| First Edition - 2008 i Atco stello-lM ableolCo-leton ce atiitee| Table of Contents : Chapter -4 State Variable Analysis & Design (1-1) to (1-14) | Chagter-2 Stato Space Representation Chapter- 3 Matrix Algebra & Derivation of Transter Function Solution of State Equations Pole Placament Technique Chaptor-6 ——— Continlors Chapter-7 Nonlinear Systems Chapler-@ Phase Plane Method haptor-9 —_Liagunav’s Stabilty Analyst's Chapterwise University Questions with Answer Features of Book | # Excellent theory well supported with the practical examples and illustrations. # Important concepts are highlighted using key points throughout the book. #® Use of informative, self explanatory diagrams, plots and graphs. # Book provides detailed insight into the subject. % Stepwise explanation to mathematical derivations for easier | I I 1 \ ! i # Large number of solved examples. 1 | * Approach of the book resembles classroom teaching. \ I I I I I ' | L understanding. h Best of Technical Publications ae ee As per Revised Syllabus of VTU - 2006 Course 2] Semester - V [EEE] <& Modern Control Theory Bakshi 4 © Signals and Systems Chitode || |= Transmission and Distribution Bakshi | Linear ICs and Applications Bakshi, Godse i & D.C. Machines and Synchronous Machines Bakshi i (4S Bei Modern Control Theory ISBN 9788184315066 All rights reserved with Technical Publicotions. No port of this book should be reproduced in any form, Electronic, Mechanical, Photocopy or ony information storage ond retrieval system without prior permission in writing, from Technical Publications, Pune. Published by : Technical Pubtications Pune” . ‘#1, Amit Residency, 412, Shaniwas Peth, Pune - 411 030, Indiv. Printer : Abert DTPhintess: Seno. 10/3,Sinhagad Road, Pune - 411 047 ‘ESPreface The importonce of Control Theory is well known in vorious engineering fields. Overwhelming response to our books on various subjects inspired us to write this book. The book is structured to cover the key aspects of the subject Modern Control Theory. The book uses plain, lucid language to explain fundamentals of this subject. The book provides logical method of explaining various complicated concepts and stepwise methods to explein the importon! topics. Each chapter is well supported with necessary illustrations, prectical examples and solved problems. All the chopters in the book are arranged in a proper sequence that permits each topic to build upon earlier studies. All care has been taken to make students comfortable in understanding the basic concepts of the subject. The book not only covers the entire scope of the subject but explains the philosophy of the subject. This makes the understanding of this subject more clear and makes it more interesting. The book will be very useful not anly to the students but also to the subject teachers. The students have to omit nothing and possibly have to cover nothing more. We wish to express our profound thanks to all those who helped in making this book a reality, Much needed moral support ond encouragement is provided on numerous occasions by our whole family. We wish to thank the Publisher and the entire team of Technical Publications who have token immense pain to get this book in time with quolity printing. Any suggestion for the improvement of the book will be acknowledged and well appreciated. Authors U, A, Baksh A.D. Baksht Dedicated to Varsha, Pradnya and GururajTable of Contents Chapter? 1” Stats Variable Analysis & Design’ 1.1 BACKGIOUNG ......cccessssssestesesescessaseneetacaneeese 1.1.1 Limitations of Conventional Approach ...... 02... .0.s.s+sseseeeseeeee eeesees 1.1.2 Advantages of State Variable Analysis. 4.2 Concept of State ccs 1.2.1 Important Definitions... eee 1.3 State Model of Linear Systems........... . 1.34 State Model of Single Input Single Outout System... 1.4 State Diagram Representation ae2.4 State Model by Cascade Programming........ Examples with Solutions. BA Background 2... ce cece sees ceeeeecee sec seseeceseseeseesetesesseneesees .2 Definition of K 3.2.1 Types of Matrices... . 3.2.2 Important Terminologie: 3.3 Elementary Matrix Operations ............sssoessesesesseteeesssscneesesneessessnssnersnne 1B SAINVETSE Of Mn eatnnnannnnnstnannnnanannnnan d= E 3.4.1 Properties of Inverse of a Matrix. 3.5.1 Characteristic Equation .. 3.5.2 MIMO System... . 3.6 Eigen Values ...... 3.7 Eigen Vectors ....scscssncesssscesssscssnceressncesesssccscessessuensessuetiassareuetsascenesaeceses 3.9 Diagonalisation.... sone 3.10 Generalised Eigen V Vectors... 3.10.1 Vander Monde Matrix for Generalised Eigen Ve Vectors: Examples with Solutions.............00.... sesso Review Cc westions. 3 - 465 4.1 Background 4.1.1 Homogeneous Equation 4.1.2 Nonhomogeneous Equation 4.2 Review of Classical Method of Solution 0 4.24 Zero Input Response. ...ecceesssesesseeeesccesescesseeeeseens eens eeenes 4d 4.3 Solution of Nonhomogeneous Equation...... RE aa nae4.4 Properties of State Transition Matrix....... 4.5 Solution of State Equation by Laplace Transform Method 4.6 Computation of State Transition Matrix... esse 4.10 Similarity Transformation Method.......... 4.11 Controllability and Observability .. 4.12 Controllability... 4.12.1 Kalman's Test for Controllability... oes. sce ees eens seen se seeeee eee serees 4.12.2 Condition for State Controllability in s-Plane- 4.12.3 Gilbert's Test for Controllability. .......... o 4.42.4 Output Gontrollbllity ss. ccscseeescesceeceecseseesseeeesseseeesees 4.13 Observability 4.13.1 Kalman’s Test for Observability . 4.13.2 Condition for Complete Observability in s-Plane ..........-....-....--. 0s 4-33 4.13.3 Gilbert's Test for Observability Examples with Solutions.......... $.4.3 Ackermann’s Formula . 5.5 Selection of Location of Desired Closed Loop Poles. 5.6 State Observers a 5.7 Concept of State ODS@MNWEF un. eecesseseseesaseesesceseseneereesessesoesersees 9 2D.5.8 Dual Problem... 5.9 Necessary and Sufficient Condition for state ‘Observation 5.10 Evaluation of State Observer Gain Matrix Kg... 5.11 Selection of Suitable Value of Observer Gain Matrix Ke..........1.eese Examples with Solutions..........c0::0::cecuseseeuseeessesesesersceesceeersteesseceres 9 SB ter 60 | 6.1 Background ... seeecetoeseseeenes 6.2 Properties of Controller... 6.2.41 Error. 6.2.2 Variable Range... ce eee eee cee eee eee eee e cesses eeees senses 6.2.3 Controller Output Range - 6.2.4 Control Lag GES Applications... sees cseeesceseccecesseseesecsssseseeeessseeeessenesees 8.6 Integral Control Mode. 6.6.1 Step Response of Integral Mode. . 6.6.2 Characteristics of Integral Mode . . 6.6.3 Applications... cs seccecceececscesseceesseseceeeseeseeeeesvteseess 6.7.2 Asohatens set eees eee se ese accesses se esueses se sse sees eseeseesssseesene 6.8 Composite Control Modes... 6.9 Proportional + Integral Mode ro Control ol Mode). 6.9.1 Characteristics of P| Made6.9.2 Applications... 2.6... eee cece c cece ence e eee de reeset eeeetetenseeneeees 6-15 6.10 Proportional + Derivative Mode (PD Control Mode) uu... = 15 6.10.1 Characteristics of PD Mode. . 6-16 GAO.2APPHCAHONS 0... ee eee eee see ese sees see een nator renee eeetenceeseeneets 6-17 6.11 Three Mode Controller (PID Control Mode)..........:+1:ssssssssseseseuessessensen = 17 6.12. Response of Controllers to Various In| ane 6.13 Effect of Composite Controllers on 2" Order “System 6.14 PD Type of Controller...............+ 6.15 Pi Type of Controller... 6.16 PID Type of Controller... 6.17 Rate Feedback Controller + (Outout Derivative ‘Controller 6.18 Review of Second Order System Specifications ......... 6.19 Steady State Error.............00 Examples with Solutions...............000 7.1 Introduction to Nonlinear Systems......... 7.2 Properties of Nonlinear Systems........... 7.4.7 Nonlinear Spring 7.5 Absolute Value NonlinearityChapier'-'8: Phase Plane Method Se = 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Limit Cycle... 8.3 Jump Resonance 8.5 Basic Concept of Phase-Plane Methed ...........:s:00: 8.6 |socline Method for Construction of Phase Trajectory .. 8.7 Application of Phase-Plane Method to Linear Control System 8.8 Second Order Nonlinear System on Phase Plane ..............ssssessscsseseeses 8.9 Different Types of Phase Portrait 8.9.1 Phase Portraits for Type 0 System . 8.9.1.4 Stable System with Complex Roots. . 8.9.1.4 Stable System with RealRoots . . . . . os 8.9.1.5 Unstable System with Positive RealRools.. |. | |. 8.9.1.6 Unstable System with One Positive and One Negative Real Root 8.9.2 Forced Second Order Type 0 System. 8.9.3 Phase Portraits for Type 1 System . .. 8.9.4 Phase Portraits for Type 2 System ..... oo... sss eee eee eee tees 8.10 Singular Points of a Nonlinear System......... Examples with Solutions. .........scsssssssssenissessners Review Questions... “nied” 9.2 Stability in the Sense of LiapUMov ..................ccscceseesesseressseseeeissssnssonseneers 9.3 Asymptotic Stability .........cccssssesssssessnressnceserssaennsssenscecerssenrenesenontereereserss 9.4 Asymptotic Stability in the Large9.7 Som Important Definitions .......seee 9.7.2 Negative Definiteness... oo... ee cesses cece sees eee eeeteeeee eee eens 97.3 Positive Samide 9-5 9.7.4. Negative Semidefinite, 0... esse cece ees eee n er eee sees e tee eee eens eens 9-5 " 9°75 Indofinitences . 9-5 9.10 Liapunov's Second Method........... 9.11 Liapunov's Stability Theorem........ “9.42 Stabili 9.13 Construction of Liapunov's Functions for Nonlinear Systems by” of Linear and Nonlinear Systems .. 9.14 The Direct Method of Liapunov and the Linear System Examples with Solutions.Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-7 of Transfer Function Properties af Multiplication 1. Commutative law is not valid for the matrix multiplication. AB + BA 2. The transpose of a product is the product of transposes of individual matrices in the reverse order. (aby’ = Bat ia Example 3.3: Obtain the matrix multiplication of, 7 auf ot “|2 10 Solution : A has order 3 x 2 and B has order 2 x 3 hence C = A x B has order 3 * 3. 3x1-1x2 3x0-1x1 3x-1-1x0] C = Ax B=!0x141x2 Ox04+1«1 Ox-14+1x0 2K14+0x2 2x0+0x1 2x-14+0«0 1-1 -3 =|]2 1 0 2 0 -2 3.4 Inverse of a Matrix In algebraic calculations we write ax = y ¥ ie. = Land x= a7 ie, x = 5 an ay Similarly in matrix algebra we can write, AX = B ie. x= A TB where Av! = Inverse of matrix A The inverse of a matrix exists only under the following conditions, 1. The matrix is a square matrix. 2. The matrix is a nonsingular matrix,‘Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-8 of Transfer Function Mathematically inverse of a matrix can be calculated by the expression, 3.4.1 Properties of Inverse of a Matrix 1, When a matrix is multiplied by its inverse, the result is the identity matrix, ATA s aa? 2. Inverse of inverse of a matrix is the matrix itself. (wtytsa 3. Inverse of a product of two matrices is the product of their individual inverses taken in the reverse order. (aby! = Bo ATT 23 ima Example 3.4: Find the inverse of A = ? 1] U Solution : Check that A is nonsingular. 23 JA] = li j[=2-12=-10 1 _. [Adjoint of A] Ad. “ene Al Adj A = [Cofactor of A]? ETL 1-3 act, LA 2) [01 +08 ~~ =10 "140.4 =0,2 Cross check: AAT= [2 3][~O-1 0-3) [TO] | 4 1) [+04 -0.2 al Important Observation ; For 2 x 2 matrix, the adjoint of the matrix can be directly obtained by changing the positions of main diagonal elements and by changing the signs of the remaining elements.Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-9 of Transfer Function 14 | 8 -4 For example, A= al: agjas| ‘| This result is directly used hereafter while solving the problems, when matrix has an order 2 x 2. Note that for any other order of matrix the adjoint must be obtained as transpose of cofactor matrix. With this study of matrix algebra, let us discuss the method of obtaining transfer function from the state model. 3.5 Derivation of Transfer Function from State Model Consider a standard state model derived for linear time invariant system as, X(t) = A X(t) +B U(t) sus (Ia) and YW) = CX) + DUM) ws (Ib) ‘Taking Laplace transform of both sides, [s X(s) ~ X(Q)] = A X(s) + BUG) ou (2a) and Y(s) = CX(s) + D Ute) ves (2b) Note that as the system is time invariant, the coefficient of matrices A, B, C and D are constants. While the definition of transfer function is based on the assumption of zero initial conditions ive. X(0) = 0. s X(s) = A X(s) + B Us) s X(s)— A X{(s) = B Us) Now s is an operator while A is matrix of order n x n hence to match the orders of two terms on left hand side, multiply 's' by identity matrix ] of the order n x n. sl X(s) = A X(s) = B Uts) [sl - A] X(s) = B U(s) Premultiplying both sides by [sl - AI’, [sl - AJ 1 [sl - A] X(s) = [sf - A}! BU(s) Now [sl - AP fst- A] = 1 Xs) = [sl - Al”? BU(s) -f3) Substituting in the equation (2b), ¥(s) = C [sl- AP ' B Ute) + D Uls) ¥(s) = (C [st- A! B+ D} Us)Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-10 of Transfer Function Hence the transfer function is, +» (4a) -1 _ Adj[sl-A] Now [sl- A" = Ta-AT~ q¢) = CASISINAIB Lp vb) ~~ [st=aT Key Point: The state model of a system is not unique, but the transfer fusction of obtained from any stale model is unique. It is independent of the method used to express the system in state model form. 3.5.1 Characteristic Equation Tt is seen from the expression of transfer function that the denominator is |sI - A]. Now the equation obtained by equating denominator of transfer function to zero is called characteristic equation. The roots of this equation are the closed loop poles of the system. Thus the characteristic equation of the system is, a ..» Characteristic equation 4 isl { The stability of the system depends on the roots of the characteristic equation. In matrix algebra, the roots of the equation |sI - A| = 0 are called eigen values of matrix A and these are generally denoted by i i> =Example 3.5: Consider a system having state model -3] 1X, 3 _ X,] | [| . [¥ mayett it I with D = 0. Obtain its T.F. (VTU ; JanJ/Feb.