent relaying to be used for detecting ground
faults.
C.-K. Chang
2.2. Solidly grounded systems
There is no intentional impedance between the system
neutral and ground as shown in Figure 3.
The voltage and impedance values indicated in
Figure 4 are the same as those defined originally for
Figure 2. In terms of the applied voltage and the system
impedance values given, the bolted PG fault current
magnitude would be determined as follows:
3VPN
IPG ¼ (3)
½2Z1ðsysÞ þ 3ZTX þ 2Z1ðlineÞ þ Z0ðlineÞ
2.3. Resistance grounding
There are two broad categories of resistance grounding:
low resistance and high resistance. In both types of
grounding, the resistor is connected between the neutral
of the transformer secondary as shown in Figure 5 or the
generator winding and the earth ground.
The voltage and impedance values indicated in the
resistance grounding system are the same as those
defined originally for ungrounded system except neutral
ground impedance RN inserted between transformer neu-
tral and ground.
In terms of the applied voltage and the system
impedance values given, the bolted PG fault current
magnitude would be determined as follows:
3VPN
IPG ¼ (4)
½2Z1ðsysÞ þ 3ZTX þ 3ZN þ 2Z1ðlineÞ þ Z0ðlineÞ
In general, other impedances than the neutral impe-
dance are negligible. Since the neutral impedance is in a
residual portion of the zero sequence current circulation
path, its impedance value is modelled as three times its
actual value and XC0 is negligible in low resistance
grounding system. For this reason, the PG fault current
magnitude is determined by the neutral impedance value
used:
3VPN VPN VPN
IPG ¼ ¼ ffi (5)
3ZN ZN RN
(1)
(2)
Figure 3. Delta/grounded-wye transformer connection.
 Journal of International Council on Electrical Engineering
Figure 4. Sequence network model for a bolted PG fault on
the solidly grounded system.
Figure 5. Resistance grounded system.
The reasons for limiting the current by resistance
grounding may be one or more of the following:
• To reduce the burning and melting effects in
faulted electric equipment, such as switchgear,
transformers, cables, and rotating machines.
• To reduce mechanical stresses in circuits and appa-
ratus carrying fault currents.
• To reduce electric-shock hazards to personnel
caused by stray ground-fault currents in the ground
return path.
57
• To reduce the arc blaster flash hazard to personnel
who may have accidentally caused or who happen
to be in close proximity to the ground fault.
High resistance grounding typically uses ground fault
current levels of 10 A or less, although some specialized
systems in the 15 kV voltage class may have higher
ground fault current levels. On the other hand, low resis-
tance grounding typically uses ground fault current levels
of at least 100 A, with currents in the 400–2000 A range
being more usual.[4,5]
3. System grounding practice in a nuclear power
generating stations
The following is a brief description of the system
grounding practice in nuclear power generating stations
and Figure 6 shows the conceptual diagram of the sys-
tem grounding.
3.1. Main generator and transformer
The main generator should always be high resistance
grounded and the main transformer for the generating
plant should always be solidly grounded at the high side.
Low side connected to the generator is always delta con-
nected. No special equipment is required for high side
grounding.[6]
3.2. Unit auxiliary transformers
Unit auxiliary transformers (UAT) connected to the
generator leads should always have the high side delta
connected. Low side of the UAT is generally wye con-
nection and should be low resistance grounded allowing
a maximum of 2000 A ground fault current. Grounding
resistor directly connected to the neutral should have a
minimum of 10 sec rating.
3.3. Standby auxiliary transformers
Standby auxiliary transformers (SAT), when used, may
have wye connection for high and low side winding with
delta connection tertiary winding. For high side, wye
connection, neutral should be solidly grounded. For low
side wye connection, neutral should be low resistance
grounded allowing a maximum of 2000 A ground fault
current to flow. Rating of this equipment should have a
minimum of 10 sec rating.
3.4. Load centre transformers
Transformer feeding low voltage load centre should be
delta/wye connection with neutral solidly grounded,
unless specifically required by the client to be different.
58
Figure 6. System grounding of a nuclear power generating station.
