6

Campos, C., O. Guzmán, A. Pilloud, and A. Cabrera, 2010, Gravely and

sandy facies of Rio Guache Formation, Venezuelan Andes: Evidence for
transformation of gravity flows in deep-marine water, in R. M. Slatt and
C. Zavala, eds., Sediment transfer from shelf to deep water — Revisiting
the delivery system: AAPG Studies in Geology 61, p. 1 – 12.

2 Gravely and Sandy Facies

3 of Rio Guache Formation,
4 Venezuelan Andes: Evidence

f
for Transformation of Gravity

oo
5

6 Flows in Deep-Marine Water

Pr
8 Corina Campos, Oswaldo Guzmán, Andrés Pilloud, and Ana Cabrera
9 Universidad Simón Bolı́var, Edificio de Fı́sica y Electrónica II (FE-II), Departamento de Ciencias de La
10 Tierra, 3er Piso, Oficina FE2-308, Valle Sarteneja, Baruta, Miranda, Venezuela
ed
11 ABSTRACT

T
12 he Rio Guache Formation represents deep-marine deposits accumulated
13 within a diachronic foreland basin setting formed as a result of the Paleo-
ct
14 gene oblique collision between the transpressional front of the Carib-
15 bean Plate and the Cretaceous to Paleogene passive margin of northern South
16 America.
re

17 This study attempted to provide the first comprehensive sedimentologic anal-

18 ysis of the Rio Guache Formation in the Guaramacal area. Based on the study of
19 outcrops and samples, eight facies have been identified as comprising the Rio
Guache Formation, five of them gravelly and three are sandy. The facies analysis
or

20
21 and the interpretation of the processes of transport and depositation for each of
22 the different facies indicate that they are the products of the progressive trans-
23 formation of gravity flows within the basin. The distinct assemblages of facies,
nc

24 the high percentage of coarse-grained sediments, the poor textural sorting, and
25 the minor development of sedimentary structures indicate that these gravity flows
26 were short-lived and poorly efficient. They could be the product of episodic mass
27 flows and sliding induced by the high tectonic activity in western Venezuela during
the late Paleogene. No direct evidence of a hyperpycnal origin for these coarse-
U

28
29 grained strata exists.

Copyright n2010 by The American Association of Petroleum Geologists.

DOI:_______________________________________

1
 2 / Campos et al.

31 INTRODUCTION the Caribbean plate is a very complex deformation 80

zone that starts in Colombia and includes Bocono, 81
32 The Paleocene to Miocene strata of northern South San Sebastian, and El Pilar strike slip faults (Hung, 82
33 America represents dominantly deep-marine deposits 2005). The topography of this area is defined by five 83
34 that accumulated within a diachronic foreland ba- mountainous systems: the Venezuelan Andes, the 84
35 sin setting in response to the eastward migration of a Serrania del Interior Central, the Cordillera de la Costa, 85
36 fold and thrust belt. This foreland basin was formed the Serrania del Interior Oriental, and the Cordillera 86
37 as a result of the Paleocene to Holocene oblique col- de Araya-Paria. The Venezuelan Andes are located in 87
38 lision between the transpressional front of the Carib- western Venezuela and represent one of the northern 88
39 bean Plate and the Cretaceous to Paleogene passive culminations of the South American Andes (Figure 1). 89
40 margin of northern South America (Speed, 1985; Lugo These mountains have a N508E orientation; they are 90
41 and Mann, 1995; Colletta et al., 1997; Avé Lallemant approximately 400 km (250 mi) in length and 80 km 91

f
42 and Sisson, 2005; Ostos et al., 2005; Pindell et al., 2005). (50 mi) in width. The Venezuelan Andes are divided 92

oo
43 Most of these deep-marine strata were deposited almost symmetrically along its entire length by the 93
44 in a diachronic foredeep basin. These rocks were in- Bocono fault, and its genesis is still a subject of debate. 94
45 corporated and highly deformed into the Caribbean Its structure has been interpreted as a flower positive 95
46 fold and thrust belt. Therefore, the study of these megastructure (Stephan, 1982), a trust fold belt pro- 96
47 rocks helps to understand the geologic evolution and duced by a subduction complex (Colletta et al., 1997), 97