-2008) Solution : TR. = C[st-ap! B Is-ay’ {sI- A] = 5Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-11 of Transfer Function fs+2 3 [sl A] = 4 1] ag < [oR Ce " fs-2 4 jf [s-2 -3 1 ley Cy 3 s+2] “] 4 42 |sl-A] = (g +2) (8-2) 4 12=s? -4412=87 48 s-2 -3 _ Lt s+2 Ist- Ay" st 48 ny? 3) P 38-21 TR = 4 os+2 Jiri ay 5s + 22 “ 8748 33 +8 _ f8s+1} © shes 3.5.2 MIMO System For multiple input multiple output systems, a single transfer function does not exist. There exists a mathematical relationship between each output and all the inputs. Hence for such systems there exists a transfer matrix rather than the transfer function. But the method of obtaining transfer matrix remains same as before. imp Example 3.6: Determine the transfer matrix for MIMO system given by, x if? 3167 2 fn) Myf apa Xo} Le? ybe} ue ales bel Lt osx, Solution : From the given state model, 21 EK at D=(0] as[2a} eal T.M. CIsi- a}! B+ D s -3 Cy Cy] fats -2]" fst 3 Cy Ce} “L3 s] “[-2 5 37 458+ 6 = (s + 2) (s +3) Adj [sl - A] | sI-A]Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-12 of Transfer Function Adj [sl- Al _ [ - 1 paliciek OP sake. [sla] JsI-A] (+2) (843) " f2 1)fs45 sft 1 o| -2 sit 1 TM. = C[sl-ay! B=* f2 alt: 3 ee 3s+14] 0 ua s-2 s-2 +8 s+8 | © 4se2)ise3) (s+ 2){s+3) 3s+14 3s+14 (s#2) #3) (+2) (S+3) s+8 s+8 (s#2) (8+3) (s+2) (8+3) ie. Y(s) = TM. U(s) 3s+14 3e+14 YG)] _ | F2GF3) G2) +S) [Ui Yo(s)} s+8 s+8 Us(s) (s+#2) (s+3) (+2) (s+3) ‘The above relation indicates that cach output depends on both the inputs. 3.6 Eigen Values Consider an equation AX = Y which indicates the transformation of 'n x 1' vector matrix X into 'n x 1' vector matrix Y by 'n x n' matrix operator A. If there exists such a vector X such that A transforms it to a vector 2X then X is called the solution of the equation, AX = 2X Le. AK-AX = 0 ie. [AI- AX = 0 (1) The set of homogencous equations (1) have a nontrivial solution only under the condition, jJAT-A] =0 we (2) The determinant [21 - A] is called characteristic polynomial while the equation (2) is called the characteristic equation.Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-13 of Transfer Function After expanding, we get the characteristic equation as, JAIT-A] = +a, 7's. 4a, =0 QB) The ‘n’ roots of the equation (3) ie. the values of 4 satisfying the above equation (3) are called eigen values of the matrix A. The equation (2) is similar to |sI - Aj = 0, which is the characteristic equation of the system. Hence values of 4 satisfying characteristic equation are the closed loop poles of the system. Thus eigen values are the closed loop poles of the system. 3.7 Eigen Vectors Any nonzero vector X, such that AX, = 4 X; is said to be eigen vector associated with eigen value 2. Thus let 4 = A, satisfies the equation, Q,I-A)X = 0 Then solution of this equation is called eigen vector of A associated with cigen value 4j and is denoted as Mj. If the rank of the matrix [A; | - A] is 1, then there are (n - r) independent cigen vectors. Similarly another important point is that if the eigen values of matrix A are all distinct, then the rank r of matrix A is (n - 1) where n is order of the system. Mathematically, the eigen vector can be calculated by taking cofactors of matrix (A; 1 - A) along any row. Cy Ce Thus = Eigen vector for 4; = where k = 1,2, 0. Cha where Cy is cofactor of matrix (A, I - A) of k" row. Key Point: if the cofactors along a particular row gives null solution ie. all elements of corresponding eigen vectors are zero then cofactors along any other row must be obtained. Otherwise inverse of modal matrix M cannot exist. 3.8 Modal Matrix M Let Ay, Aa .- Ay are the n eigen values of the matrix A while M,, Mz, ... M, are the eigen vectors corresponding to the eigen values 4;, 22 ... 4, respectively. Each cigen vector is of the order n x 1 and placing all the eigen vectors one after another as the columns of another matrix, n x n matrix can be obtained. Such a matrix obtained by placing all the eigen vectors together is called a modal matrix or diagonalising matrix of matrix A.Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-44 of Transfer Function Modal Matrix The important property of the modal matrix is that, > M4] [AM, : AM; : ... AM,] [ig My thy My se Ay Mal AM = A[M,:M,:.. " AM = MA () 0 0 where A. = Diagonal matrix : R Thus premultiplying equation (1) by M~?. M"lAM = M™'MA M7'AM = A (Diagonal matrix) It can be noted that, 1, Both A and A have same characteristic equation. 2. Both A and A have same eigen values. Hence due to transformation M“ 'AM, eigen values of matrix A remain unchanged and matrix A gets converted to diagonal form. 3.8.1 Vander Monde Matrix If the state model is obtained using the phase variables then the matrix A is in Bush. form or phase variable form as, 0 1 0 oO 0 0 1 0 Ags 0 0 0 - od vAn “nd “Ane =] And the characteristic equation i.e. denominator of T(s) is, F(s) = s"+ays"7 4. +ay_ysta,=0Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-15 of Transfer Function In such a case, modal matrix takes a form of a special matrix as, Aya dey Ve qi 5 ts aplog? Such a modal matrix for matrix A which is in phase variable form, is called Vander Monde matrix . a> Example 3.7: Consider a state model with matrix A as, o 20 A= 4 oo” -48 -3M 79 Determine, a) Characteristic equation, b) Eigen values c) Eigen vectors and d) Modal matrix. Also prove that the transformation M~ 7AM results a diagonal matrix. Solution : a) The characteristic equation is |AT- A] = 0 10 0/}/0 2 0 ajo 1 o- 4 0 1 = 0 00 1) |-48 -3 -9 A -2 0 -@ A -al=0 ol) 484249 a (+9) 42% 4840+0-80+9)+ 9450 +98 + 264+ = 0 This is required characteristic equation. b) To find eigen values, test 4 = — 2 for its rootModern Control Theory 3-16 Matrix Algebra & Derivation of Transfer Function (+2) (24+ 74+ 12) = ie. (+2 A+3 G4) = ie. = These are the cigen values of matrix A. ¢) To find eigen vectors, obtain matrix {).; value of 4 in equation (1). -2 -2 0 For};=-2 [Aj1-A] = |-4 -2 -1 48 4 7 Cy M, =|C,.| where C3 20) f4 M, = |-20]=|-1 40] [-2 -3 -2 0 For 4,=-3, [AyI-A] =]-4 -3 -1 6 36 [Cy 16 M, =|Cj)|=|-24 C3 8 4-2 0 ForA,=-4, [AjI-A] =|4 4 71 48 34 5 Cy “ My =|Cy |=|-28 Cis 56 a 0 -2Ag=-3 and dg=-4 1 = AJ for each eigen value by substituting Cry Ca, Chg cofactors of row 1. «.. The common factor can be taken out. -3 My, M, and Mg are the eigen vectors corresponding to the eigen values 2, 42 and 23.Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-17 of Transfer Function d) The modal matrix is, 1201 M = [Mj:M):MJ=|-1 -3 -2 214 Let us prove M~ 1AM is a diagonal matrix. mo! = AdiIMI _ {Cofactor of My T M. 10 +8 -7]" [-0 -7 =A Adj(M] = |-7 6 -5] =| 8 6 1 -1 i -1 7-5-1 1 21 |M| = j-1 -3 -2/=-1 -2 14 07 1 - Adj [MJ] Mls =|-8 6 -1 M 7 5 1 0 2 0 1 2 1 2-6 -4 AM =] 4 0 I||-1 3 -2}/=)/2 9 8 -48 -34 -9][-2 1 4 4-3 -16 M~'AM = |-8 -6 -1]]2 9 8 Thus M~'AM is a diagonal matrix. > Example 3.8: Obtain the Eigen values, Eigen vectors and Modal matrix for the matrix o 10 A=|0 0 1 -6 -ll +6Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-18 of Transfer Function Solution : Eigen values are roots of |AI- A|=0 aA -1 «(0 |AI-A] = ]O 2 -1 J=0 6 1 A+6 Le. 0346.2 +1146 = 0 C+ 1A+ 2) (A+ 3) = 0 Ay =-1, Ay =-2, 44 =-3 are eigen values. To find Eigen vector, Let Ais kp=-t -1 -1 0 fAyI-A] = Jo -1 a 61 5 Cu M, = [Cy where C = Cofactor isdiez [6 1 M, = |-6| ie, M,=[-1 6 1 For 4, =-2 f-2 -1 0 [Ag I-A] = | 0 -2 -1 [6 lb 4 [C4 3 1 M; = |Cy2 =|-6| =|-2 C1 forK=3 2 4 3 -1 0 [asi-A] = fo 3 2 [6 ii 3Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Contro! Theory 3-19 of Transfer Function Cy 1 M3 = [Cay =|3 Cra Jor ke3 ° Key Polnt: The cofactors about any row can be obtained. +. Modal matrix M = [M, :M,:M,] 111 M =|-1 -2 -3 149 Tt can be easily checked that, 10 6 MTAM = A=/|0 -2 0 oo 3 3.9 Diagonalisation The diagonal matrix plays an important role in the matrix algebra. The eigen values and inverse of a diagonal matrix can be very easily obtained just by an inspection. Thus in state variable analysis, if the matrix A is diagonalised then it is very easy to handle mathematically. When matrix A is diagonalised, then the elements along its principle diagonal are the eigen values. The eigen values are the closed loop poles of the system, from which stability of the system can be analysed. The diagonal matrix A indicates noninteraction of various state variables. The derivative of one state variable is dependent on the corresponding state variable alone and other state variables do not interact in it, when A is diagonal matrix. This is practically important from controlling point of view. Due to all these reasons, the diagonalisation of matrix A is always motivated. The techniques used to transform the general state model into diagonal form i.e. canonical form are called diagonalisation techniques. Consider n™" order state model in which matrix A is not diagonal. AX() + BU) () cx) +DUe) @ Xn ¥(t) Let Z(t) is new state ~rector such that the transformation is, x) = M Z(t) vs» (3)Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control! Theory 3-20 of Transfer Function Here M = Madal matrix of A Xt = M ZW = @ Using equations (3) and (4) into equations (1) and (2), MZ) = AM Zit) + BUCH we 5) and ¥() = CM Z(t) + DU) : we (6) Premultiplying equation (5) by M~' on both sides, Mo 'a zy = MAM 2() + M7! BUG) 2m = M7? AMZ()+M7 "BUH 2 and Y(t) = CM Z(t) + D UW) 8) The equations (7) and (8) gives the canonical state model in which M~ 1AM is a diagonal matrix denoted as A. The matrix M which transforms A into diagonal form is called diagonalising matrix or modal matrix. The new canonical state model is represented as, 2) = AZ) +BUH oe yw) = Ez) + DUM) ees (10) where A = M7lAM= Diagonal matrix B= M's t= cM The method of obtaining modal matrix M is already discussed in the last section. The transformation M~ 1AM is called diagonalisation of matrix A. imm> Example 3.9: Reduce the given state model into its canonical form by diagonalising matrix A, . 0 1-1 0 X(t) = |-6 11 6} X(t) +10) Ut) -6 -1l1 5 1 and Y(t) = [1 0 O} X(t)Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-21 of Transfer Function Solution : From the given state model, 0 1-1 0 A= |-6 -1l 6], B=|0/, C=[1 0 0] -6 -11 5 1 Let us find eigen values, eigen vectors and modal matrix of A. 1oo}fo 1-1 |AT-A] = [4/0 1 O]-|-6 -11 6|)=0 001) [6 -1 5 [ho- 1 6 Atll -6] = 0 6 Mo 3-8 AQ + 11) (h~ 5) + 36 + 66 - 6 (A+ 11) + 62-5) + 662=0 B+6P+1+6 = 0 (A+1)Q+2 +3) = 0 0 Thus eigen values are, Ay =~ 1,42 =-2, 43=-3 To find eigen vectors, Fora, =-1 1-1 1 A, I-A] = | 6 10 -6 6 11 -6 For Ay = -2, 2-1 1 [Ag I-A] = r 9 6Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-22 of Transfer Function For 43 = - 3, 3-101 [AsI-A) = 16 8 -6 6 8 Cy) f2) fi M; = |C,)|=[12]=16 Ci} {18} [8 111 M = [M, : M,: Mj]=|0 2 6] = Modal matrix 149 -1 0 0 M"'AM =] 0 -2 Olea 00-3 While B= M7B ~6 6-2)" [43 4 5 8 3 6 8 -6 met. AGM) La -5 2) 12 3 2 © TMT -14 * 4 0.4285 0.3571 ~0.2857 = |-0.4285 -0,5714 +0.4285 0.1428 0.2142 -0.1428 -0.2857 -2 B= M7'B=|+04285}=| 3 vs» Multiplying by 7 -0,1428] [-1 and Ct = CM=[i 1 1] Thus canonical state model is, 2) = Az) + Bu and Y(t) = © Z(t) where X(t) = M Z(t)Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-23 of Transfer Function 3.10 Generalised Eigen Vectors The generalised cigen vectors are the eigen vectors corresponding to repeated eigen values. Uptill now, it is assumed that the eigen valucs are distinct but if an eigen value i, is repeated for r times then the corresponding eigen vectors are called generalised eigen vectors. If a particular eigen value 2, is repeated r times then the rank of n x n matrix [A,1- A] is n - 1 and there is only one independent cigen vector associated with 4, given by, Cu Cc M, = |-2 .. Cky are cofactors about k* row Cha 7 important Note: If cofactors along a particular row gives all values zero i.e. eigen vector as null matrix, then cofactors along other row must be obtained. For remaining (r - 1) eigen vectors for r - 1 times repeated value 44, generalised eigen vectors must be used as, 1 ay i PCy Tl Gay 2! an 2, 1 ac} oo [1 2 oe My = T ay M; =/2) an 1 ac, ae Th on 4, ‘ 1 2! an i arly) (Dt gar? ale aan gn () oar The modal matrix M then can be obtained by placing all the eigen vectors one after the other. Note that in such a case, M~ 1AM matrix is not diagonal but consists of a r x r Jordan block in it where r is the order of repetition of a particular eigen value,Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-24 of Transfer Function 3.10.1 Vander Monde Matrix for Generalised:Eigen Vectors If matrix A is in phase variable form andvan eigen value 4, is repeated for r times, then n cigen values are Ly, 21 --- Aq Bp ay oly bye The corresponding modal matrix is Vander Monde matrix in modified form as, 1 0 0 Do one Lowe 4 ay i a Oe Ay oan x 2ay 1 Oa By oe M= * a yp-} aay! 1 cee el ye! a di, 2! az rel ” tmp Example 3.10: Find the eigen values, eigen vectors and modal matrix for, oo 1) Az=/20 0 82-5 Solution : Find eigen values which are roots of |21-A| =0 1oo0]fo o sll alo 1 0|--2 0 o|}=0 001] Ls -2 -5]f a0 - 22 O0}]-0 4802 045 2 +5) 4448 = 0 +50 +844 = 0 Try A=-1 (41) 02 + 444 4) (+1) A+ 27° uo ooMatrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-25 of Transfer Function Ay = -LAg=-2Ag=-2 Thus '- 2' is repeated twice hence it is necessary to use generalised eigen vectors. -1 0 -1 For hy =-1,[4yl-Al=|-2 -1 0 24 Cy] [4] f- M, = {C,. f=} 8=| 2 G3} ta) Lt Now 2. = — 2 is repeated twice. My 0 Al Dgl- A] = ]-2 2, 0 8 2 Ay t5 Cn 13 +52, M; = ICy =| 2A, +10 Cashier | “4-8 hye-2 ~6] f-1 =| 6/=]1 12 2 245 +5 1 ore 2 and Ms = 5 a, |" 2 =| 2 8 je LS. 1 dCy; 2 Tl Gy Thus My, Mj and My are the required eigen vectors. a-101 . Modal matrix M = [M):M,:Mjl=| 2 1 2 1 2 -8Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-26 of Transfer Function Examples with Solutions in Example 3.11: Find the TF. of the system having state model, s ool 1 X= [! a}e{ale and Y= [1 0] X Solution : From the given model, A= [; al: a=[j|-c-0 Oo) D=0 Ys) = “ese _ 1 TR = Cfsl-ay'B+D 107 f0 1) fs -1 {sl- A] = (i tH alk al s+] +1 . Adj [sl - A] = [" | . Change diagonal elements and change signs of other elements. |sl-Al = 5 (643) +2es?4 35425 (8+ (s+ 2) s+3 17fl “TR 2 Cadifst-ayp_ © af s}fo| “OS —TSI=AT st ist3) (s+3)} ~ (s+) (s+2) mm Example 3.12: Find the T.F. of the systent having state model, s [-3 1 0 xf op iy and Y=[1 0] X Solution : From the given model, A= [:2 ol: a-[}}. C={1 0, D=0 . IO _ art TR = ay = C lst AP B+D 10 —3 1 s+3 -1 Ist - A] = ‘(i No a7 2 |Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-27 of Transfer Function . 