3.5. Diesel generators
Diesel generators, when provided, should be low resis-
tance grounded at the medium voltage and solidly
grounded at low voltage distribution. Low resistance
grounding should allow a maximum of 1000 A ground
fault current. Grounding resistor directly connected to
the neutral should have a minimum of 10 sec rating.
4. Determination of NGR rating for medium voltage
network
For the purpose of this study, a design and verification
process of Figure 7 has been developed. Every factor
affecting the rating of NGR are reviewed and cross
checked in the process to confirm the suitability of NGR
rating. In the last, the NGR ratting is verified through
the ground fault protection relay coordination check.
The line-to-ground capacitance associated with sys-
tem components determines the magnitudes of zero
sequence charging current. The resistor must be sized to
ensure that the ground fault current limit is greater than
the system’s total capacitance-to-ground charging current.
If not, then transient overvoltages can occur.[3] Further-
more, NGR selection is a comprehensive task which
involves many aspects of power system as shown in
Figure 7. The following items are mainly considered
when selecting NGRs:[7,8]
• Charging current
• Allowable maximum fault current for network
C.-K. Chang
• Transient overvoltage and insulation level of
equipment
• Fault current withstand time and temperature rise
• Ground fault protection and coordination.
4.1. Charging current and fault current level
The charging current of a system can be calculated by
summing the zero-sequence capacitance or determining
capacitive reactance of all the cable and equipment con-
nected to the system. The system charging current in
normal operation condition is as follows, where C0 is the
zero-sequence capacitance in μf (microfarad) per phase
and kV is the line-to-line voltage (see Figure 8):
6
• Capacitive reactance, XCO ¼ xC
10
Ohm per phase,
o
where
x¼2pf (6)
• Charging current in Amps at 60 Hz:
p
x  C0  kV  3
3ICO ¼ ¼ 0:652  C0  kV (7)
1000
Typical values of system-capacitance data are avail-
able from the cable manufacturer catalogue or Westing-
house design guide [9] and the GE Data Book.[10]
On the other hand, it is preferable to measure the
magnitude of the charging current on existing power
 Journal of International Council on Electrical Engineering
Figure 7. Flow diagram of NGR determination and ground
fault relay setting.
systems for correct grounding equipment selection. The
measured values must be adjusted to obtain the maxi-
mum current if all the system components were not in
operation during the tests.[3] For safe measuring of
neutral point capacitor current, measurement from the
secondary side of grid is proposed. Also different fre-
quency injection method is widely used for the measure-
ment of capacitive current.[8]
In a resistance grounded system, the resistance must
be low enough to allow the system capacitance to dis-
charge relatively quickly. The level of fault current is
commonly thought to be 10 A or less in ungrounded
59
Figure 8. Ground fault current path in resistance grounding
systems.
systems. High resistance grounding systems are designed
to meet the criterion of Rg ≤ Xco/3 or RO ≤ XCO to limit
the transient overvoltages due to arcing ground faults.
Where, Rg is the grounding resistance as seen from the
system being grounded and R0 is the per-phase
zero-sequence resistance of the system. Xco is the capac-
itive reactance-to-ground per phase and includes the
capacitance of all cables, motor windings, transformer
windings, surge or shunt capacitors, and other equipment
connected to the system.[5,11] Total fault current is the
vector sum of capacitive charging current and resistor
current:
p
If ¼ fI 2R þ ð3IC0 Þ2 g (8)
So, if IR = 3IC0, then IF = 1.414 IR
Total fault current must not exceed the value for
which the system is braced. However, in many cases, the
system is already braced for the three-phase fault current
which is much higher than the single line-ground fault
current of a resistance grounded system.[12]
In low resistance grounding, ground fault detecting
current relays are sometimes connected in the common
or residual circuit of current transformers. Where selec-
tive tripping is to be accomplished, the fault current is
typically limited to a value equal to the primary current
rating of the largest current transformers. This practice
usually results in the maximum ground fault current
being approximately equal to the full load rated current
of the power supply transformer. Justification for this is
based on the 5 A secondary rating of the current trans-
formers. With an overcurrent relay having a minimum
available setting of 0.5 A, the grounding resistance
selected would permit 10 times the relay pickup current
during a zero impedance fault. This will assure reliable
relay performance.[11] Typical current values used range
from 400 A on modern systems using sensitive toroid or
core balance current transformer ground sensor relaying
60 C.-K. Chang
and up to perhaps 2000 A in the larger systems using
residually connected ground overcurrent relays.[4]
4.2. Transient overvoltage and insulation level
An ungrounded system with no intentional conductive
path to ground has a path for alternating currents to flow
between the phase conductors and ground through the
distributed capacitance to ground of circuits and equip-
ment windings and any surge capacitors or power factor
correction capacitors connected to ground. This capaci-
tance is a significant factor in the generation of transient
overvoltage during an arcing ground fault.