Pr
48 the hydrocarbon potential of the passive margin of and by overthrusting toward the northwestern struc- 98
49 northern South America. tures with a root in the continental crust and in- 99
50 One of these units, the Rio Guache Formation, has volved basement (Audemard, 1997). The trace of the 100
51 been recognized in the southeastern flank of the Ven- Bocono fault has been used to divide the Venezuelan 101
52 ezuelan Andes (Figure 1), specifically at Lara, Portu- Andes into North Andean and South Andean flanks. 102
53 guesa, and Trujillo states. This formation is composed
ed The study area is located in the northern part of the 103
54 of conglomerates, sandstones, siltstones, claystones, South Andean flank (Figure 1). In this zone, the Ca- 104
55 and exotic blocks (metamorphic and limestones), ribbean front deformation overthrust the Eocene to 105
56 which have been interpreted as having been depos- Paleozoic autochthonous rocks (Stephan et al., 1990; 106
57 ited on a slope by gravity flows and turbidity cur- Colletta et al., 1997). The geodynamic evolution of 107
ct
58 rents. Its age is uncertain, having been placed be- western Venezuela has been divided into six major 108
59 tween Maastrichtian and middle Eocene (Von Der episodes (Figure 2), each associated with at least one 109
60 Osten and Zozaya, 1957; Ramı́rez, 1968; Blin, 1989). tectonostratigraphic sequence: (1) Pre-rift phase in 110
re

61 Nevertheless, none of these authors have conducted Paleozoic time; (2) rifting and drifting phases during 111
62 a detailed sedimentologic study that would allow an Jurassic; (3) passive margin period during the Creta- 112
63 understanding of the processes of sedimentation of ceous; (4) transitional phase to a compressive regime 113
the Rio Guache Formation. The present work is the during the late Cretaceous–early Paleocene, with com-
or

64 114
65 first sedimentologic study of the Rio Guache Forma- pression resulting from the collision and obduction 115
66 tion in the Guaramacal area, in the state of Trujillo of the Pacific volcanic arc with the South American 116
67 (Figure 1). plate; (5) foreland basin in front of the volcanic arc 117
nc

68 We present a detailed facies analysis, an interpre- and emplacement of the Lara nappes during the late 118
69 tation of deposition and transport processes for each Paleocene – middle Eocene; (6) modification of the 119
70 facies, and finally, a depositional model for the Rio foreland basin by the collision of the Panama arc 120
71 Guache Formation. These results provide insights against the western South American plate, which 121
into understanding the diachronic foreland basins caused the uplifting of the Serrania de Perija, Macizo
U

72 122
73 of northern South America and the role of these strata de Santander, and Venezuelan Andes during Eocene– 123
74 in the petroleum systems of the area. Pleistocene time, creating the present configuration 124
(Parnaud et al., 1995). 125
75 REGIONAL SETTING In the study area, only the pre– rift phase and the 126
foreland basin phase, during the late Paleogene, have 127
76 The oblique collision between the Caribbean and been recognized (Figure 1). The rocks are in fault con- 128
77 South American plates has controlled the tectonic tact. The pre–rift phase is represented by Paleozoic 129
78 evolution of northern Venezuela since the start of the volcanic and marine deposits of the Sabaneta and 130
79 Cenozoic (Mann et al., 1990). The southern limit of Palmarito (Arnold, 1966). The foreland basin phase 131
 Transformation of Gravity Flows in Deep-Marine Water / 3

f
oo
Pr
ed
ct
re
or
nc

AQ1 FIGURE 1. Caption 1.

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132 is represented by transitional and deep-marine depos- 4830 m (15,846 ft) for the Rio Guache Formation was 140
133 its of the Gobernador, Pagüey, and Rio Guache for- proposed by Blin (1989). 141
134 mations, with the sedimentology of the latter being
135 the main focus of this study. FACIES ANALYSIS 142
136 The tectonic complexity present in the South
137 Andean flank has impeded the building of a strati- The data used in this chapter come mainly from 143
138 graphic column for the Rio Guache Formation. How- observations and study of 188 outcrops and 44 pet- 144
139 ever, a synthesized column with a thickness of rographic analysis of different facies. Based on the 145
 4 / Campos et al.