3 1 : Adj [sI- A] = [5 wa |sI-A] = ss +3)+2=s? +3s+2=(+1)(s+2) role sali TR = CAdj[sl-A]B _ 72 s+3](1 [sI-A| (s+1) (+2) _ 1 ~ (s+i)(s+2) im Example 3.13: Obtain the transfer function matrix for the MIMO system having state model, . 2-10 -1 0 X=] 1 1 2)X+}1 O]U -1 O01 0 2 110 mi vf Sx Solution : From the given state model, 2-10 -1 0 1 1 2), Bali of, -1 01 02 11 0 c= fl pee A Adj [sI-A] B Transfer matrix = C [sl - Ay B+ D = SAdII-AI 10 2-1 [st-A] = sfo1 o/-[1 1 O00 1) [-1 0 (s-1)? s-3 s-1 7° AdjfsI-A] = | 541 (s-2(6-1) 1 -2 2(s-2) 8? -38+3Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-28 of Transfer Function st-2s+1 -s41 -2 =| s-3 s*-3s+2 2s-4 s-1 1 s?-35+3 |sl-A| = (s-2)(s-1)-2+s-1 = s- 4s? 4 65-5 s*-2s+1 541 2 -1 0 Adj[sI- AJB = | s-3 9 s?-3s+2 0 28-4 10 s-1 1 s?-35+3}| 0 2 5745 -4 C Adj (st - A] B Transfer matrix s*-4s+5 4s-8 “s+2 2s? -6546 ~s? ~ 11 oy | 3 45 4 s* —-ds45 ds—8 101 2 —5+2 2s*-68+6 —3st5 0 4s-12 -s?+2 2s? -65+2 [-3s+5 ds-12 js? +2 2s? -65+2 33 4s? +6s-5 imu Example 3.14: Obtain the eigen values, eigen vectors and modal matrix for, o 1 0 3 0 2 -12 ~-7 -6 and prove that M~"AM = A = Diagonal matrix, — (WTU: July/Aug.-2007,Jan/Feb.-2008) Solution : For eigen values, [AISA] = Aa 0 3 2 2/2 12,07 A+6 0Modern Control Theory 3-29 Matrix Algebra & Derivation 20+ 6) + 243k 18 + 14 + 624 11k+6 Test K=-1, -1 1 (a+ 1) (2 + 52+ 6) ie. (+1) +2) (A+ 3) t Hence eigen values are, 2, = - 1, 42 = - 2, For the eigen vectors, dype-L fay 1-Al M Ag=-2 [gt-Al M, A3=-3, [A31- A) My M " of Transfer Function 0 0 u 6 0 0 age-3 f1-1 0 3 -1 -2 lz 7.5 Cy) P93] fa Cy) |=]-9] =]-1 Cat (9) [a 2-1 0 32 2 207 4 om 6 2 Cyy | =} -12] =| + Ci5 3} la 3-1 0 -3 +3 -2 207 3 Cy 5 1 Cyz | =|-15]=|-3 Ca} Las] £3 12 1 Modal matrix =|-1 +4 -3Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modem Control Theory 3-30 of Transfer Function i EEIAILintaleei En 9 6 5)" fo 5 2) -5 4-3 6 4 2 wot. Adi) [22 2) [2 3 2 SMP ae 45 25 1 =|-3 -2 -1 2515 1 AM. in uo o we 1 4 de 4 oo re 45°23 1) f-1 4-3] f-21 of o M lam = |-3 -2 -1/]/1 8 9]= 2515 1) [1 2 -9 Thus, M~'AM = A= Diagonal matrix itm Example 3.15: Find the eigen values, eigen vectors and modal matrix for, 401 2 Az=]1 0 2 i -i 3 (VTU; JanJFeb.-2005) Solution : For eigen values, JAI-A] = 0 A441 2 -1 2 2]20 -1 1 A+3 | AGA) (A-3)- 2-24 2-2434M-BH0 2-72 + 154-9 = 0 (4-1) (FP - 6449) = 0 A-)a-3% = 0 Ay = 122 =/3, 23 =3 Now 4, = 3 is repeated twice hence for 42 = 3, the generalised eigen vectors must be used. ‘Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-31 of Transfer Function 3-1 2 For 2y fay I-A} = [-1 1-2 -1 1 -2 €,} fo M, = |[C,,/=/0 Cy 0 M, = |Cy}=|8 Now for hy =A = 3, use Oo a a ~ Ss 1 ! nny For i = 3, My = Hence the modal matrix M is,Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-32 of Transfer Function ium Example 3.16: The Fig. 3.1 shows the block diagram of a control system using state variable feedback and integral control. The state madel of plant is, B)- (2 JRE: Y xy fo WJ Ix 2 i) Derive the state model of the entire system. ii) Derive the transfer function Y(s)/LI{s). yt) Fig. 3.1 Solution : i) The input of integrator shown is X. Ry = -1* [U()- Yn] = YO - UH w ) and rt) = -35X;—2X,- 15% Q From the plant model given, X= -3X, + D+ rl) vs @a) % = 4X, -5% afb) and YW = % 2 Be) Using equation (2) in equation (3a) we get, Xp = — 3X, + 2X35 Xy- 2% - 15% X= - 5X, + 05X; - 3.5%; vs @a) Xy = AX, - 5% ws (8b) Substituting equation (3c) in equation (1), Xy = %- UI a (de)Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-33 of Transfer Function and YW = X wn (4) Thus equations (4a) to (4d) give state model of the entire system. Xi -5 0.5 -35] [x,] [ 0 Xe} =] 4 -5 0] |X, ]+) o] Ug Xa 0 1 of {xs} [4 Xx) and Y(t) = [0 1 O} |X, X3 ie. X = AX4+BU and Y=CX withD=0 ii) The transfer function Y(s)/U(s) is, Ys) _ 1 ue = Cfsi-AP'B+D 1 0 0} f-5 05 -3.5] fs+5 -0.5 35 [l-A] =s]0 1 Of-) 4 -5 0 |=|-4 s45 0 001 a 1 O 0 -1 s Oss i ods to o4 7 Adj [sI- A] =|0.5s-3.5 $ s?+5s i s45 “3.5(8+5) i -1d i (845)? -2 s?+5s 0.5s-3.5 -3.5s-17.5 =| 4s s? +5s -14 4 st5 s* +10s+23 |sI- A] = 5(545)'+ 14-28 =5°+ 10s? + 2384+ 14 Ys) _ CAdj[sl-A] B U@ > T1si-AT and D=0 s?45s 0,583.5 -3.5s-17.5 |[ 0 C Adj (si- A] B = [0 1 0] |4s s'+5s 0 =id 0 4 s45 s? +10s+23 ||-1 =14 ¥(s) 14 4 Uls) ~ [sl-Al 53 420s? 4.235414Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-34 of Transfer Function | _ 1d ~ (s#ljis+2)(s+7) This is the required transfer function. 0 21 0 tm Example 3.17: For the matrixA=|0 0 1 24 -3 Find the eigen values, eigen vectors and modal matrix M. Solution : For eigen values, JAI-A] = 0 a -1 0 oa -1/=0 2 4 443 BG+3) +244 = 0 #4344042 = 0 Test 4=-1, (+1) 02+2142) = 0 +1) Q+1+ jl) A+1-j1) = 0 Aye -L Calculate eigen vectors. For 4, =-1, -1 -1 0 Pyl-aAj =] 0 -1 -1Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-35 of Transfer Function 1-jl -1 0 For dg = -A-jl, Pgl-Al=| 0 jl 1 2 4 2p Cy 1 Mz = [Cy |=|-1-j Cy j2 .-. Choosing 3 row to calculate cofactors. 14jl 0-1 0 ForAg=-1+jl,[Ag3I-Al=| 0 -1+jl1 1 2 4 24j1 Cy i My = |Cy) |=|-14j C33] [| -i2 a. M = |-1 -1-j -1+j 1 j2 -j2 nm ~Example 3.18 : For a system with state model matrices. “1 0 1 0 ay A=|1 -2 0/;B=|0];C=}1 0 0 3 1 0 Obtain the system transfer function. (VTU: March-2001) Solution : The TF. is given by, TR. = C[sl-Ay's s+1 0 -1 [sl- A] =| -1 s+2 0 Q 0 s-3 Adj[sI-A] = [Cofactor st—A]™ (s+2)(s-3) — (s-3) 0 * 0 (s+1) (8-3) 0 Hs4+2) +1 (s+1) (s+2)Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-36 of Transfer Function (s+2)(s-3) 0 (s+2) = (s-3) (s+1) (6-3) 1 0 0 (s+1) (s+2) |sI-A| = (+1) (6 +2) (6-3) - _ Adjfsl—A] [sI-AF = Iza] 1 1 s+1 9 (s#1)(s—3) 1 1 1 G+HG+2) (+2) G+) G+26-3) a 0 1 3-3 1 0 1 0 st1 (s+1) (8-3) 1 1 1 TR =f 1 Ol) per Gr GED e-a]|" 0 a i 3-3 1 1 G+l) 6-3) fo. 9 1 (s+) (8 #2) (8-3) 1 (s-3) a * (41 G-3) | GtlG+D -3) (s+3) (s+1) (s+2)(s—3) map Example 3.19: Find the transformation matrix P which will convert the following matrix A to diagonal form. The eigen values are dy, hp and.d3. 0 1 0 A=| 0 0 1 1 Ay AgMatrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-37 of Transfer Function Solution : The matrix AI - A is, aA A 0 (I-Ap=/0 A = a, a, Atay To find P, means to find cigen vectors and modal matrix. a, 1 0 Fork=Ay [Ay I-A]=|0 a, -1 a, a) Aytay To find eigen vector, find cofactors about 3 row. Cy 1 My = [Ca] =]Ay Cy x hy 1 For A= Az[kg I-A] =| 0 2 Cy 1 My = [Cay |=] Ay Cy 4 en) Forh=Ay fAjI-A} = |0 a; -1 a; a; Asta;Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-38 of Transfer Function Hence transformation matrix P is, to. Pla, 2p Ay Bow Thus if matrix A is in phase variable form, fa 1 QO 0 0 0 To 0 Asli: a 0 0 ae oT Hy yp yg Oy And the eigen values are distinct as 44, 42, ... 4, then it can be proved as above that the diagonalising matrix is, 1 1 1 AL OA, ey grok yal at Key Point: Note that while finding the eigen vectors find the cofactors about last row. me} Example 3.20: Determine the transfer matrix for the system. ees S] Ce) RR ES 2 (VTU: July/Aug.-2005) Salution : From the given state model, 3 1 (* 6 1-1] As B= .C= ,D= [2 al , cs a ' 1) patel [sl- A]? = Adj [sl- A] _fse3 +] [sI=A] ‘BI-AI= , s . s 2 jf fs 4 Adj[st-A] = I <3| = (: wa 4Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-39 of Transfer Function 1 ] fs 1 s+3 elo +3 jsi-ay! = s? 43542) (9#1)(5+2) 1 -1)fs 1 4 6 TR = Cfsl-ay'B=|8 1][2 s+3}[5 0 (stl) (s+2) 1-1) [as-5 65] — [8 1} j-Ss-23 -12} ~ (st+i)(s+2) 9s+18 6s+12 9 6 LTR = (s+1) (s+2) (s+1)(s+2) _ s+1 s+ TONS) 278-63 48512 *) 27-63 48-12 (s+1)(s+2) (s+1) (+2) (s+1)(s+2) (s+1} (s+2) This is the necessary transfer matrix. hep Example 3.21: Convert the following state model into canonical forin. (VTU: July/Aug.-2005) » fl -4 ° _ X= is -6 Xe fu veo a] x Solution : From the given model, Bde fipere Let us find the eigen values, eigen vectors and model matrix of A. 10) fl-4]|_ pe. 4 IM Al = li HL “di-b adn? (A-1)(X+6)412 = Die 27 +524+6 = 0 (+2) A043) = Obie Ay =2 4, =3 To find eigen vectors, 34 c For A, =-2, [2I-A] = 5 ‘| ie. m= [C5]Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-40 of Transfer Function mesons [3 oem SU 41 M = [M):M,]= [4 ,]= Modal matrix 2 6] MAM = _3|=4 While B= MB Mo = i f i [574] Be [ “dl (.] -[)] € =cM=[1 0] [3 ‘}-8 1] The canonical state model is, At) = azit) + Bu Y(t) C Z(t) where X(t) = M Z(t) tus Example 3.22: Convert the following square matrix A into Jordan canonical form using asuitable non-singular transformation matrix P. (VTU: July/Aug.- 2005) Ke 1 0 A= 1/0 0 i |- 4-9 -6 Solution : Find the eigen values of A. aA o | |AI-A| = jo a -1 |=0 4 9 A+6 2(A46)44492.20 ie. 2 +602 4924420 . (AA)(RA1)(A41) =0 ie. Ay sd, Ay =-1. Ay =-1Modern Control Theory ForA,=-4 -4 [ai-a] = |o 0 For A, =-1, he [A I-a] = jo 4 fc M, = |c Cc As 1, =-1is repeated twice, mie Adj [M] -4 12 Matrix Algebra & Derivation 3-41 of Transfer Function -1 0 Cy] fa —4 -1] 2M, =]C))|=|-4 9 2 Cy] [16 -1 0 hy nl 9 4, +6 n 1B +61, +9 4 1 RD = -4 =|=-4)]=/-1 —4D. 4] [1 33h 2y 2 Soe dc, dh ac, 2h, +6 4] fi —2)=| 0 =| O}=| 0 ae 4 4} [-1 dC,, dey -42yo of 2 1] -1715) =|-4 -17-4 -43 2 15° 3 201 -17-4 15 3 9 201 o 1 o]fi a1 -17-4 0 0 1] f-4-1 0 15 3) [+4 -9 -6| [6 1 -1Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-42 of Transfer Function ..-Diagonal matrix with Jordan block => Example 3.23 : Consider the matrix (VTU: Jan./Feb.-2006) 2-2 3 Azejl 1 1 1 3-1 i) Find the eigen values arid eigen vectors of A. it) Write the modal matrix. ifi) Show that the modal matrix indeed diagonalizes A. Solution : For eigen values | M-A|= 0 A-2 20-3 Hl 4-1-1) = 0 Hl -3 Al] ie. (R-L)(AF1)( R= 2) + 2-9 HA- 14 YAFT)= A= 2)=0 ie, -20? -5A+6=0 ie (A-1)(At+2)(A~3)=0 Apetl, Ag =-2, hy =3 For 2, =1, f-1 2 -3 Cy] f-3 -1 (AI-A] = |-1 0 -1 2 My={C, {=| 3) =) 1 1-32 yf L3l [a For dg =-2, “4 462-3 Cy] fo (AI-A] = |-a -3 -1 2 Mg=|Cy, |=] 0 -1 -3 -1 C5 0 As Cy, = Cy) = Cys = ©, calculate cofactors about other row. Cy} fu Mz = |Cy,|=|1 Cy -14Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-43 of Transfer Function For 4, =3, 12-3 foul §) A [Al-A] = [-1 2 -1 Ne=|im =|5[=/1 “1-3 4 3} if lt “1 Mit M = [M,:M, :M;]=]1 101 1 -M1 wet = Adi M__ [Cofactor matrix of Mj! rs] iM , fis -25 = aylo -2 2 -15 -3 -B , [5-25 to [2-23] pau t MTAM = -4,/0 -2 2 [1 11 14. “ [-15 -3 -12][1. 3-1] [9 -14 1 15-25 10 -}Mo4 1 30 0 #0 1400 30 0 60 O}=]0 -2 O)=A G 0 -90 o 0 3 Thus modal matrix indeed diagonalizes A. y Example 3.24: Given the R=AX—Bu,y = am Examp Given the state modet X = AX—Bu, y =CX ce Oo ol 0 0 where A=/0 O 1/,B=|OjandC=[l 0 0] -1 -2 -3 1 — Ys). bees i) Simulate and find the transfer function Te using Mason's gain formula. ii) Determine the transfer function from the state model formulation.Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-44 of Transfer Function Solution : The state equations are, Xp sXy. X} Hence the signal flow graph is, From Mason's gain formula, Ys) _ Tay + Tag ht TA Tis) ~ a Here K=1, — T, = Forward path gain = The various loop gains are, Jol Fig. 3.3 All loops are touching to each other. 201 As1-[L,+L,+L3] 214344 s s? Ay = Eliminating all loop gains from A which are touching to K' forward path Ay =iMatrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory of Transfer Function Ys) _ UB) 14+=+ si 43s? +2541 3 Now let us use the state model method of finding the transfer function. Y(s) I Ug * Cist-Al'B+D D=0 s -1 0 [sI-A] = fo s -l 1 2 s+3 2 T fez s*+3s+2 0 =I 38 Ss" +3542 s+3 1 Adj [sI-A] = |s4#3 s(s4+3) -2s—1) =/-1 s(8+3) 8 1 s s? -s -%s-1 0s? 32 435+2 s+3 1 -1 s(s +3) s i[st- -2s-1 fi-ap! = Adj[st=A} _ |-s 8 |sl- A] $3 4357 42541 s?43s¢2 543 i|fo Ys) _ fl 0 Off-1 s(s +3} silo Uis} © sy —a-1 0st fit s>+35s* +2541 1 ..Same as obtained above $3438? +2541 1 2 2 -3 mm Example 3.25 : The vector| 2| is an eigen vector of A=| 2 1 -6| Find the eigen -1 -1 -2 oO value of A corresponding ta the vector given. (VTU: July/Aug.-2006) Solution : The eigen vector is that vector which is non-zero such that AX, = 4,X, 1 where X, = Eigen vector =| 2 {4Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-46 of Transfer Function 2, = Eigen value = To be obtained 2 2 -3)f1 1 2 1 -6/] | 2)=a) 2 -1-2 0 [-1 -1 5 om io] = 12a, 5 -hy eS ..Corresponding eigen value. Review Questions . Derive the transfer function from state model. What is characteristic equation of a system matrix A ? Define eigen values and eigen vectors of a matrix. When the generalised eigen vectors are used ? How 1o wse them ? What is modal matrix ? State its importance. State the advantages of diagonalisation of a matrix. How to achieve diagonatisation of matrix A? Rediice the gioen state model in diagonal form, SNP ew ND : 01 1 x= [° t)x[ LQ) and Y(t) = [1 0} Xi) 9. What is Vander Monde matrix ? When it exists ? What is its impertance ? 10. Find the T.F. of the systems with following state models, oe o kK [.: je [ile yen ox . 0-1 1 6b) X= = ) [{ a )e+(de y=10 UX . 0 0 2 1 Q X= |-1 0 O|X+)0)U, y=f1 0 OX 4-2-5 0 1 - Obtain the TF. of the system having state model, . 