100 102 03 Iyrropverion To Armican Anrnican Srupies M. Wheele 1: Kesler and D. Duos, “Review of Thre Recent Randomized Tri of School-Based Mentoring: Making Sense of “Mixed Findings” Sokery fr Research in Child Development Social Policy Report, 242010), 1-27, Tid Castes Core, “Hillary Caton Outines Obama Aiea Policy” January 24,20 bep/alsiescomstoris/200901240008.m US. AFRICOM Public Afirs Office, “Fact Sher United States Mica Command reievel July 12,2011 hp fwwaticomal/ gevdeileasparel64 Resist AFRICOM, “Help Stop AFRICON(” retrieved Jul 12,2011. hup//alsa demoeracynacton.og/a/ inphey-300, Stephanie Hanson, "China, Ae, and Oil*(A Council on Foreign Relations Hackgroundes), june 62008 htp//rwckc ong? chinalchina-afin 0/9537 Ii Stephanie Hanson, “Ching, fia and Ol" (A Coon on Foreign Relations Backgrounder) ia/chine-afsis ol 587 Meleie Everley MLK Je. Memeril Confronts Controversy" USA Today, uly 4,201. htp/nwoestodaycom/news! sution/2011-07-4-MLK-Jr-sanue-ritie-naoeintersitalskip *Grand Opening Celebrations The New Aican American Ci War Memorial and Muscum htpd//mmwafoameiitarorg! splushpby Tid, ‘Alscan American Cri War Memoria nd Museum in Washington, DC hip aboutcom/od/monumentv4/AACWMem htm, oanie Bunch, “A Vision for he National Mescum of African American istry and Cultre hepa sedwsecon! shouts “rssociaton forthe Study of Afcan American Life and History hep//ewm:aalhong/ Woodson Tome:himl [atonal Gente for Edwaton Stasis, Digest of Edacation Statics 2000. hee. gonpuslO01/digest/ Manorie Coejman, Black Stdies on the Move,” Carian Science Monitor, Febraary 12,2002 L-1,L-14 Abdol Alla, "Africana Sade inthe U.S.” March 2007-sps/7eBlacltadis org ‘Max Schindler, “National Organizations Opps Acana Stadics and Reseach Center Overhaul” Comell ua, January 24, 2011 hyp ew.comeln com WEB. Du Bovs (1904), "The Alana Conferences” Voie ofthe Negro 1 (March, 190), 85-90. Ibid, p85, bid, p88 STA THgaUp. Je 62008. hphnwnchcore!Chapter I Foundation of African American Studies Introduction African Americans The growing number of people with mixed “racial” ancestry prompted an expansion of racial/ethnic designations included in the 2000 Census. Many commentators who supported changes to the previ- cous racial categories perceived the revision as sig- naling a gradual end to the use of traditional racial categories by government for developing and as- sessing public policies. However, an analysis of the 2000 Census data suggests that W.E.B. DuBois’ “color line,” which he depicted as “the problem of the twentieth century” over a hundred years ago persists nearly as indelible at the dawn of the twen- ty-first century. In the 2000 Census 32,690,635 persons chose ‘only “Black or African American” as their racial classification, whereas 211,558,460 chose only “White.” The total number of persons claiming both White and one or more other racial clasifica- tion was 4,969,172, or only 2.4 percent of all per- sons claiming “White” as one of their racial classifi- cations. The number of individuals claiming “Black ‘or African American” and at least one other racial cation was 1,866,399 or 5.4 percent of per- iming “Black or Aftican American” as one cial designations. ‘The data indicate that over thirty million citizens of the United States of America are de- scendants of the continent of Africa. Identified principally by skin color and differentiated socio- politically and economically, they are, indeed, Afri- cans in America or, conversely, African Americans. America’ population, historically and contempo- rary, comprises immigrants, with the exception of the few million Native Americans largely relegated to reservations throughout the country. However, African Americans are clearly distinguished from other racial-ethnic groups because of their involun~ tary immigration and initial enslavement. Although history reveals that there were Africans accompany- ing the early European explorers of the Americas a hundred years preceding the landing of the first captives at Jamestown in 1619, Blacks were the first numerically significant involuntary immigrants to the New World.! Whereas the overwhelming ma- jority of other immigrant groups came to America voluntarily in pursuit of political freedom and eco- nomic opportunity, the African presence in Ameri~ «a, in contrast, was based on economic exploitation and the denial of freedom. Africans in America were robbed of their hu- man dignity and commoditized into capital goods (enslaved) to promote the development and eco- nomic growth of America and Europe. The nature of their subjugation and treatment at the hands of White Enropean-American enslavers constituted form of racism based on color that had never been practiced anywhere in the world. African immi- grants were forcibly denied their language, history, culture, ancestral ties, and homeland affiliations. Af- rican