Facies Df1 155

This facies consists of massive gravelly mud rocks 156

and mud-supported conglomerates. The clasts in 157
these rocks have angular to rounded shapes, low sphe- 158
ricity, and range in size from granules to boulders 159
(<3 m [9.8 ft] in diameter). Poor grain sorting and 160
large clasts floating in the middle and top of the 161
beds are characteristics of this facies (Figure 3A). The 162
clasts are floating in a muddy matrix; in some cases, 163
this matrix can be sandy and slightly calcareous. The 164
beds of this facies are about 1 to 10 m (3.3–33 ft) thick 165
and are generally associated with rocks that belong 166

f
to facies Df2 and facies Gl. 167

oo
The clasts found are (1) Cretaceous clasts, such as 168
black micritic limestones with Hedbergella species, 169
Heterohelix species, and fragments of Inoceramus spe- 170
cies (probably of La Luna Formation), micritic lime- 171
stone with rudite and echinoderm fragments (proba- AQ2

Pr
bly of Maraca, Aguardiente, or Lisure formations), 173
and micritic limestones with fragments of mollusk 174
and bivalves (similar rocks to Guayacán Member); 175
(2) Paleocene – Eocene clasts such as micritic lime- 176
stone with fragments of oncoids, Nummulites spe- 177
ed cies, red algae, bivalves, gastropods, and bryozoans. 178
In addition, we found other clasts such as gneiss, slate, 179
schist, quartzite, plutonic and volcanic rock frag- 180
ments, glauconitic and calcareous sandstones, mud- 181
stones, and others. 182
ct

Interpretation 183
re

The muddy matrix and the poor grain sorting 184

with large clasts floating in the middle and top of the 185
beds indicate that these rocks are the result of cohe- 186
sive debris flows, which were deposited en masse
or

187
(Lowe, 1982; Mutti, 1992; Mulder and Alexander, 2001; 188
Gani, 2004). The lack of significant basal scour can 189
indicate the phenomenon of hydroplaning (Mulder 190
nc

and Alexander, 2001; Sohn et al., 2002). 191

FIGURE 2. Caption 2.
Facies Df2 192

This facies consists of massive clast-supported con-

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193
146 study of these localities and samples, eight facies have glomerates with a muddy matrix. The clasts in these 194
147 been identified, out of which five are gravelly and rocks have angular to rounded shapes and variable 195
148 three are sandy. These facies were identified by their sphericity. The predominant grain sizes are granules 196
149 lithotypes and sedimentary structures. In addition, to boulders (<50 cm [<20 in.] in diameter), and the 197
150 the processes of transport and deposition of each of grain sorting is highly variable. The clasts are similar 198
151 the different facies were interpreted to determine the to those described for facies Df1. The conglomerates 199
152 progressive transformations that the gravity flows are supported by clasts, and the matrix comprises 200
153 underwent while being transported into the basin. A from 10 to 40% of the rock (Figure 3B). The beds of 201
154 summary of facies description is provided in Table 1. this facies have a thickness less than 5 m (16 ft). This 202
 Transformation of Gravity Flows in Deep-Marine Water / 5

Table 1. Sedimentary facies identified in the Eocene deposits of Rio Guache Formation.
t1.2 Facies Thickness Lithology Sedimentary Structures

t1.3 Df1 1 – 10 m (3.2 – 32 ft) Gravelly mud rocks and mud-supported Massive
conglomerates
t1.4 Df2 1 – 5 m (3.2 – 16 ft) Clast-supported conglomerates with Massive
muddy matrix
Gs 1 – 5 m (3.2 – 16 ft) Sand-supported conglomerates to Erosive bases, massive, in some cases,
t1.5 grain-supported conglomerates with with crude grading
sandy matrix
t1.6 Gc 1 – 4 m (3.2 – 13 ft) Clast-supported conglomerates with Massive
calcite cement
Gl 1 – 50 cm (0.4 – 19.7 in.) Conglomerates and microconglomerates Erosive bases, massive, in some cases,

f
t1.7 lenses with normal and inverse grading

oo
S1 20 cm (7.8 in.) – 4 m Fine to coarse sandstones Erosive bases, massive, in some cases,
(13.1 ft) with normal grading and parallel
t1.8 lamination
S2 30 cm (11.8 in.) – 1.7 m Very fine to medium sandstones Massive or with ripples, parallel,
t1.9 (5.6 ft) cross- and convolute lamination