5-1 2 X(N) = [; =x «[5| ut) YW) = (1 2) x) [ans 128+59 } (s+ 2)(s+ 4) Q00Solution of State Equations 4.1 Background Uptill now the methods of obtaining state model in various forms and obtaining transfer function from the state model are discussed. It is seen that the output response. depends on the state variables and their initial values. Hence it is necessary to obtain the state vector X(t) which satisfies the state equation X(t) = A X(t) + B U(t) at any time t This is called solution of state equations, which helps to obtain the output response of a system. Consider the state equatio n of linear time invariant system as, XW = AX) + BUW The matrices A and B are constant matrices. This state equation can be of two types, 1. Homogencous and 2. Nonhomogencous 4.1.1 Homogeneous Equation If A is a constant matrix and inpvt control forces are zero then the equation takes the form, x) = AX) ea(1) Such an equation is called homogeneous equation. The obvious equation is if input is zero,how output can exist ? In such systems, the driving force is provided by the initial conditions of the system to produce the output. For example, consider a series RC circuit in which capacitor is initially charged to V volts. The current is the output. Now there is no input control force i.e.. external voltage applied to the system. But the initial voltage on the capacitor drives the current through the system and capacitor starts discharging through the resistance R. Such a system which works on the initial conditions without any input applied to it is called homogeneous system. (4-1)Modern Contro! Theory 4-2 Solution of State Equations 4.1.2 Nonhomogeneous Equation If A is a constant matrix and matrix U(t) is non zero vector i.e. the input control forces are applied to the system then the equation takes normal form as, Xt) = AX(Q+ BUC) a Q Such an equation is called nonhomogeneous equation. Most of the practical systems require inputs te drive them. Such systems are nonhomogeneous linear systems. The solution of the state equation is obtained by considering basic method of finding the solution of homogeneous equation. 4.2 Review of Classical Method of Solution Consider a scalar differential equation as, dx SR = ax where (0) = x9 @) This is a homogeneous equation without the input vector. Assume the solution of this equation as, x(t) = bo + byt + bo +... + by + Q Att=0, x0) = x9 = bg -- QB) ‘The solution has to satisfy the original differential equation hence using (2) in (1), a [bp + Byte + BT = a fby + byt +... + byt) by + byt +... + kbyth") = aby + abjt +... + abt For validity of this equation, the coefficients of various powers of ‘t' on both sides, must be equal. by = aby, 2by = aby, ... kby = aby} by = aby by = Sab) = Sates = 2" by b, = Lakby and x(0) =byState Variable Analysis and Design 1.1 Background The conventional approach used to study the behaviour of linear time invariant control systems, uses the time domain or frequency domain methods. In all these methods, the systems are modelled using transfer function approach, which is the ratio of Laplace transform of output to input, neglecting all the initial conditions. Thus this conventional analysis faces all the limitations associated with the transfer function approach. 1.1.4 Limitations of Conventional Approach Some of its limitations can be stated as = 1) Naturally, significant initial conditions in obtaining precise solution of any system, Joose their impartance in conventional approach. 2) The method is insufficient and troublesome to give complete time domain solution of higher order systems. 3) It is not very much convenient for the analysis of Multiple Input Multiple Output systems. 4) It gives analysis of system for some specific types of inputs like Step, Ramp etc. 5) it is only applicable to Linear Time Invariant Systems. 6) The classical methods like Root locus, Bode plot etc. are basically trial and error procedures which fail to give the optimal solution required. Hence it is absolutely necessary to use a method of analysing systems which evercomes most of the above said difficulties. The modem method discussed in this chapter uses the concept of total internal state of the system considcring all. initial conditions. This technique which uses the concept of state is called State Variable Analysis or State Space Analysis. Key Point: State variable analysis és essentially a time domain approach but it has number of advantages compared to conventional methods of analysis. (1-1)Moder Control Theory 1-2 State Variable Analysis & Design 1.1.2 Advantages of State Variable Analysis The various advantages of state variable analysis are, 1) The method takes into account the effect of all initial conditions. 2) It can be applicd to nonlinear as well as time varying systems. 3) It can be conveniently applied to Multiple Input Multiple Output systems. 4) The system can be designed for the optimal conditions precisely by using this modern method. 5) Any type of the input can be considered for designing the system. 6) As the methed involves matrix algebra, can be conveniently adopted for the digital computers. 7) The state variables selected need not necessarily be the physical quantities of the system. 8) The vector matrix notation greatly simplifies the mathematical representation of the system. 1.2 Concept of State Consider a football match. The score in the football match must be updated at every instant from the knowledge and information of the total score before that instant. This procedure of updating the score continues till the end of the match when we get exact and precise score of the entire match. This updating procedure has main importance in the understating of the concept of state. Consider the network as shown in the Fig. 1.1 Vn & c Zero fricon Fig. 1.2 To find V4, the knowledge of the initial capacitor voltage must be known. Only information about V,, will not be sufficient to obtain precisely the V,., at any time t20. Such systems in which the output is not only dependent on the input but also on the initial conditions are called the systems with memory or dynamic systems. While if in the above network capacitor “C' is replaced by another resistance “R,' then output will be dependent only on the input applied V,,,. Such systems in which the output of the system depends only on the input applied at t = 0, are called systems with zero memory or static systems.Modern Control Theory 1-3 State Variable Analysis & Design Consider another example of simple mechanical system as shown in the Fig. 1.2 Now according to Newton's law of motion, F = Ma a = Acceleration of mass M d F = M4 (vi) Le. v() = as f() dt Now velocity at any time “t' is the result of the force F applied to the particle in the entire past, t t t Wey fmas § ProareZ pana om ce is where t,, = Initial time. t, Now u pay dt = vit) t vit) = vty) + Jf) dt to From the above equation it is clear that for the same input f(t), we get the different values of the velocities v(t) depending upon our choice of parameter t, and the value of v(t). If v(ty) is known and the input vector from “ty! to “fis known then we can obtain a unique value of the output v(t) at any time > to. ; Key Point: Thus initial conditions ie. memory affects the system characterisation and subsequent behaviour. Thus initial conditions describe the status or state of the system at t = t,. The state can be regarded as a compact and concise representation of the past history of the system. So the state of the system in brief separates the future from the past so that the state contains all the information concerning the past history of the system necessarily required to determine the response of the system for any given type of input. The state of the system at any time “t’ is actually the combined effect of the values of all the different elements of the system which are associated with the initial conditions of the system. Thus the complete state of the system can be considered to be a vector having components which are the variables of system which are.tlosely associated withModern Control Theory 1-4 State Variable Analysis & Design initial conditions. So state can be defined as vector X(t) called state vector. This X(t) i.c. state at any time “t' is ‘n’ dimensional vector i.e. column matrix n x 1 as indicated below. X(t) Xp(t) X(t) = Xa lt Now these variables X,(t) , X(t), .... called the state variables of the system. If state at t = ty is to be decided then we must know X(ty) and knowledge of the input applied between ty —t,. This new state will be X(t,) which will act as initial state to find out the state at any time t > t,. This is called the updating of the state. The output of the system at t = t, will be the function of X(t,) and the instantaneous value of the input at t = t,, if any. The number of the state variables for a system is generally equal to the order of the system. The number of independent state variables is normally equal to the number of energy storing elements (eg.: capacitor voltage, current in inductor) contained in the system. . X,(t) which constitute the state vector X(t) are 1.2.1 Important Definitions 1) State ; The state of a dynamic system is defined as a minimal set of variables such that the knowledge of these variables at t = ty together with the knowledge of the inputs for t 2tg, completely determines the behaviour of the system for t >t). 2) State Variables : The variables involved in determining the state of a dynamic system X(t), are called the state variables. X)(t), X(t) ....X,,(t) are nothing but the state variables. These are normally the energy storing elements contained in the system. 3) State Vector : The ‘n’ state variables necessary to describe the complete behaviour of the system can be considered as ‘n' components of a vector X(t) called the state vector at time ‘t’. The state vector X(t) is the vector sum of all the state variables. 4) State Space : The space whose co-ordinate axes are nothing but the ‘n’ state variables with time as the implicit variable is called the state space. 5) State Trajectory : It is the locus of the tips of the state vectors, with time as the implicit variable.Control Theory 1-5 State Variable Analysis & Design Definitions can be explained by considering second order system : ‘Order is 2 so number of state variables required is 2 say X,(t) and X(t). State vector will be the matrix of order 2 x 1. x0 x) = {07 i i ~ > 3 ie. X() = X\()+XZK) (vector addition) The state space will be a plane in this case as the number of variables are two. Thus state space can be shown as in the Fig. 1.3. x x0 X (ty) % (h), Xt Xl) (9.0) 2 Katy) Fig. 1.3 Fig. 1.4 Now consider t = t, > 4 ~ ity) = Xy(ty) + Xplty) x (0 X (la) Xs (toh, nans: 0 Xq (ty) Fig. 1.5 Fig. 1.6 Now consider t = t, > > > X(ty) = Xp(ty)+ Xp (ty) The state trajectory can be shown by joining the tips of the two state vectors ie. X(t,} and X(t),Modern Control Theory 1-6 State Variable Analysis & Design 1.3 State Model of Linear Systems Consider Multiple Input Multiple Output, nth order system as shown in the Fig. 1.7. Number of inputs = m Number of outputs = p Uy U2 Inputs Urs Hy Xp X3 Xa State variables Fig. 1.7 UAH x0 ¥0) U,(t) X(t) ¥,) um =]: bx®=) : |= Un tt) Xn (0) Yp(0) All are column vectors having orders mx 1, nx 1 and p x 1 respectively. For such a system, the state variable representation can be arranged in the form of *n first order differential equations. aX) s . =n = X(t) = fy Ope Xp prereeXy p Uy (Ug vorren Un) dX,() + Gp = XR = fy Kp Xp ee Ny Uy Uy creer Und dX, (0 Kant) = fy Xp Xp pee Xq /Uy Uy oe dtModern Control Theory 1-7 State Variable Analysis & Design f h Where f =| ; | is the functional operator. fh, Integrating the above equation, t Xi = Xilgh + PO, Xq see My Uy , Uy vor Un) dt 'o where i = 1, 2, net Thus ‘n' state variables and hence state vector at any time “t' can be determined uniquely. Any “n' dimensional time invariant system has state equations in the functional form as, Xt) = £(X, U) While outputs of such system are dependent on the state of system and instantancous inputs. .. Functional output equation can be wrilten as, Y(t) = g(X, U) where “g' is the functional operator. For time variant system, the same equations can be written as, . X(t) = £(X, U, #) ... State equation 0) g(X, U, t).... Output equation Diagramatically this can be represented as in the Fig. 1.8. Ui) Instantaneous: Input Input Uti) vit) f Output X(t) Initial state: Fig. 1.8 Input-output state description of a systemModern Control Theory 1-8 State Variable Analysis & Design The functional equations can be expressed interms of linear combination of system states and the input as, XL = ayy Xy + ayQXq +. + ayX, + b + byU, +... + bin Un Ko = agg Xp + ayyXp oa. + aggXq + byyUy + bay +... + Bam Urn * Xn = ayy Xp + aygXg t+ -. + ALK, + byyUy + bygUy + ... + Bag Uy For the linear time invariant systems, the coefficients ag and bj are constants. Thus all the equations can be written in vector matrix form as, Xa) = AX) + BUM where X(t) = State vector matrix of order n x 1 U(t} = Input vector matrix of order m x 1 A = System matrix or Evolution matrix of order n x n B = Input matrix or control matrix of order n x m Similarly the output variables at time t can be expressed as the linear combinations of the input variables and state variables at time t as, YV y(t) = cy, X(t) + oe + cay X(t) + dyy Uy(t) +... + dy, UL tt) Ypll) = cpr NaCl) + ee + cpr Null) + dy Uylt) + oo. dogg Unpl t For the linear time invariant systems, the coefficients cj and dj are constants. Thus all the output equations can be written in vector matrix form as, YW) = CX() + DU where Y(t) = Output vector matrix of order p x 1 C = Output matrix or observation matrix of order p x n D = Direct transmission matrix of order p x m The two vector equations together is called the state model of the linear system. x) =AX() + BUY - State equation Y(t) = C X(t) + D U(t) ...Output equation ‘This is state model of a systern.Modern Control Theory 1-9 State Variable Analysis & Design For linear time-variant systems, the matrices A, B, C and D are also time dependent. Thus, Xi) = AC) X0)+80 UO | For tnear time variant system Y(t) = C(t) X(t) + D(t) Ui) 1.3.1 State Model of Single Input Single Output System Consider a single input single output system ie. m = 1 and p = 1. But its order is ‘n’ hence 1 state variables are required to define state of the system. In such a case, the state model is Xt) = AX() +B UW YW = CX +d UW) where A = nx nmairix, B=n x1 matrix C = 1% n matrix, d = constant and U(t) = single scalar input variable In general remember the orders of the various matrices. A= Evolution matrix =nxn B = Control matrix =nxm C = Observation matrix = p xn D = Transmission matrix => p x m 1.4 State Diagram Representation It is the pictorial representation of the state model derived for the given system. It forms a close relationship amongst the state model, differential equations of the system and its solution, It is basically a block diagram type approach which is designed from the view of programming of a computer. The basic advantage of state diagram is when it is impossible to select the state variables as physical variables. When transfer function of system is given then state diagram may be obtained first. And then by assigning mathematical state variables there in, standard state model can be obtained. State diagram of a linear time invariant continuous system is discussed here for the sake of simplicity. It is a proper interconnection of three basic units. i) Scalars ii) Adders _ iii) IntegratorsModern Control Theory 1-10 State Variable Analysis & Design Scalars are nothing but like amplifiers having required gain. . xt. —[» /}—~ Xtdeaxgy — Xpltd * X(t) = (1) + Xs) + x4) (a)Scalar (b)Adder Fig. 1.9 Adders are nothing but summing points. Integrators are the elements which actually integrate the differentiation of state variable to obtain required state variable. Now integrators are denoted as “1/s' in Laplace transform. So transfer function of any io —--[ fF }-— X(t) = 1K at integrator is always 1/s. With these three basic units we can draw the state diagrams of any order system. Fig. 1.9 (c) Key Point; The output of each integrator is the state variable, 1.4.1 State Diagram of Standard State Model Consider standard state model XW) = AX() +B U() and Y(t) = C X(t) + D U(t) So its state diagram will be as in the Fig, 1.10. ‘uth Fig. 1.10 State diagram of MIMO system The thick arrows indicate that there are multiple number of input, output and state variables, There must be n parallel integrators for n state variables. The output of cach integrator is a seperate state variable. Jf such a state diagram for the system is obtained then the state mode! from the diagram can be easily obtained.Modern Control Theory 4-11 State Variable Analysis & Design Remarks 1. To obtain the state model from state diagram, always choose output of each integrator as a state variable. Number of integrators always equals the order of the system i.e. ‘n' 2. Differentiators are not used in the state diagram as they amplify the inevitable noise. ‘o> Example 1.1: Obtain the state diagram of SISO system represented by equations, Xu) = a, X4b, UY, Ket =a, X,() +a, X,(t) 4b, UW anid VY) = cy Xy(t) + cy XQ) Solution : As there are 2 state variables X,(t) and X(t), the two integrators are required. Fig. 1.14 1.5 Non Uniqueness of State Model Consider a standard state model for a system " xy yi} Let X = M Z where M is a non singular constant matrix. AX +BUQ (1) CX) + DUH ~@ " Key Point: A matrix whose determinant is nonzero is called nonsingular matrix. This means Z is new set of state variables which is obtained by linear combinations of the original state variables.Modern Control Theory 1-12 State Variable Analysis & Design X = MZ hence X=MZ Substituting in a state model M2) = AM Zit) + BU 8) Y(t) = CM Z(t) + DUH ww (4) +. Premultiplying equation (3) by M7! 2) = MAM Z(t)+ M71 B UG) where M?!M = I ic. Identity matrix 2) = AZH+ BUH w= (3) where A = M1tAM B= MB and Yu) = 62) +D UH (6) Where ¢= cM Equations (5) and (6) forms a new state model of the system. This shows that state model is not a unique property. Key Point: Ary finear combinations of the original set of state variables results into a valid new set of state variables. 1.6 Linearization of State Equation Any gencral time invariant system is said to be in equilibrium, at a point (Xp, U,) when, * X = £ (Xp Uy) = The derivatives of all the state variables are zcro at a point of equilibrium. The system has a tendency to lie at the equilibrium point unless and untill it is forcefully disturbed. The state equation xt) = f (X, U) can be linearized for small deviations about an equilibrium point (Xg, Uy). This is possible by expanding the state equation using Taylor series and considering only first order terms, neglecting second and higher order terms.Modern Control Theory 1-13 State Variable Analysis & Design So expanding 1 state equation, : Baf,(X,U) 9 f,.0.U) X= fy Mo, Uy) + PAS KX LAG] Wj- Up) isp Or [X=Xg jel j |xeX9 UsUg U=Up Now A(Xq Up) = 0 at the equilibrium point. And let the variation about the operating point is, 2 . X, = Xp-Xq hence X =X} = Uj-Up a and ; Hence the k'* state equation can be linearized as, 2 RRO U) «BAL OX U ~ = xX, 1 x=} 2x4 +h OU; |xexy Uj Usuo UsUy In this equation X,, X, and u, are the vector matrices and the remaining terms are the matrices of order n x n and n x m respectively. Hence the linearized equation can be expressed in the vector matrix form as, af, OR, © Ox, af, where A= Ox OX on isn x n matrix af, af, af, Ox, Oxy Oy, of Of of, dU; aU; aU, at, af aty p= [U1 Ue 0m | ig nm x mt matrix of, fy fy ou, Uy WUModern Contro! Theory 1-14 State Variable Analysis & Design All the partial derivatives of the matrices A and B are to be obtained at an equilibrium state (Xp, Up). Such matrices A and B defined above interms of partial derivatives are called the Jacobian matrices. Review Questions 1. Explain the concept of stale. 2. Define and explain the following terms, a. State variables b. State vector €. Slate trajectory di, State &. State space 3. Explain adoantages of state variable method over conventional ane. 4. Write a short note on advantages and limitations of state variable approach. 5. Write a note on linearization of stale equations. 6. Prove the nonuniqueness of the state model. Qo0gState Space Representation 2.1 State Variable Representation using Physical Variables The state variables are minimum number of variables which are associated with all the initial conditions of the system. As their sequence is not important, the state model of the system is not unique. But for all the state models it is necessary that the number of state variables is equal and minimal. This number ‘n’ indicates the order of the system. For second order system minimum two state variables are necessary and so on. To obtain the state model for a given system, it is necessary to select the state variables. Many a times, the various physical quantities of system itself are selected as the state variables. For the electrical systems, the currents through various inductors and the voltage across the various capacitors are selected to be the state variables. Then by any method of network analysis, the equations must be written ihterms of the selected state variables, their derivatives and the inputs. The equations must be rearranged in the standard form so as to obtain the required state model. Key Point: It is important that the equation for differentiation of one state variable should not involve the differentiation of any other state variable, In the mechanical systems the displacements and velucities of energy storing elements such as spring and friction are selected as the state variables. In general, the physical variables associated with energy storing elements, which are responsible for initial conditions, are selected as the state variables of the given system. m= Example 2.1: Obtain the state model of the given electrical system. vi) ~ I. Volt) itt} . Fig. 2.4 (VTU : July/Aug.-2006) (2-1)Modern Control Theory 2-2 State Space Representation Solution : There are two energy storing clements L and C. So the two state variables are current through inductor i(t) and voltage across capacitor i.c. v,(t). X) = it) and X,(0) = v,(0) And U(t) = v(t) = Input variable Applying KVL to the loop, vi) = i R +L a0 + va(t) Arrange it for di(t)/dt, au = tyw-Fig-tv oer but a = Xt) ic. Xt) = = Fx,o-E xy} uw @ While vo(t) = Voltage across capacitor = z Jiat Sol 2 Lien par Kol -% Le Xt) = Lxyo os (2) ‘The equations (1) and (2) give required state equation. * R 1 1 ‘so = fF TE] POO] Tug x Tog} at 20} é 0 ie. Xt) = AX()+BUQ) While the output variable Y(t) = v,(t) = X(t) x Y(t) = (0 1] [xi] + Ui) ie. Y(t) = C X(t} and D = [0] This is the required state model. As n = 2, it is second order system. Note : The order of the state variables is not important. X;(t) can be v,(t) and X(t) can be i(t) duc to which state model matrices get changed. Hence state model is not the unique property of the system.Modern Control Theory 2-3 State Space Representation ‘im Example 2.2: Obtain the state model of the giver electrical network in the standard form, Fig. 2.2 Solution : U(h) = input = e,(t) Y(t) = output = e, (0) State variables : X(t) = i(t) Xp(t) =i, X3(0 = vel) Writing the equations : di,(t e(0 = Ly a8 + velt) d ie. qe xy ~ () ‘Then, vet) dint) R “Fr = rp vel - iat ‘ 1 R, Xa(t) = Ty Xa TE Mal 2) and che = i,(t)~ip(t) = Current through capacitor dv) 1, 1, a = eiO- Gin kat) = 2xyn-2x,0 ~ )Modern Control Theory 2-4 State Space Representation y o 0 -t 1 x — : R nm x,] | Xo} =fo - 2 X, [+] 0 | UC) ‘ BP lx 0 x 2 il 3 3 c € 0 ie. XW) = AX(t) + BUG) and eo(t) = ig) Ry Y(t) = Xp(t) Rp x, Yt) = [0 R, a] |X, X3 ie. Y(t) = CX(t) + DU(t) where D = 0. This is the required state model. 2.1.1 Advantages: The advantages of using available physical variables as the state variables are, 1. The physical variables which are selected as the state variables are the physical quantities and can be measured. 2. As state variables can be physically measured, the fecdback may consists the information about state variables in addition to the output variables. Thus design with state feedback is possible. 3. Once the state equations are solved and solution is obtained, directly the behaviour of variaus physical variables with time is available. But the important limitation of this method is that obtaining solution of such state equation with state variables as physical variables is very difficult and time consuming. 2.2 State Space Representation using Phase Variables Let us study how to obtain state space model using phase variables. The phase variables are those state variables which are obtained by assuming one of the system variable as a state variable and other state variables are the derivatives of the selected system variable. Most of the time, the system variable used is the output variable which is used to select the state variable. Such set of phase variables is easily obtained if the differential equation of the system is known or the system transfer function is available.Modem Control Theory 2-5 State Space Representation 2.2.1 State Model from Differential Equation Consider a linear continuous time system represented by n'” order differential equation as, Yay g¥™ tay g¥P ht - . () . - mal mm a, Yeayvtt = boU+b, Ut.tb, {U"! +b,,U dy") =n" derivative of Y(t). at" In the equation, Y"(t) = For time invariant system, the coefficients a,_j, a,_y -. ag, by by ... by are constants. For the system, Y(t) = Output variable U(t) = Input variable (0), 10), ....¥(0)°"! represent the initial conditions of the system. Consider the simple case of the system in which derivatives of the control force U(t) are absent. Thus ty = Uwe. =u™ <0 2YP ayy YT) ay ¥ + ag YO = BUY v= Q) ‘Choice of state variable is generally output variable Y(t) itself. And other variables are derivatives of the selected state variable Y(t). Xi) = YD xt) = YO =X X30) = Yu = Xo = Xt) Thus the various state equations are, XW) = x0 Xw = x0) Kel) = XA . XOModern Control Theory 2-6 State Space Representation Note that only n variables are to be defined to keep their number minimum. Thus * * X10) gives n'™ state variable X,(t). But to complete state model X,(t) is necessary. Important : x, is to be obtained by substituting the selected state variables in the original differential equation (2). We have Y(t) = Xj, Y(t) = Xz, Yen = Xp oe YON) = XA, YP) = HAD PX) # ag ep Ml + apg Xp a gl) + oes + ay NE + ag M(t) = by UD ce qt) == 09 Xp ay Xp ee Op 2 Xp ~My Xp + by UD ~@ ‘Hence all the equations now can be expressed in vector matrix form as, . Xi 1 0- 0 x Raff 2 8 Pm FY MO lu ke mag Ap Ane} Pal [bo ie. X = Axi) + BU Such set of state variables is called set of phase variables. The matrix A is called matrix in phase variable form and it has following features, 1) Upper off diagonal i.e. upper parallel row to the main principle diagonal contains all elements as 1. 2) All other clements except last row are zeros. 3) Last row consists of the negatives of the coefficients contained by the original differential equation. Such a form of matrix A is also called Bush form or Companion form. Hence the method is also called companion form realization. ‘The output equation is, YQ) = X(t) x0 X4(b) Ye) = [1 O.o}] : Xn). ie. ¥() = CX() where D = 0Modern Control Theory 2-7 State Space Representation This model in the Bush form can be shown in the state diagram as in the Fig. 23. ‘Output of each integrator is a state variable. "3, un If the differential equation consists of the derivatives of the input control force U(t) then this method is not useful. In such a case, the state model is to be obtained from the transfer function. im Example 2.3: Construct the state model using phase variables if the system is described by the differential equation, 2. 