Restriking arcs after current interruption in the
breaker or in the fault can result in large destructive
overvoltages in ungrounded systems. This phenomenon
is illustrated in Figure 9.
In the capacitive system, the current leads the voltage
by nearly 90°. When the current is interrupted or the arc
is extinguished at or near its zero value, the voltage will
be at or near its maximum value. With the breaker open,
this voltage remains on the capacitor to decay at a time
constant of the capacitive system. In the source system,
it continues as demonstrated by VS. Thus, in a half cycle,
the voltage across the open contact is almost twice the
normal peak value. If a restrike occurs (switch closed in
Figure 9), the basic +1 pu voltage of the capacitive sys-
tem will shift to the system voltage of −1 pu, but
because of the system inductance and inertia, it will
overshoot to a maximum possibility of −3 pu. If the arc
goes out again near current zero (switch open) but
restrikes (switch closed) again, the system voltage will
Figure 9. Transient overvoltage on an ungrounded system.
try to shift to +1 pu, in succession another time over-
shoot, this time to a potential maximum of +5 pu. This
could continue to −7 pu, meanwhile, the system insula-
tion would no doubt break down, causing a major fault.
Thus, ungrounded systems should be used with caution,
and applied at the lower voltages, where the system insu-
lation levels are higher.[1]
For resistance grounding systems at 15 kV and
below, such overvoltages will not ordinarily be of a
serious nature if the resistance value lies within the
following boundary limits: R0 ≤ XC0, R0 ≥ 2X0. Where,
X0 is zero-sequence reactance. The corresponding
ground-fault current is far less than is normally used for
low-resistance grounding, but is the design criterion for
high-resistance grounding.[5]
4.3. Fault withstand time and temperature rise
Normally, protective relaying will trip within a few
cycles. IEEE 32 defines standard resistor on times. Low-
est rate is 10 seconds, but could potentially go less in
order to save material/space. It can go as high as 30 or
60 seconds as required (rare). Extended or continuous
ratings are almost never used in this application due to
the relatively high fault currents. Coefficient of resistivity
typically increases with temperature of the material, thus
resistance of the NGR increases while the unit runs. As
resistance increases, current decreases.[12] Therefore, the
time rating and resistivity coefficient of resistor should
be confirmed when make a ground fault relay setting
calculation.
Figure 10. Ground fault protection scheme of the class 1E
MV switchgear fed from unit aux. transformer.
 Journal of International Council on Electrical Engineering 61

(a) Lack of coordination

(b) Better coordination

Figure 11. Ground fault protection coordination curve for MV switchgear.

62 C.-K. Chang
4.4. Ground fault relay coordination
CTs and relays must be designed such that system will
trip on a fault of the magnitude of the ground fault cur-
rent, but not on transient events such as large motor
startup.
Figure 10 is an example of the ground fault protec-
tion scheme for the Class 1E 4.16kV Switchgear fed
from Unit Auxiliary Transformer (UAT) in a nuclear
power plant. Secondary side neutral of the UAT is
grounded with the NGR. In this example system, NGR
rating is 2.15063 Ω and maximum fault current is 1200
A. The maximum fault current was decided to a value
equal to the rated current of X winding at ONAN rating.
X and Y windings use the same size of resistance for the
convenience of design and maintenance.