Pr
T 1 – 30 cm (0.39 – 11.8 in.) Fine to very fine sandstones and Massive, in some cases, with parallel
siltstones interbedded with claystones lamination, cross-lamination, ripples,
and climbing ripples. Trace fossils
t1.10 like Paleodictyon
ed
203 facies is generally associated with rocks that belong Interpretation 229

204 to facies Df1. The sandy matrix, the basal scours, and the crude 230
gradation indicate that this facies is the result of hy- 231
205 Interpretation perconcentrated flows. The main mechanism for de- 232
ct
206 The muddy matrix, the poor grain sorting, and the position of this flow is frictional freezing because of 233
207 lack of significant basal scours suggest that these grain-to-grain interaction and inabilityof the progres- 234
208 rocks were deposited en masse from cohesive debris sive increase of water into the flow, losing the capac- 235
re

209 flows (Lowe, 1982; Mutti, 1992; Mulder and Alexander, ity to carry larger clasts (Mulder and Alexander, 2001; 236
210 2001; Gani, 2004), but in contrast with the facies Df1, Sohn et al., 2002). 237
211 the size of clasts in these conglomerates are smaller.
This can imply that the debris flows were unable to Facies Gc 238
or

212
213 transport big clasts. For this reason, facies Df2 can be This facies consists of massive clast-supported con- 239
214 a result of little dilution of a parental debris flow glomerates with calcite cement (Figure 3D). In this 240
215 (Mulder and Alexander, 2001; Sohn et al., 2002), with- facies, the muddy matrix is almost absent, and it 241
nc

216 out transforming into a hyperconcentrated flow. can be mistaken for pseudomatrix. The clasts in 242
these rocks have angular to subangular shapes, low 243
217 Facies Gs sphericity, and range in size from cobbles to boulders 244
218 This facies consists of sand- to grain-supported (<50 cm [<20 in.] in diameter). The clasts are similar 245
conglomerates with a sandy matrix (Figure 3C). The to those described for facies Df1, and the beds are
U

219 246
220 clasts show a higher degree of rounding and a lower irregular and have thicknesses less than 4 m (13 ft). 247
221 sphericity compared with the previous facies. The pre-
222 dominant grain sizes are granules to cobbles and are Interpretation 248

223 similar to those described in facies Df1. The beds of The size of the clasts, the irregular form of the beds, 249
224 this facies are less than 5 m (16 ft) thick. These rocks and the poor grain sorting provide evidence that these 250
225 are massive or crudely graded, and they can show rocks are residual deposits caused by the progressive 251
226 basal scours and a little imbrication in grain-supported dilution of a parental debris flow (Mutti, 1992) and 252
227 conglomerates. This facies is generally associated with inability to transport big clasts. The coarsest clasts 253
228 rocks that belong to facies S1. were segregated at the base of the flow. 254
6 / Campos et al.

Facies Gl 255

This facies consists of conglomerates and micro- 256

conglomerate lenses with erosive bases (Figure 4A). 257
These conglomerates are clast supported with a muddy 258
and slightly sandy matrix. The clasts in these rocks 259
have subangular to rounded shapes, low sphericity, 260
and range in size from granules to cobbles. Elongate 261
clasts have their long axis orientated along the same 262
direction. The clasts of this facies are similar to those 263
described in facies Df1, and the beds are less than 264
50 cm (<20 in.) thick and 5 m (16 ft) in length. These 265
rocks can be either massive or show normal or in- 266

f
verse gradation. This facies is generally associated 267

oo
with pelitic rocks, facies Df1, and facies Df2. 268

Interpretation 269

The erosive bases are interpreted as an initial ero- 270

sional event caused by a turbulent flow. The erosion 271

Pr
was immediately followed by deposition from a hy- 272
perconcentrated flow (Sohn et al., 2002). The main 273
mechanism for deposition of this hyperconcentrated 274
flow was frictional freezing (Mulder and Alexander, 275
2001; Gani, 2004). The preferential orientation of the 276
ed
long axis of the clasts suggests their ability to move 277
independently within the flow. 278