2 d Yen | afl ayit) 7a) + 2Y(t) = SLU) ae det Draw the state diagram. Solution : Choose output Y(t) as the state variable X,(l) and successive derivatives of it give us remaining state variables. As order of the equation is 3, only 3 state variables are allowed. x) = YO xt) = X40 = = S0 and ‘yin = Sty = Yen = LO Thus RM = X21) = )Modern Control Theory 2-8 State Space Representation XA) = X3(t) + Q) To obtain Xi. substitute state variables obtained in the differential cquation. GY od ae YO= "ax, [yO] s 32 = X50) ce X(t) + AXG( + 7 Xt) + 2X,(0) = SUC) RW) = = 2X — 7 YC) — 4X) + 5 UC 8) The equations (1), (2) and (3) give us required state equation. XW) = AX() + BUCH) . 01 0 0 where A=1]0 0 1] and B=/0 27 4 5 The output is, Y(t) = X(t) ¥() = CX() + DU(Y where Cc = [100,D=0 This is the required state model using phase variables. The state diagram is shown in the Fig. 2.4. Fig. 2.4 2.2.2 State Model from Transfer Function Consider a system characterized by the differential equation containing derivatives of the input variable U(t) as, Yt agg Yb + + ay V+ ag Y(t) = bg +b, U+ + by UT +b U™ we ()Mader Control! Theory 2-9 State Space Representation In such a case, it is advantageous to obtain the transfer function, assuming zero initial conditions. Taking Laplace transform of both sides of equation (1) and neglecting initial conditions we get, Ys) Is" + a, ys" +. + ay 8 + ag) = [by + sb +. Hb 7 87 + by, Ss] Ul) Ys) _ 4) = Pa tsb $Dyy..8 1 +b, 8™ n=l gt + (2) Ay $9 yt tay 7S Practically in most of the contre! systems m Uw Lns uo) Suepsor 40) wesBerp ayes 117 “Bia Squsuaja JoURSIP BujuEWoYModern Control Theory 2-25 State Space Representation For series integrators, the state equations are, = -ajX, + Xy x * Xp = = apX, + Xs Near = aX iat X a " - aX, + Utt) While for parallel integrators, the state equations are, Sear = Xa + UW) * 0 = ay Xq + UU) While Yt) Xp + egXn te ROX Hae Xe a + + Ca Xq Key Point: Y(t) has additional cg L(t) term if m =n. Hence the state model has matrices in the form, Element way forrtimes f for r—1 times “At Oe 8 | Ordo N ~a, : sesseeeateeecs 0 Jordan block ‘only diagonal elements Fig. 2.18Modern Control! Theory 2-26 State Space Representation 0 of r-1 : | times B=|? CH [eye ay ve 1 1 1 The matrix D is zero if m Example 2.10: Obtain the state model of the given nekwork in the standard form. Assume R,=12 C,=1F Ry = 292 C,=1F Ry = 32Madern Control! Theary 2-32 State Space Representation Ry +e I Ry Input Uft ; Re mt 4 Cop Y(t} Output -¢- La} Fig. 2.23 Solution : Selecting state variables as voltages across capacitors C, and, ive. ¢, and ¢, ey) = Xt ey = X(t) Applying Kirchhoff's laws, Ult) =i, Ry - ey Ry iy - i) = 0 Fig. 2.23 (a) Uh = i, Ry +e, +R, (i, - i) oO) for second loop, ey - ig Ry -e2 “ig =i) R, = 0 ey = igRy Hey (ig —i,) Ry ~~ Q) Solving simultancously equations (1) and (2) ut) = i, (R, +Ryy-i, Rg +e, e, = -i, Ry +i, (RL +R,)+e, Substituting the values, Ut) = i, (1+2)-2i, +e, ie. Ut) = 34, -2i, +e a 8) e, = -2i, +51, +e, a AY Multiply equation (3) by 2. and equation (4) by 3 2 Ut) = ij - iy +20, 3e, = + 15i, + 3e, and adding BUlt) + Be, = Ii, + 3ey + 2c,Modern Control Theory 2-33 State Space Representation . 1 3 in UN + Fei Fe » B) Now from equation (3) UW) = 3i, -2i, +e, Substituting i, from equation (5) h , 6 2 Bip = UN+ Ut ere ay ee 6 2 6 Ul = 3 - UW - Fert qete 17 9 6 ly = 4g UD 35 er - aye + (6) dey . Now ot = i Capacitor current is C [dve/dt] as C, = 1, de, 17 9 6 3 1 3 ee UO mage eM taye de 8 12 3 1. 3 -—=— = ar * ag UD age + gg ee ‘ 8 yy _ 12 1 Xi # ag UO x) 7 X w= 7) de, . and CGP = ig ...Capacitor current is C [dve/dt] as c=1 dey 3 1 3 ae TE UO TTS Gee 3 1 3 Xo = gq, UW + ap X17 Xe ~» (8) and Yit) = ey = Xp “. State model is,X = AX + BU and Y = CX + DU BL & 3 Ti] p.|3 = = yo {Bef S| C=al D= fo] TN i. i where A=Modern Control Theory 2-34 State Space Representation hm Example 2.11: Consider the mechanical system shown in figure. For shown displacements and velocities obtain the state model in standard form. Assume velocity of M2 as output. Fig. 2.24 Solution : Select the state variables as energy storing elements ie. displacements and velocities related to spring and friction. X(t) = ¥,(t) X34 = VQ) XW = Yo), X= V0 Ut) = F(t), Y(t) = V2 (0) Draw the equivalent mechanical system. Due to F,(t), M, will displace by Y,. Due to spring K, and friction B, which are between the two masses, the displacement change from Y, to Y;. While mass M3, spring K and friction By are under the influence of Y alone as K, and B, are with reference to fixed support and not between two moving points. Represent each displacement by separate node, Connect the elements in parallel 0 Fig. 2.25Modern Control Theory 2-35 State Space Representation which are under the influence of same displacement, thus’K,, B, parallel between Y and Yg, My, Ky and By parallel between Y; and reference i.e. fixed support and so on. The spring force is proportional to net displacement in spring while frictional force is proportional to the velocitics, At node Y,, ay, B, d(Y, ~ 5) FL = M, art K,(%-¥)+# « () At node Yq, d? y. dy. B,d(Y, -Y,) 0 = M, ae +K,Y) +B, E+ K, 0%) -¥) + w 2) ‘Substituting all values in terms of state variables we get, . a?y, . Y= Xp. a 7 Xt=V =X5, aD = Xs adYy 8 dy, s Yy = Xz, qe TX eV, 2X, re = X4 -. Substituting in equation (1) and equation (2) Ul) = My X3+K, (X, -Xg]+ By [X5 -Xy] = Q) 0 = M,X4+K,X, +B,Xq+K, IX, -X]+B,1Xy-X3] @ From equation (3) and equation (4) we can write * 1a, X3 = wy, [UW -K, (X, - X3)- By(Xy - X4)] ~ @) ‘ 1 : ta and Xa= My [-K, X, -B, Xy- Ky % -X)-B, X,-X5)} + ©) and Xi = Xz, 2 =X. Y= Vy = XO +. State model can be constructed in the standard form AX + BU CX + DU YState Space Representation Modern Control Theory 2-36 a Qa 1 0 it} QO it 1 = | K, By Where As ~My +My -M, Ky 24K) By Ma M, M; 0 O B= lm, c=[00 0 1] 0 i Example 2.12 : For the given TF. of a system obtain the state model by i) Direct decomposition ii) Gullemin's Form iii) Foster's Form (s+2)(s+3) T(s) = 5(s+1)(s* +95 +20) Solution : i) Direct decomposition 1) = s?+5s+6 _ s(s° +10s? +2984 20) {{[s+ 10]s+ 29) s+ 20 }s s2 +5546 State diagram is as follows Us) X, =X, X= Xp, Xp =Xy, X, = U-20X,-29X,-10X,, Y = 6X, +5X, 4X,Modern Control Theory 2-37 ‘State Space Representation ~.State model is X = AX + BU and ¥ = CX + DU o 1 0 oO 0 o o 1 90 0 where A=], 9 9 ifBelo 0 -20 -29 -10 1 C=[651 0) D=[0] fi) Gullemin's Form Ts) = (s+ 2}(s+ 3) _ +2) (+3) 1 1 S) = Sist+ipis+ dts) (41) (+4) 45) Ss State diagram is, . . * xX, = X X= -5X,+3X,+ X; . . + X, = -4X,+2X,+X,, X, = Uls)-X, Substituting X, back in X, Xy = —4X, +2X, + Uls)-X, =— 4X, +X, + Uls) Substituting X, back in X, X, = - SX) + 3X, -4X5 +X, +Uls) = -5X,-Xy +X, + Us) and Y¥ 0 %Modern Control Theory 2-38 State Space Representation -. State model becomes X = AX+BU and Y = CX Oo 1 o 60 fo o 5 -1 1 I where A= 0 0-41 Bei c=[1000} oo 0 al uj iii) For Foster's form : Find out partial fraction expansion of T(s) Ts) = ‘ut X, = Ul)-X,, y=-1x+bx,-dxy+hx, X, = Ul) - 4x, X, = U)-5X, X, = UbModern Control Theory 2-39 ‘State Space Representation State model is, X = AX+BU and Y= -1 oo 1 o -4 0 0 1 303 where A= lo co 5 0) BR -% il 0 0 0 0] 1 ma Example 2.13 Derive the state model in Jordan's canonical form for a system having T-F. 1 Ts) = ——-—- tas? $5s42 Solution: qy.) - _ i 1 --A_,_B ® so 44s7 45s (s+1P (s+2) (s+)? S+D (+2) ie. A(s + 2) + Bs +1) (8 +.2)+Gs+1)? =1 As + 2A + Bs? + 3Bs+2B+ Cs? +2Cs+C = 1 B+C = 0,A+3B+2C=0, 2A + 2B+C 1 W Now C=1,B=-1,A=1 1 1 1 Tis) = Gen: “Be * GD State diagram is , un Fig. 2.29Modern Control Theory 2-40 State Space Representation : X, = =X4X, X, = UW-X, . X3 = Ult)- 2%, Ys) = X,-X, +X, «State model. is, “1100 0] where A=]0 -1 Qf, Bell, 0 0 -2 L c=f1-1 4 i= Example 2.14 : Obtain the state model of system whose T.F. is 3 2 Tis) = — S38 #5 _ iy Foster's form. s? +12s* +47s +60 3 2 . Solution : Ts) = 23s 3? 412s? + 475460 As numerator and denominator are of same order we cannot directly find out partial fractions. For partial fraction, numerator degree must be less than denominator. So directly divide N(s) by D(s) and find partial fractions of the remainder. g3 412s? +475+60) s3+3s7+2s (1 33+ 12s? + 475+ 60 — 957 ~ 455 - 60 Y(s) 9s? + 45s + 60 Ts) = oe =1-| ot 8 = OB [ne a =1 9s? + 453+ 60 =1_4 B Cc ~|6¥3)GFHEF5) | SSS 7 sea sss 3, 24 30 s+3 s+4 s+5Modern Control Theory 2-41 State Space Representation: ‘State diagram : Fig, 2.30 Ul) - 3X, . Xp = Ul) —4X, x u » j = Ut) - 5X5 Vis) = - 3X, +24X, ~ 30X, + Uls) -. State model is, X= AX+BU and Y=CX+DU -3 0 0 1 where A= o-4 0 B=|1 0 0-5 1 C= [-3 2-30, D=fl] When N(s) and D(s) are having same order, or degree of N(s) > D(s) then, there is always direct transmission matrix D present in the model. a> Example 2.15 : Obtain a state space model of the system with transfer function ¥(s) 6 US) ~ 63 46s? +118 46 (VTUJan/Feb.-2007,July/Aug.-2007,Dec/Jan-2008)Modern Control Theory 2-42 State Space Representation Solution : Y¥(s) 6 The TFis —— = ———————— Us) o3 +65? 411846 Using factorisation of denominator, Ys) 6 Us) ~ (s+1) (+2) (+3) Taking partial fractions, YO) 1 3 6, 3 Us) ~ stl s#2> 543 Hence the state diagram is as shown in the Fig, 2.31 Uts) Fig. 2.34 This is Foster's form of representation, From above Fig, 2.31 we get, X, = Uls)-X, X= Ul) -2X, X= Uls)-3X, and Ys) = 3X, - 6Xq + 3X5 Hence the state space model is, . X = AX + BUModern Control Theory and yY=cx -1 0 @ where A=] 0-2 0 Oo 0 -3 1 Be=/1 C= [3 -6 3] i? Example 2.16 : dty dy dy M2 4 6 Sf 4 11 4+ 10y = 3U ap a + la + 10y = 3U(t) Solution : System is 3rd order, n = 3 State Space Representation Obtain the state model for system represented by (VTU : May-99, Dee.2007/Jan.-2008) 3 integrators and variables are required. Select y =X, and then successive differentiation of y as next variable. X, = Xy = dy/dt ° dy xX, =X, = ae - (1) Q) Now as 3 variables are defined, X, 4X, but X, must be obtained by substituting all selected variables in original differential equation. X3 + 6X, +11X, +10X, X3 y -. State mode] can be written as, x = AX + BU and y = CX+DU ao 1 6 Where A= oo 1 vy =3U as X,-"4 dt? = 3U-10X,-11X, - 6X, 3) =X which is output equation ,C={10 0}, D= {0}Medern Control Theory 2-44 State Space Representation | State diagram : Ys) Fig. 2.32 map Example 2.17: Obtain the state model of the differential equation Se 2a He sd el acc) = Setty ae dp dt (VTU = Aug-95) Solution : The equation can be written as, aCe deMrey+2ec) = Slt) The order of the equation is 3. Selecting state variables as, et) =X) X21) x0 =a) well) X(t) x0 = eit) 2) oy Xy(t) = c(t) Substituting in the original equation, 4X, (0+ 3X, (+X, (04 2X, (0 = Sxl) . 5 Xf) © 2X 0-4 X,-3X, 040.) Hence the state model is, x o 1 of [xo 0 Xz}=] oo 0 1) |x m+] o| . 201 3 5 x: 2 1 _3) | x,@ 5 ° a9 9 0 qModern Control Theory 2-45 State Space Representation While the output equation is, et) = Xu) x, ie. yt) = [100]] X,« xX, ‘om Example 2.18: Obtain the state model of the system whose closed loop transfer function is Cis) 2(s+3) Re ~ Gerd (VTU : Feb-97, Oct-98) Solution ; Let us use the parallel programming i.e. Foster's form. Finding partial fractions of Cis)/R(s). co) 4 Ris) s+ Hence the state diagram is as shown in the Fig. 2.33 Ris) Fig. 2.33 Hence the state equations from the Fig. 2.33 are X, = Ri) - xX} el) X = RG) - 2% wQ) and Cis) = 4X, -2X, Hence the state model is,Modern Control Theory c(t) and yp Example 2.19 : Choose i,, iy and v¢ ait) GS) Solution: Let e(t) Voltage across Ry i,(t) i,() vel) 2-46 State Space Representation walls] Write @ set of state equations for the netwcark shown in the Fig. 2.34 ~ as state variables. (VTU : April-98,July/Aug.-2007) Ry Ly ly TOOT H0T—-------5 | -- R, eit) Fig. 2.34 = Input = ey (i) = output = X(t) = X30 = X;(t) Let i,(t) and i,(t) are the loop currents. Applying KVL to the loops. e(t) and = Ryiy + ty Stave = Ry -v¢ +e()] = cee X,-X, +e(0] we (1) = Ly ou +iy Ry = iy Ry ve] = + Q) .- Capacitor current u knit)State Space Representation Modern Control Theory 2-47 . Xs = @M%-%) (3) While eg(t) = i,R,=R,X, «(4 Hence the state model is, x x 0 [ 1 L x R, X, uy z=]; 0 -72 “| + | 0} Ult) where U(t) = eft) . ti Xs ° Xy Cc Cc x and YW) = cg =[0 R, Of |X, Xs mime Example 2.20: Considering v- and J; as state variables and J, as the output variables in the circuit shown below, obtain the state model. 1g (0) Fig. 2.35 (TU : Aug. - 97) Solution : Convert the current source to voltage source as shown. Fig. 2.35 (a)Modern Control Theory 2-48 State Space Representation Two inputs, e(t) and L.() ie. U, = e(t) and U; = Ice) One output, 1At) Le. Y(t) = Lt) Variables, ve = X(t) and 1, = X,(t) Let 1,(t) and I, (t) be the loop currents. Applying KVL to the two loops, Loop 1, -1, Ry - ve tet) = 0 I, Ry = eft) -ve 1 1 l= 7 e-R velt) Y(t) = ke U,- im X40 .. Output equation Ry -Ip Rp +ve =0 1 R,, Ry = pel * R. Xy = LXiO-52 Xt .. State equation and current through capacitor, dve I,-l = Cc a dv 1 —S = Sfl,- dt cli Substituting I, from output equation, ° 1 1 1 x, = ci, Ui ce, MX -» State equation * ec at 9 x | c eal? CR, fu] i, Ry [X00 0 & Uy X00 1 iY, v= fay olbeol Le ele:Modem Control Theory 2-49 State Space Representation ump Example 2.21: Derive two state models for the system described by the differential equation D3y +4D7y +5Dy +2y = 274+ 6Du+5u where D = dit i) One in phase variable form. ii) Other in Jordan-Canonical form. (WTU: March-2001) Solution : Take the Laplace transform of both sides of the equation and neglect the initial conditions to obtain transfer function of the system as, s3Y(s)+ 487 Y(s) +5s¥(s) +2Y(s) = 2s? U(s) + 6s Uls) +5U(s) Ye) 2s? +6545 Uls) 53 44s? 45842 i) Phase variable form Use the direct decomposition. Y(s) Is? +6845 UG) f(s ¥4)s+5]s+2) The state diagram can be shown as in the Fig. 2.36 So X, = % Xp = Xq X5 = U(s)-2X, -5X, -4X, and Vis) = 5X, -6X, +2X5Modern Contro! Theory 2-50 State Space Representation So state model is having matrices, o 1 0 oO A=|0 01 ale and C = [5 6 2) 2-54 i} ii) Jordan canonical form : Factarise the denominator as, Ys} _ 2s? +6845 2 A | BC UGS) (sty? +2) (s+1)? FN (+2) * A(S+2)+ B+) (8+2)+C(941)? = 2s? +6545 AS+2A4Bs? +3Bs+2B4+Cs? +2Cs+C = 2s? +6845 ee B+C=#2, A+3B+2C=6, 2A+2B+C #5 A=1, B=1, C#1 Ys) 1 1 Ue) ~ Gin? GER The state model is shown in the Fig.2.37 (a) (8) Fig. 2.37 * : U)=-X, —-X,=Xy~=X, Xz = Uls)-2Xy eo x and ¥(s) = X,+X2+X5 So state model is having matrices, -1 0 O 1 A=/1 -1 0] Be{o] andC=f14) 0 0 2 1Moder Control Theory 2-51 State Space Representation nm Example 2.22: For the system shown in the Fig. 2.38, obtain the state model choosing u,(t) and v(t) as the state variables, ({VTU: July/Aug.