American women were raped and otherwise forced into miscegenation with enslavers. Such vio~ lations often resulted in the sale of mixed-race off- spring as chattel property. Although such extremelyIwrropverion ro Arnica Auantcas Sruptes rressive conditions and inhuman acts may no Tanger prevail the legacy of enslavement and its ef fects still linger in the psyche and social orientation of many African Americans. ‘Moreover, Emancipation, Reconstruction, the Givil Rights Movement and resulting laws and en- actments have failed to accord African Americans complete equality of opportunity or a full measure of social justice. Institutional racism, prejudice, and discrimination continue to impede the advance- ‘ment of Aftican Americans in education, employ- ‘ment, and political empowerment. Nevertheless, despite the legacy of enslave- ment, segregation, and continuing disheartening discrimination, African Americans, in the face of such daunting odds, have exhibited resilience and a robust capacity for perseverance against oppression. History provides no record of any other people who were captured, shipped thousands of miles, and sold like cattle, who endured four hundred years of en slavement and racial degradation, yet have survived, achieved, and progressed in the same land, and in the presence of their former enslavers, This phe- nomenon should be considered in any comparison of the African American experience with those of other immigrant groups. Racial Identification Recognition of their humanity and their national origins were denied Africans in the New World. Consequently, their identities, designations, an: names were arbitrarily decided by their captors and enslavers. Africans in Europe and America were called by or given negative and colloquial titles or names, such as nigger, darkie, colored, and negro. ‘The debate concerning a racial/national identity or name for Americans of African descent has not yet been fully resolved. Sterling Stuckey has written a comprehensive historical account of the dilemma and controversy of Blackidentity in his book Slave Culture: Navional- ist Theory & the Foundations of Black America. Anoth- er commentator, Beverly H. Wright, suggests that choice of a name for racial identification by Black Americans has been influenced by the social and political environment, by the locus of control, and by changes in ideology during each era of progress ‘social movement.’ During the height of the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s, millions of Black Americans embraced the ideology of Black Power and self-determination. Thus, any name or identity imposed on them by White Americans was emphat- ically rejected. ‘The 1960s could be characterized as an era of social and political reformation of the American pol- ity. Both older and younger Black Americans insist- ed that the gulf between the theoretical precepts sct, forth by the U.S, Constitution for equality and jus- tice for all citizens and America’ practice and con- formity to the law be closed. They demanded and agitated for reformation. For Americans of African descent, it was a period of active rebellion against all forms of White racism and the prevailing ideology of White supremacy. The Civil Rights Movement ‘of the 1960s signaled a rebirth of African Ameri- can pride in their race, history, and culture that was reflective of the Harlem Renaissance. A faction of African American participants in the drama of the 19608 revived the ideology of self-empowerment, self-sufficiency, self-determination, self-help, and self-respect. More importantly, they felt that it was time the descendants of Africa reasserted their own. identity. Iewas time for self-naming. In European and Western historical thought and folklore, both the color and the word black have negative and ominous connotations. Black connotes that which is soiled, dirty, foul, horrible, wicked, evil, or bad. The European concept of the devil is black.’ Thus, it has been easy for White Americans and Europeans to associate negative connotations of Blackness with the dark-skinned peoples of Africa, Furthermore, asa religious rationale for the ‘unjust and oppressive treatment of African people, Whites introduced the biblical myth of Nosh’ son Ham, According to the story, God willed that Ham’ son and all his descendants be Black, and he banished them into the depths of Africa (Egypt) Older generations of African Americans had been socialized to believe that Blackness was bad and that the pigmentation of their skin was disadvantageous. ‘Many revered White or light-skinned persons and ‘engaged in futile attempts at skin lightening. ‘However, in defiance of the White Europea American conceptualization of Blackness, Ameri- cans of African descent rejected, permanently, the traditional term Negro and replaced it with Black.