Facies S1 279

The sandstones of this facies are fine to coarse 280

ct
grained. This facies can show erosive bases with abun- 281
dant pebbles and cobbles. However, it is common to 282
find clasts randomly distributed in the bed. These 283
re

clasts have subangular to subrounded shapes, low 284

sphericity, and are similar to those described in fa- 285
cies Df1. The sandstones are lithic and moderately 286
to poorly sorted. In general, these sandstones are
or

287
massive but can show normal gradation and parallel 288
lamination either in the middle or at the top of the 289
beds (Figure 4B). The beds have thicknesses between 290
nc

20 cm (7.9 in.) and 4 m (13.1 ft). This facies is gen- 291

erally associated with rocks that belong to facies Gs, 292
facies S2, and facies T1. 293

Interpretation 294
U

The size of the sediments, the erosive bases, the 295

normal gradation, and the parallel lamination in 296
the middle and top of the beds indicate that these 297

FIGURE 3. Caption 3.
 Transformation of Gravity Flows in Deep-Marine Water / 7

sandstones were deposited by processes of friction 298

and traction fallout from concentrated density flows 299
(Mulder and Alexander, 2001). However, we argue 300
that these flows suffered some stratification. The 301
basal scours with pebbles and cobbles indicate that 302
the base of the flow had an intense near-bed trans- 303
port of coarse particles. This part of the flow may 304
behave like a hyperconcentrated flow (Mulder and 305
Alexander, 2001). In contrast, the parallel lamination 306
in the middle and top of the beds indicates that 307
the upper part of the flow was turbulent because of a 308
lower sediment concentration (Mulder and Alexander, 309

f
2001). 310

oo
Facies S2 311

This facies encompasses medium to very fine sand- 312

stones. The sandstones are lithic to sublithic and 313
are moderate to well sorted. The grains have angular 314

Pr
to subangular shapes and have variable sphericity. 315
These rocks can be tabular (Figure 4C), massive, or 316
might show parallel lamination, cross lamination, 317
ripples, and convolute lamination either in the mid- 318
dle or at the top of the beds. The beds of this facies 319
edhave thicknesses between 30 cm (11.8 in.) and 1.7 m 320
(5.6 ft). This facies is generally associated with pe- 321
litic rocks and with rocks that belong to facies S1 322
and facies T. 323
ct
Interpretation 324

The size of the sediments, the thicknesses of the 325

beds, and the lack of sedimentary structures indicate 326
re

that these sandstones were deposited by processes 327

of frictional freezing in concentrated density flows 328
(Mulder and Alexander, 2001). However, the sedi- 329
mentary structures in the middle and top of the beds
or

330
indicate that the upper part of this flow was turbulent 331
because of a lower sediment concentration (Mulder 332
and Alexander, 2001). 333
nc

Facies T 334

This facies consists of fine to very fine sandstones 335

and siltstones interbedded with claystones. The sand/ 336
clay ratio is about 10 to 50%. The sandstones and silt-
U

337
stones can be either massive or show parallel lami- 338
nation, cross lamination, ripples, and climbing rip- 339
ples either in the middle or at the top of the beds 340

FIGURE 4. Caption 4.
 8 / Campos et al.

f
oo
FIGURE 5. Caption 5.

Pr
341 (Figure 4D). The coarser beds have thicknesses be- The group of facies observed in the outcrops al- 371
342 tween 1 and 30 cm (0.39 – 11.8 in.), and can have lows us to infer that they are the result of the progres- 372
343 trace fossils as Paleodictyon on the basal surface of sive downstream transformation of high – sediment- 373
344 the beds. The claystones are gray to dark gray, have concentration flows (Figure 5). These flows are short 374
345 pyrite and micas as accessory minerals, are massive, or lived and could be the product of episodic mass flows 375
346 might show parallel lamination and do not show evi-
ed and sliding. These processes could have been induced 376
347 dence of bioturbation. The pelitic rocks have thick- by the high tectonic activity in western Venezuela 377
348 nesses between 10 cm (3.9 in.) and 3 m (9.8 ft). during the late Paleogene, which was related to the 378
emplacement of the Caribbean fold and thrust belt 379
349 Interpretation over the South American plate (Speed, 1985; Stephan 380
ct
350 This facies represents the classical turbidite deposit et al., 1990; Lugo and Mann, 1995; Colletta et al., 381
351 defined by Bouma (1962). It can show the Bouma 1997; Avé Lallemant and Sisson, 2005; Pindell et al., 382
352 sequences Tb-e, Tc-e, and Td-e. The poor develop- 2005; Ostos et al., 2005; among others). In addition, 383
re