-2005, Jan/Feb.-2007) 1MQ voi) 1M vit) ‘ I T Ua) T uF T MF Y(t) Fig. 2.38 Solution : Select the two currents as shown in the Fig. 2.38(a). And write the equations using KVL and KCL. . ut) ima v0 ima ¥() + rn en + + 0) 7) = we) sh ur i, ip Fig. 2.38 (a) it) = LO -vett) .Q) ix 10° vel) = Bf, Ty) at dv y(t) ie. yr = CTR 2 Q) . Y2-¥1 ‘) = ves 0 = i & And vy(t) = alia dt dv, (t) it) = C +r we 4) Eliminate i, and i, from above equations and C = 1 x 10° °F,Modern Control Theory 2-52 State Space Representation Substituting (1) and (3) in (2) we get, dv [poe] [aoa dt | ayqo® | Lb e0® 110° 1x10° dv, - 4 Ult) | ¥,(t) aber dt Chixio®} Cixio® Clixi0® d aa = v4(t) - 2v9(t) + UW) 8) Using (3) in (4), dt 1x106 dv “i = ~ v4 (t) + volt) - 6 Select X= v(t) and X,(t) = volt) Using selected state variables, X= Xt % and Xq = Xp 2% + UW) and Y= y(t) = X(t Hence the state model is, XW) = AX(t) + BUC) and Yi) = CX(t) + DUG) fh aef? *) sePlcen a v=o where Fla Fl =[1 0), D= i> Example 2.23: Derive two state models for the system with transfer function, s vs) 245 © as) i) For first model, matrix A must be in companion form. ii) For second model, matrix A must be in diagonal form.Modern Control Theory 2-53 State Space Representation Solution : Arrange the transfer function as, 1 50x =x(s+5) 1000 (s +5) Ts) = = 36+ D6 +50) sx}x(s+ 2) xd x(5450) i) The companion form means phase variable form for which use direct decomposition of denominator, 1000(s+5) 1000s +5000 ts) = —/000ls+5) —_ _ 1000 +5000 __ ® fs? +52s4+100]s__ {l{s+52)s+100]s) The state diagram is as shown in the Fig. 2.39. From state diagram, and Xq = - 100X, ~ 52X; + Ult) While ¥(t) = 5000X, + 1000X, 0 1 0 0 A =1]0 0 1 B=|0 0 -100 -52 1 C = [5000 1000 0. D=0 ii) For diagonal form use partial fractions, A_B c TG) = St5ya* 350 A = T(s)3| = 1000x5 _ 59 s=0 3x50Modern Cantral Theory B c T(s) The state diagram is, UO. 2-54 State Space Representation 1000(3} = Ths)(s+2)|,_ oan =-3125 1000 (-45) = Tes)(s+50)], CeTae =~ 1875 50 31.25 18.75 $+50 s s+2 Fig. 2.39 (a) Thus the state equations are, % and Yt) Thus, A c = Ul, y= ~ 2X + UW, % = — 50% + UH) = SOX, - 31.25X, ~ 18.75X, 0 0 0 1 =]o 2 0, B=lt 0 oO -50 1 = (50 -31.25 -1875],D=0Modern Control Theory 2-55 State Space Representation m=» Example 2.24: Derive the state model for twa input two output systent shown in the Fig. 2.40. Fig. 2.40 Select output of simple lags as state variables. Solution = a. suggested, the output of at is X,, 1 sag 5 Xo 1, 5 Xy and — is X,. —p= is s+0.5 $42 The state diagrams for simple lags are, Fig. 2.40 (a)Modern Control Theory 2-56 State Space Representation eal) - @) Fig. 2.40 (c) X, = 1 -05X, wo) Fig. 2.40 (a) Ky = my 2% tt) From the given block diagram, ry = K,[U,-¥%) and ry = Ky [U, - ¥y] -»Modern Control Theory 2-57 State Space Representation and Y¥, = X, + 5X voi a) Yo = AX; + 4X, --(6 b) Substituting in (5) we get, ry = —K, X,- 5K, X, + Ky Uy a ry = — OAK, X3 - 4K, Xy + Ky U; (8) ‘Using (7) and (8) in the equations (1) to (4), X= (1-K,) Xy- 5K, Xp + Ky Uy wala) Xp = — 5Xy — OAK, Xg - AKy Xy + Ky Uy (9B) X= = Ky Xy 5K, Xp - 5X5 + Ky Uy 29 o} Xj = - OAK, Xy + © 4K) - 2) X; + Ky Up wD) The equations (9a) to (9d) and (6a) to (6b) give the required state model as, X = AX+BU and ¥ = CX + DU where (-1-K)) 5K, 0 0 K, 0 0 3 44K, ~IK, 0 K, Ae B= -K, -3K, -05 o |" K, 0 0 0 -04K, (4K, -2) 0 K, 15 0 0 c= 0 04 it D= 1 ‘im Example 2.25: A series RLC circuit with R= 10, L = 1H and C = 1 F is excited by v= 10 V. Write the state equations in the matrix form. [Bangalore Univ., Dec.-95] Solution : The circuit is shown in the Fig. 2.41. R L ie ] : ve ~ D covet ft) Fig. 2.44 Applying KVL to the circuit, d v= i) R+ Lae + ve(t) AI)Modern Control Theory 2-58 State Space Representation and volt) = él i(t) dt dv c(t) dt = & i(t) s+ Q) Let i(t) = X, = Current through inductor vc(t) = X= Voltage across capacitor V = Ue WV Substituting all the values, 10 = Xy+ Xp +X hy = -X-Xy +10 6) and X = X oe A) Hence state equations in matrix form are, xa] ft -17 PX] po [&| fi alle: Lo [Yo um Example 2.26: Obliain the state space representation in phase variable form for the system represented by, D*y + 20D%y + 45D y+ 18 Dy +100 y =10D7u45Du+ 100 u with y as output and u as input. (VTU: Jan.JFeb.-2005) Solution : Phase varaible form Taking Laplace transform of both sides and neglecting initial conditions, s*Y(s)+ 2057 (s)+ 45s*Y(s)+ 18s ¥(s)+ 100 ¥(s) = 10s7U(s) + 5s U(s)+ 100 U(s) Ys) 10s? + 58+ 100 Us) 54+ 2053 + 45s? + 185+ 100 Using direct decomposition, Ys) 10s? + 55+ 100 Us) {[{[s+ 20]s+ 45) s-+ 18]s-+ 100} The state diagram is as shown in Fig. 2.42Modern Control Theory 2-59 State Space Representation Fig. 2.42 The state equations are, x Xp =Xq, X35 =Xy Xz =-100X, -18X, -4X,- 20K, +U and y = 100X,+5X,+10X, 0 1 00 0 0 0 1 0 0 = = = 10 AT) go 7 [BR] yf C= L005 10 0] ~100 -18 -4 -—20 1 ‘> Example 2.27 : Obtain the state model of the system responsed by the following differential equation : vs 6 y+ 5yt+yau. {VTU: July/Aug.- 2005) Solution : Take Laplace transform of both sides neglecting initial conditions, s*¥(s)+ 6s7¥(s)+ 5sY(s)+ Y(s) = U(s) Me) Us) 59 + 6s? +5541 Ys) 1 Us) © {[(s+ 6)s+5]s+ 7} The state diagram is shown in the Fig. 2.43 Ys)Modern Control Theory 2-60 State Space Representation The state equations are, Xj =Xq,X)=Xq,Xy X,-5X,-6X, +U and yYexX ol a 0 A= |0 0 1|,B=|0]/,C=[100] -1-5 -6 1 imp Example 2.28: Obtain two different state models for a system represented by the following transfer function. Write suitable state diagram in each case. (VTU: July/Aug.-2005) MGs) _ __ 8s? +178+8 Us) (s+1)(s? +88+ 15) Solution : 1) Direct decomposition : Ys) | __ Bs? 417848 88? 417548 Us) 349s? 4238415 {[(s+9)s+23]s +15} The state diagram is shown in the Fig.2.44 Fig. 2.44 2X2, X2=X3, Xs =-15X,-23X, -9X5 +U Y = 8X, 417K, +8X, 0 1 0 0 Az|0 0 1),B=/ol,C=[817 8] 15-23 -9 1Modern Control Theory 2-61 State Space Representation 2) Foster's term : MS) __Ss?+17s48 2 A BO Us) (s+1)(s+3)(s+5) s+] s+3 0845 A=-0125, B= -7.25, C = 15.375 . Ms) _ 0.125 7.25 , 15.375 ” Us) stl s#3° 845 The state diagram is shown in the Fig. 2.45 The state equations are, * X, =-X,+U, Xq =-3X, +U, . X4 =-5X, +U Y = = O.125X, ~7.25Xq +15.375Xy -1 1 0 1 As|0 -3 G],B=/1|,C = [+0125 - 7.25 15.375] 0 0 -5 1 . Choosing appropriate physical variables as slate variables, obtain the im Example 2.29 : (VTU: JanJFeb.-2006) state model for the electric circuit shown in Fig. 2.46Modern Control Theory 2-62 State Space Representation Fig. 2.46 Solution : The various currents are shown in the Fig. 2.46{a). Fig. 2.46 (a) The volatage across resistance and second inductor is y(t). t ig = Wey At) di and ix 2 = y(t) seul) The voltage across capacitor is, v(t) = u(t) - y(t) cite _ dve(t) tel) = Ca = ae 3) diy ~ y(t) = and 1 EL = uty y= ve © won) di From (4), yi) = uit) ou = uft) — velt) Using in (2), = ut) - velt) sous}Modem Control Theory 2-63 State Space Representation Applying KCL at nede A, ict ity = iat ip dve(t) dota = te + 0 el ut) vet =i sis (6) Select Xi =i, ,, X2=4), X3=Ve =X from. (4) -X3+U -from (5) = -X)+X,-X,+U --from (6) and 2 =-X3+U ~-from (2) 1 0 -1|,B=j1|,C= [0 0 -1],D=[1] -1 1 ¥(s)_s(s #2)(s +3) jim Example 2.30: For the transfer function ——~ = ——-——~ RG) (s41)7(s+4) (TU: JansFeb-2006) Obtain the state model m i) Phase variable canonical form ii) Jordan Canonical form ‘Solution : i) Phase variable form ¥(s) _ s(s+2)(s+3) 83 +65 RS) (s#1)2(s+4) 89 +687 +9844 Using direct decomposition, Ys) 83 +55? +65 Ris) {[(s+6)s+9]s+4}Modern Control Theory 2-64 State Space Representation The state diagram is shown in the Fig. 2.47, Fig. 2.47 Xy 5+ 4X,-9X,-6X,4+R Y = 6X, +5X5 +X3 = 6X, #5X5-4X,-9X, -6Xy +R Y = -4X,-3X,-X +R fo 1 0 f Asio o 1|,B=lo|,c=f4-3 -1),D=1) baa -9 -6 1 ii) Jordan Canonical form : As the degree of denominator and numerater is same, first divide and then obtain partial fractions 53465749544) 5945s? 46s (1 s3+6s? 49844 -s?-3s -4 wo 2 (4) fae R(s) (s+1)7(s-+4) (s+1)? Stl s+4 A(s+4)4B(s+1)(5+4)+C(s+1)?_ = 5243544Modern Control Theory 2-65 State Space Representation Ast+4A+Bs? +5sB44B+Cs?+2Cs+C = 5743544 BHC = 1, A+5B+2C=3, 4A+4B+C=4 A = 0.666, B= O.111, C= + 0.888 Ms) = -| 0.666 ees RG) (sei)? (s+1) (s+4) Fig. 2.48 2X, s-X) +R, Xp s-X,+Xy, Xgs-dXy +R Y = -OINX, -0.666X, - 0.888X, +R -1 0 0 1 Az| 1-1 0},B=]0|,C =[-0111 -0.666 -0.888], D = [1] 0 0 -4 1 imp Example 2.31: Fig. 249 shows the block diagram of a specd control system with slate variable feedback. The drive motor is an armature controlled d.c. motor with- armature resistance Ry, armature inductance Ly, motor torque constant Ky, inertia referred to constant K, and tachometer K,. The applied armature voltage is contrailed by a three phase futl-converter. e, is control voltage, e, is armature valtage, e, is the reference valtage corresponding to the desired speed. Taking X= w(speed) and Xq = i, (armature currenit) as the state variables, u = e, as the input, and y = @ as the output, derive a state variable mode for the feedback system. (VTU: July/Aug,-2006)Modern Control Theory 2-66 State Space Representation Fig. 2.49 Solution : For armature controlled d.c. motor, v() = (1) and ep(t) = san) Tm = Kyi, soon) The torque produced is used to drive the load against inertia J and friction B. dw Tm = Jat Bo Aa) Kyi, = 122. Bo do a seen (5) The state variables are X; =wand X, =i, 2 Ky B X, = Xa -F va (6) From the equation (1), di vA) = 1, S2+i,R, + Kot) wn (7)Modern Control Theory 2-67 State Space Representation But the armature voltage v, is controlled by three phase full converter. Koig Kee = K.IK,x-Kyi, | K_Kix-K-Kyig Kyle, -K, K.Kji, oy = K.Kye, = KK) K, @- KK i, Fig. 2.50 Using this in the equation (7) above, K.Kye, -K.K,K,@-K Kyi, = La fe i,R, +Kyo (8) * KK, +K, Se (kK as td x, Ke (9) Ma And yuo =X The equations (6), (9) and (10) give us the required state model with, K 4 + lop A= ,B=|K.K,|,C=[i 0] ~(KKiK, +K,) A&G +R) a a imp Example 2.32 : For a transfer function given by G(s) = — 2 s?435+2 , write the state model in the i) Phase variable form ii) Diagonal form Solution : i) Phase variable form using direct decomposition 2 2 CG) = 243542 [(s+3)s+2]Modern Control Theory 2-68 State Space Representation Dep pe Fig. 2.54 Xp=Xq, Xp =-2X)-3Xp+U, Y=2X, f. Jja-fpe-m ii) Diagonal form using Foster's form cs) = —2 2. — 2 A,B s Saxan Ger 1333 2 2 A= aay 7? P= 2.2 CO) = Ser 542 X= -X,+U X= = 2X, 4U Y = 2X, +2X, oft gel oC =[2 2] Fig, 2.52Modern Control Theory 2-69 State Space Representation mm> Example 2.33: For the network shown in Fig. 2.53, choosing ij(t) = X,() and ix(t) =X,(t) as state variables, obtain the state equation and output equation in vector matrix form. 1H 12 itt igtt) Fig, 2.53 (VTU: Dec.-2007/Jan-2008) Solution : Applying KVL to the two loops, fh i ae ip +u(t) = 0 Loop 1 s yae. y ai2 A(iy-in)+ig +P = 0 suLoap 2 2 = iy-2ig (1) Using (1) in equation for loop 1, a = iy -(i, 21, )-i, +0lt) = -2i, +i, +0) wf) using i,(t) =X, and ij(t) = X2 Xp = — 2X, +X, +ult) 3) X= 4) and y(t) = on) Xi] xX, x and yt) = fl -1] | A= hr a}e-[i}-e-8 -1], D = 0]Modern Control Theory 2-70 State Space Representation Review Questions 1. Discuss the'deripation of the state model using following methads of programming. i) Bush form ii) Gullemin's form iti) Foster's form ip) Jordan's form 2. Flaborate upon the basis of selecting suitable state variables for a system. + 3. Obtein the state model for the block diagram shown. 5. Consider the permanent magnet moving coil instrument as shown, Here, e = Voltage to be measured, R = Armature Resistance, L = Armature Inductance, — Ky= Back emf constant relating i= Current through armature coil , J = MAL. of rotating part, K, = Spring constant , Ky = Torque constant relating i and T , Derive its state model. Ans.: XSAX+ BU Y=CX+ DU o MB) fare whereA=| 0 0 1 }Be/ 0 | C=[010) KK 9 0 J JModern Control Theory 2-71 State Space Representation 6. For a mechanical system shoten below obtain its state model in standard form. Assume output as YAU). An =AX+BD, Y=CX wy 0 1 i 0 wheeAs| KB Be, Leetom mom! - 7. Obtain the state inodel in standard Bush form of a system skown in figure. Ans.:X=AX+BU, Y=CX Ys} o 1 o 0 | o oa 1 0 0 where A= Ba| || C= (72 96 24 O1 o o oO 1 0 -288 -176 -98 -19 1 8. State whether the following statement is True or False with reasons : ‘The state space approach of the system analysis is a frequency domain analysis. 9. State whether the following statement is True or False with reason. The state space approach of the system analysis is a time domain analysis.Modern Control Theory 2-72 State Space Representation 10. For the mechanical system shown in figure input is u(t) and output is y(t). Obtain state equation and output equation. Represent the system by block diagram. Q00Matrix Algebra and Derivation of Transfer Function 3.1 Background The methods of obtaining the state model in various forms, from the transfer function of a system are discussed in the last chapter. It is alsa seen that the state models can be different and not a unique property for the given system. But most important point about the system is its transfer function is always unique. Though number of state models are derived for the system, the transfer function of the system, obtained from all of them is always unique for single input single output system. In this chapter the method of obtaining transfer function of the system from its state model is discussed. The concepts of diagonalisation of system matrix A, cigen values and eigen vectors are also included in this chapter. Number of methods from matrix algebra are used to understand the relation between state model and transfer function hence revision of matrix algebra is included in the beginning of this chapter. 