Figure 11 is the time current characteristic curves of
ground protection relays showing the coordination
between upstream and downstream relays. The time
overcurrent relay (51G) installed on the grounded neutral
of a transformer is set to minimum values of current
pickup but not less than 10% of NGR rating and time
delay to be selective with downstream feeder ground
fault relays. Accordingly, about 160 A is appropriate to
set 51G relay to make coordination with the 4.16 kV
SWGR branch feeder ground fault relays which are set
at 20 A and 120 A as explained in below. The ground
protection relays installed on the incoming feeder of
switchgears are residual type (51N).
In Figure 11(a), the 51N relay of the Class 1E 4.16kV
SWGR was set at 120 A for the coordination with the
transformer neutral ground protection relay 51G. In that
case, 51N(R2) relay’s setting value is only 4% of the CT
rating (3000 A) and it may cause undesired tripping of
the ground relay due to CT error. Relay must not be set
to pick up at less than CT accuracy class. In general,
accuracy of the IEEE type protection CT is 10%.
Coordination between 51G(R1) of the UAT neutral
and 51N(R2) of the 4.16 kV SWGR incoming feeder
can be sacrificed. However, coordination between 51N
(R2) and downstream relays (R3 and R4) should be
maintained as shown in Figure 11(b).
Motor feeders are protected with instantaneous ground
overcurrent relay (50G) connected to a core balance CT.
50G(R4) for motor feeder is set at lowest tap and typical
pick-up value is 10–20 A. In the case of an outgoing fee-
der for subsidiary 4.16 kV Non Class 1E SWGR, 51N
(R3) device is used and it must coordinate with upstream
and downstream ground overcurrent relay. The 51N(R3)
is set at 120 A. 120 A is 10% of the CT primary rating of
1200 A. As a result, the 51N(R3) relay properly coordi-
nates with the upstream relays. Therefore, Figure 11(b) is
better protection coordination than Figure 11(a).
5. Results and discussion
NGR rating in a resistance grounding system must be
decided considering the above mentioned charging
current and ground fault level, transient overvoltage and
insulation level, fault withstand time and temperature
rise, and ground fault relay coordination.
In the high resistance grounding system, NGR must
be sized to flow resistive ground fault current that is
greater than capacitive charging current and the system
is not subject to destructive transient overvoltage. On the
other hand, in the low resistance grounding system,
ground fault current level and selectivity of ground fault
relays are more critical to determine NGR rating than
other parameters.
In the case study, system ground fault relay (51G)
was set at 13.3% (160 A) of the NGR rating and selec-
tive tripping was possible through the coordination with
branch feeder’s relay of the 4.16 kV SWGR. Therefore,
the NGR rating satisfies the requirements specified in
Sections 4.1–4.4. The transformer neutral CT is 1200/
400 multi-ratio type and 400 A CT is preferred for refer-
ence system for more reliable protection. If the NGR rat-
ing is greater than 1200 A, it is inevitable to allow
higher ground fault current in the circuit. However, if the
NGR rating is smaller than 1200 A, coordination
between downstream 51N relays are difficult or fault
detection in high impedance ground fault is insensitive.
6. Conclusion
Usually the importance of NGR rating is overlooked
because NGR is ordered in the early stage of the project
with the power transformer which is long lead time
equipment. As a result, in many cases, the rating of
NGR already installed is not suitable for the proper set-
ting and coordination of ground fault protection relays.
Consequently it results in unsatisfactory coordination of
ground fault protection system. Optimal NGR rating
determination procedure and verification method pro-
posed in this paper will contribute to the design of the
reliable and safe ground protection systems for power
generating stations. Additionally, as the power system
design progresses and data becomes available, the
grounding system and NGR design should be reviewed
and re-evaluated when necessary to ensure that the sys-
tem will perform within the established criteria and
design margins. This re-evaluation may be required when
transformer with NGR proposal is evaluated to check
whether the rating proposed by the manufacturer is
acceptable. A final re-evaluation is necessary after NGR
test data and ground protection relay information are
available.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the 2015 Research Fund of the
KEPCO International Nuclear Graduate School (KINGS).
ORCID
Choong-Koo Chang http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5649-6779
 Journal of International Council on Electrical Engineering
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