353 ment of internal depositional structures indicates that the trace fossils Paleodictyon identified in facies T 384
354 these sandstones were deposited rapidly by processes are indicative of deep bathyal and abyssal condi- 385
355 of traction and fallout (Lowe, 1982; Mutti, 1992) from tions, which could have existed in the foredeep of 386
periodic short-term surgelike turbidite flows (Mulder the Paleogene foreland basin formed in front of
or

356 387
357 and Alexander, 2001). The trace fossils Paleodictyon the Caribbean fold and thrust belt in Parnaud et al. 388
358 on the basal surface of the beds are indicative of deep (1995), Villamil (1999), Pindell et al. (2005), and 389
359 bathyal and abyssal zones, where low-energy condi- others. 390
nc

360 tions generally prevail (Boggs, 1995). Furthermore, the However, the clasts identified in conglomerate fa- 391
361 pelitic rocks were deposited by fallout in quiet water. cies Df1, Df2, Gs, Gc, and Gl, and the lithic frag- 392
ments in sandstone facies S1, S2, and T comprise three 393
groups: (1) Cretaceous clasts, (2) Paleocene–Eocene 394
FACIES TRACTS AND DEPOSITIONAL MODEL clasts, and (3) metamorphic and igneous clasts. This
U

362 395
variety of clasts could indicate at least three simple 396
363 The interpretation of the facies tracts and its de- sources of sediments or a complex source of sediments 397
364 positional model is based on the models given by that involves all these types of rocks, such as the Ca- 398
365 Mutti (1992, 1999). This author proposes that dif- ribbean fold and thrust belt. The paleocurrent mea- 399
366 ferent facies occupy predictable positions within a surements in current ripples indicate that the source 400
367 succession. Such succession of facies is named by of the Rio Guache Formation was located in the north- 401
368 Mutti ‘‘facies tract.’’ In this model, the facies are re- west of our study area, correlating with the position 402
369 lated genetically and represent the evolution of sub- of the Caribbean fold and thrust belt in Villamil 403
370 marine gravity flows during basinward travel. (1999) for the middle Eocene (Figure 6). 404
 Transformation of Gravity Flows in Deep-Marine Water / 9

f
oo
Pr
ed
FIGURE 6. Caption 6.
ct

405 Cretaceous clasts in the Rio Guache Formation concentrated density flows (Hampton, 1972; Mutti, 428
406 were deposited in western Venezuela during the pas- 1992; Mulder and Alexander, 2001; Sohn et al., 2002). 429
re

407 sive margin phase. The Paleocene–Eocene limestone Such flows were deposited by frictional freezing caused 430
408 clasts might belong to the carbonate shelf, which was by grain interaction (Mulder and Alexander, 2001). 431
409 developed in the outer Caribbean thrust belt during These deposits are represented by sand-supported 432
the Paleocene–Eocene. The Cretaceous, Paleocene– to grain-supported conglomerates with sandy matrix
or

410 433
411 Eocene, metamorphic and igneous clasts probably (facies Gs), as well as conglomerate and microcon- 434
412 were transported from northwest to southeast as a glomerate lenses (facies Gl). 435
413 result of the advance toward the south-southeast of The progressive loss of strength of the flow results 436
nc

414 the Caribbean thrust belt and finally were depos- in the segregation of coarser clasts at the base of 437
415 ited by gravity flows in the foredeep of the foreland the flow, forming residual deposits such as clast- 438
416 basin. supported conglomerates with later-formed calcite 439
417 Our interpretation of the facies tracts and its depo- cement (facies Gc). The transformation of hyper- 440
sitional model is mainly based on the closeness of the concentrated flows in density flows generates the
U

418 441
419 source area. The most proximal facies within this set deposition by friction and traction-fallout processes 442
420 of facies correspond to gravelly mud rocks, massive of this proximal-middle facies (Figure 5). Theses fa- 443
421 mud-supported conglomerates (facies Df1), and clast- cies are represented by fine- to coarse-grained sand- 444
422 supported conglomerates with muddy matrix (facies stones with basal scours (facies S1) and medium to 445
423 Df2). They were deposited en masse from cohesive very fine sandstones (facies S2). 446
424 debris flows (Figure 5). In some cases, these cohesive Finally, the density flows had a basinward trans- 447
425 debris flows underwent a downslope transforma- formation because of a progressive mixing with wa- 448
426 tion because of a progressive mixing with subaqueous ter and dilution of particles in the flow, becoming 449
427 fluids, becoming the cohesive debris flows in hyper- turbulent flows. The turbulent flows underwent high 450
 10 / Campos et al.

f
oo
FIGURE 7. Caption 7.

451 rates of deceleration and were deposited by traction- and sliding, whereas flexural subsidence related to 483

Pr
452 plus-fallout processes (Figure 5). The distal facies is thrusting played the major factor in creating space 484
453 represented by very fine-grained sandstones and silt- for sedimentation. 485
454 stones interbedded with claystones (facies T); this The facies study presented in this work allows us 486
455 facies is known also as classical turbidite deposits to infer that these facies are the result of the pro- 487
456 but with minimal development of sedimentary struc- gressive transformation of gravity flows while trans- 488
457
ed
tures because of the rapid decelleration (Mutti, 1992). ported inside the basin, resulting in the formation of 489
458 The high percentage of coarse-grained sediments, a facies tract. The proximal facies in this tract corre- 490
459 the poor textural sorting, and the minimal develop- spond to massive mud-supported and clast-supported 491
460 ment of sedimentary structures in the previously de- conglomerates with muddy matrix, sand-supported 492
461 fined facies provide evidence that these gravity flows to grain-supported conglomerates with sandy ma- 493
ct
462 were poorly efficient (Figure 7). The efficiency of the trix, and conglomerate and microconglomerates 494
463 flow is defined as its ability to carry its sediment load lenses. The middle facies are represented by fine to 495
464 basinward and segregate its populations into dis- coarse sandstones with basal scours and medium to 496
re

465 tinct facies types with distance (Mutti, 1992; Mutti very fine sandstones. The distal facies are represented 497
466 et al., 1994, 1999). In addition, the very short life- by very fine sandstones and siltstones interbedded 498
467 time of the flows, the lack of freshwater fossils and with claystones (classical turbidites). 499
continental organic matter, and few sedimentary The gravity flows that generated these facies were
or

468 500
469 structures such as climbing ripples suggest that the poorly efficient with a short time; this is evidenced 501
470 Rio Guache Formation deposits are the product of by the high percentage of coarse-grained sediments, 502
471 episodic gravity flows. Furthermore, we do not have the poor textural sorting, and the minimal develop- 503
nc

472 evidence for deposits of quasisteady hyperpycnal flows ment of sedimentary structures. In addition, the lack 504
473 in the study area. of freshwater fossils and terrestrial organic matter, as 505
well as the few sedimentary structures such as climb- 506
ing ripples, suggest that the Rio Guache Formation 507
CONCLUSIONS deposits are the result of episodic gravity flows. No
U

474 508
direct evidence for deposits of quasisteady hyperpyc- 509
475 The Paleogene rocks of northern South America nal flows in the study area exists. 510
476 represent dominantly deep-marine deposits that ac-
477 cumulated within a diachronic foreland basin setting
478 in response to the eastward migration of the Carib- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 511
479 bean fold and thrust belt. One of these deep-marine
480 deposits is the Rio Guache Formation. The origin of We thank Repsol-YPF, especially Alejandro Franco, 512
481 these deposits is related to tectonic instability of this Laszlo Benkovics, and Ángela Echanove for finan- 513
482 basin; such instability caused episodic mass flows cial support. We also thank Servicios Geocinteg C. A. 514
 Transformation of Gravity Flows in Deep-Marine Water / 11

515 for the collaboration, Max Furrer for his assistance Lowe, D. R., 1982, Sediment gravity flows: II. Depositacional 570
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542 versité de Bretagne Occidentale, Brest, France, 359 p. AAPG Continuing Education Course Note Series 39, 600
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543 Boggs Jr., S., 1995, Principles of sedimentology and stra- 95 p. 601
544 tigraphy: Columbus, Ohio, Merrill Publishing Co., Ostos, M., F. Yoris, and H. G. Avé Lallemant, 2005, Over- 602
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