3.2 Definition of Matrix A matrix is an ordered rectangular array of elements which may be real numbers, complex numbers, functions or mathematical operators, The order of matrix is always defined as m x n. where, Number of rows Number of columns For example, consider matrix A of order 2 x 4 of real numbers. 43 2 1)- afi 0 slo 2 Rows a 4 Columns (3-1)Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-2 of Transfer Function Any clement of a matrix is denoted as ay where i indicates position of row and j indicates position of column. Thus for matrix A above aj; = 4, ay; = - 2, ay = 1 and so on. Key Point: Note that matrix does not have a value but its determinant has a value. A matrix with number of columns as 1 i.e. order m x 1 is called column matrix while a matrix with number of rows as 1 ic. order 1 « n is called row matrix. It is seen that vector matrices X, X, Y are the column matrices. 3.2.1 Types of Matrices The various types of matrices are, 1, Square Matrix : If number of rows (m) is equal to number of columns (n) of a matrix, it is called a square matrix, The system matrix A in a state model is always a square matrix of order n x n. 2, Diagonal Matrix : It is a square matrix with all aj = 0 for all i + j. Only main diagonal elements are present which are nonzero while all other elements are zero. For example, 160 A=j]0 2 0 o 0 3 3. Unit Matrix : This is a diagonal matrix, with all the main diagonal elements equal to unity. It is denoted as I and also called identity matrix, ‘The unit matrix of order 3 x 3 is, 100 I=]0 10 oo 4, Null Matrix : This is a matrix having all its elements as zero. It need not be a Square matrix. 5, Transpose of a Matrix : If the rows of columns of m * n order matrix are interchanged then resulting n = m order matrix is called transpose of the original matrix. If given matrix is A then its transpose is denoted as A’. 012 « A=lo5 a4], ate [b 9 2x3Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-3 of Transfer Function The properties of transpose are, 1. (A+B) salty Bt 2. (AB) = BT AT 6. Symmetric Matrix : If transpose of a matrix is matrix itself, it is called symmetric matrix. It is a square matrix. ATS A 1-4 yf .l-d aol tele 7. Conjugate Matrix : The conjugate of a matrix is the matrix obtained in which cach element is the complex conjugate of the corresponding clement of the original matrix. It is denoted as A‘. _ fl +i2 14 j1 we{) 2 tit “ [2 -j4 34j2]" “12 #j4 3-j2 8. Singular Matrix : A square matrix having its determinant value zero is called singular matrix. a-|i 4 ad jap=|) Ala ao “los 2} “jos 2,007" ™ Thus A is singular matrix 9, Nonsingular Matrix : A square matrix whose determinant is nonzero is called nonsingular matrix. 42 42 As [5 ‘| and [A [5 g[-28- = 140 10. Skew Symmetric Matrix : A square matrix which is equal to its negative transpose is called a skew symmetric matrix. T AU = -A 3.2.2 Important Terminologies Let us study the important terms and their meanings related to the matrix. 1. Minor of an element ; Consider a square (n x n) matrix A and the element aj. If now i row and j'" column are deleted then the remaining (n - 1) rows and columns form a determinant M,. The value of this determinant is called the minor of an element aj.Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-4 of Transfer Function Consider a square matrix A as, 23 4 A-=1{1 0 3.2 uw Let us obtain minor of element aj; = 1. Delete second row and first column to get determinant My). Ms = |2 4 a 42 5 Thus minor of 'ay;‘\is 7. 2. Cofactor of an element ; If Mj is the minor of an element aj then cofactor Cj is defined as, Thus for the matrix A considered above, the cofactor of a, is, Cy = CIP *'My =I *7=-7 3. Adjoint of a matrix : The adjoint matrix is the transpose of a cofactor matrix. The cofactor matrix is the matrix obtained by replacing each clement of a matrix by the respective cofactor. Adj A = [Cofactor matrix of AJ” ump Example 3.1 = Find the adjoint matrix of the matrix A, jaa te2[2 1 Coser, [76 Cy=C) leo Cyeent? 2-8 Cy = tt ; =+6 1 Cy = eret?lt 2-7 Gy = 177?! 9\ 2 \3.2Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theory 3-5 of Transfer Function eer? 3 —c_ pelt 3 Gy = (i i|--% Cy = C1Y 2 7*5 10 eee = Cg =F iy 2 ‘| 4 6 -1 =-8 ©. Cofactor matrix = | 6 -7 -2 -12+5 4 6 -1 -8]/" [6 6 -12 “ Adj A = | 6 -7 -2] =j[-1 -7 5 “12 +5 4 -8 -2 «4 4, Rank of a Matrix : To find the rank of a matrix means to search for a highest order determinant from a given matrix which is having nonzero value. Thus if r x r determinant has a nonzero value in a given matrix then the rank of a matrix is 'r’ and any determinant having order r + 1 or more than that has a zero value. For example, consider matrix A as, 123 Azl24i1 tii ji 23 Now 24 1) = -520 1 Thus 3 x 3 determinant is nonzera hence rank of matrix A is 3. 12 ‘mp Example 3.2: Find rank of A= (3 ‘| Solution : For the matrix A, 12 36 =0 hence rank is not 2. Any other determinant of order 1 x 1 is nonzero. Hence tank of matrix A is 1. 5, Equality of Matrices : The two matrices A and B are said to be equal if they have same number of rows and columns and the elements of the corresponding orientations are equal.Matrix Algebra & Derivation Modern Control Theary 3-6 of Transfer Function 3.3 Elementary Matrix Operations The various elementary matrix operations are, 1. Addition : The two matrices A and B can be added to get C = A + B if both A and B are of same order and, C; + by for all i and j 2. Subtraction ; The two matrices A and B can be subtracted to get C = A - B if both A and B are of same order and, Cy = ay — by for all i and j Associative law holds good for both addition and subtraction of the matrices. [A+B] +C = A+[BtC] where all A, B and C matrices have same order. 3. Multiplication by scalar 'a’ : A matrix is multiplied by a scalar 'o’ if all the elements of a matrix are multiplied by that scalar ‘a’. Gay, Gay Gay, has aa oe Gas axA = | 7 aad 2a Aq, HAD KAny 4. Multiplication of Matrices : The multiplication of two matrices is possible if number of columns of the first matrix is equal to the number of rows of the second matrix. Such matrices are called conformal matrices. ‘Thus if A is of order m « n and B is of order n x p. Then the multiplication C = Ax B is of order m * p. The clements of matrix C are obtained as, n & ag by fori=1,2...nandj=1,2,...p Thus if A is of order 2 x 2 and B is of order 2 x 3 then C = A x B has a order 2x 3. A = [*h An B by by by a2, An ba by, bay C= AxB - esate arbi: +8 pobx, et 21 FA 7by) Agybyy +9 ygDg a gyby3 +A gpb95Modern Control Theory 4-3 Solution of State Equations ‘Using all these values in the assumed solution, 1 2,2 1 ku & X(t) = by + abylt) + ra? byl? +... + Fak byt by[teatedatiteat ahh] 2 kt " fired atte dat] x(0) 2 ki But leate tates. baka ot 2! ki X¢t) = o* x(0) wu (4) This is the required solution of homogeneous equation in scalar form. Thus if the homogencous state equation is considered, xt) = A X(t) then its solution can be written as, x(t) = e*' X(0) In this case, e“! is not a scalar but a matrix of order n x n as that of matrix A. Observation : It can be observed that without input, initial state X(0) drives the state X(t) at any time t. Thus there is transition of the initial state X(0) from initial time t = 0 to any time t through the matrix e“!, As it is an exponential term, the matrix e“' is called matrix exponential. It is also responsible for the transition of the state X(t) at any time t from initial time hence also called state transition matrix. It is denoted as 6 (t). o(t) = e“* = State transition matrix The each term of the above equation is a matrix of order n x n. If instead of initial time t = 0, it is selected as t = ty then the state transition matrix is, oy = eb fto)Modern Control Theory 4-4 Solution of State Equations 4.2.1 Zero Input Response The solution of the homogeneous state equation is under the condition of zero input. Such a response is called zero input response and for convenience denoted as ZIR. ‘Thus the behaviour of X(t) under the initial conditions without any input U(t) is called the zero input response of the system, It is also called free, natural or unforced response of the system. 4.3 Solution of Nonhomogeneous Equation Consider a nonhomogeneous state equation as, X(t) = AX()) +B UC) Xt) - AX) = BUH Premultiplying both sides by e” “', e “hx — A X(Q] = eo BUC) But oa) eA xy = S [eA XC] Substituting in above equation, Stem x01 = e“tB UD Assuming initial time as t = 0 and integrating both sides from t = 0 to t, \ oxi | = feo BUG) dx ° a t fen" B U@) dt 0 eo x0) - X(0) Premultiplying both sides by e“', t wet At X(t) - ot X(0) = et fe™*® BUC dt 0 t xt) = eM x00) + fe) B UW de @ 0 This is the complete solution of the nonhomogeneous equation.Modern Control Theory 4-5 Solution of State Equations Observations : 1. The solution is divided into two parts. The first part is et X(0) which is nothing ‘but the homogeneous solution or zero input response (ZIR). t 2. The other part fe*'-") B U(2) dt is the part existing only due to application of a input U(t) from time 0 to t. It is called forced solution or zero state response (SR). Thus the solution is, t xit) = et x(a)+fAt9 BU(t) dt o ZIR ZSR If the initial time is considered as t = tg rather than t = 0, the solution is, t xi) = AM x(ty)+ fest BU(adt ‘a In general, the solution of nonhomogencous equation consists of both the parts, ZIR (zero input response} and ZSR (zero state response). 4.4 Properties of State Transition Matrix The various useful properties of the state transition matrix are, o(t) = = State transition matrix 1. 90) = e**0 <1 = Identity matrix 2. ° w = ott = (ety? = fo (- or? ie HW = OH 3. O(t +h) = efit) 2 At Ata = Ot) Cb) = oC) Ott) 4 eAltts) 5 Ate As 5. eATB EC eAt eB only if AB = BA 6 few = fe eet = (ny 7 lta 4) Ot - te) = (bh - ty)Modern Control Theory 4-6 Solution of State Equations This property states that the process of transition of state can be divided into number of sequential transition. Thus ty to ly can be divided as ty to t, and t, to ty, as stated in the Property. Interms of $(t), the solution is expressed as, \ O(t ~ by) XUtg) + folt-9 BUD dr x(t) where — o(t-t) = eto) and o(t-) = Aten) 8. 0 (t) is a nonsingular matrix for all finite values of t. 4.5 Solution of State Equation by Laplace Transform Method The Laplace transform method converts integro differential equations to simple algebraic equations. Due this important property, it is very convenient to use Laplace transform method to obtain the solution of state equation. Consider the nonhomagencous slate equation as, XW) = AX() +B UW) ve A) Taking Laplace transform of both sides, s X(s) - X(0) A X(s) + B UG) $ X(s) = AX(s) = X(0) + BU(s) As s is operator, multiplying it by Identify matrix of order n * n, [sl - A] X(s) = X(0) + BUG) Premultiplying both sides by [sI - AJ"', vfst - AD? [sl - A] X(s) = [st - AP! XO) + BUG) x(s) = [st - AJ! x@) + [sl- ap} B UG) 2) ZIR + ZSR " Comparing zero input response obtained earlier, [t-Al? = 06) and + 3) Al (t The matrix 6 (s) = [sl - AT | is called resolvant matrix of A. All the clements of this matrix are rational functions of s.Modern Control Theory 4-7 Solution of State Equations Taking inverse Laplace transform of (2), x) = LU UX(sy) =U! fst - AP} xq) + U1 fst - AP BUG)) Using [sI-AT* = $6), X(t) = Lo (9) XO) +17? (6s) BUG) A The term L~' [6 (s) B U(s)] is called zero state response. From the convolution theorem in Laplace transform it is known that, 17! (y(6) a(S) = (0) * (0) = convolution t = JRt-OGdt oO Thus if F,(s) = $(s) and F,(s) = BU(s) then, t L716) B UGH = fout—9 BU(AQds 8) 0 Thus equation (5) shows that ul {6 (s} B Uls)} is the zero state response, as obtained earlier by classical approach. X(t) = L7? [9 (3)] X(0) + L” "fo (s) B UGS)] o(s) = [sl - Ay [sI-A| L-? fo) =o) =e Key Point : The advantage of this method is without carrying out actual integration which is time consuming, the zero state response can be easily obtained. 4.6 Computation of State Transition Matrix While obtaining the solution of state equation, the computation of state transition matrix e' plays an important role. There are various methods of obtaining state transition matrix from the state model. These methods are, 1. Laplace transform method 2. Power series method 3, Cayley Hamilton method 4. Similarity transformation method Let us discuss these methods of obtaining e“' in detail.Modern Control Theory 4-8 Solution of State Equations 4.7 Laplace Transform Method While studying the method of obtaining: the solution using Laplace transform method, it is seen that the Laplace transform of e“ i.e, 9 (t) and given by, Adj [sI-A] [s12A] 6(s) = (st- ar! Thus knowing A, once [sl - A] is obtained then (s) can be easily obtained. This ¢ (s) is again a matrix of order n x n ic. same'as that Of A. It is called resolvant matrix of A. The e*' ie. $(t) then can be obtained by: finding: inverse Laplace transform of 6 (s) ie. inverse Laplace transform of each clement of the resolvant matrix 6 (s). At This is most simple method of obtaining state transition matrix e"’ and hence popularly used. i> Example 4.1: Find the state transition matrix for, Solution : Use Laplace transform method, 10) fo ifs 4 (st A} = oF Ho ac wo : s+3 2] fs+3 -1 Adj{st-Al = > o| = 2 8 JsI-Al = s43s+2=(5+1)(6+2) 1 2 Ia-ap! = -i* 81 (s+1) (8+2) s+3 -1 1 __|StDG+2) G+l(+2) o(s) = [st- AP = > 2 s (s+1(s+2) (F1is+2)Modern Control Theory 4-9 Solution of State Equations s+3 =i wot eteaph ei? (+1)G+2) (FI)+2) e = isl — = 2 s NEFA GFF) Using partial fraction expansion for all the elements. 2210 A, stl s+2 sel s42 202 -1,2 stl s+2 S41 542 eter -2 At _ | 20% -c Zeb 20° eh 4 20° This is the required state transition matrix. 4.8 Power Series Method The state transition matrix is matrix exponential and hence can be expressed in a power series as, ete re ate tattanabattke. 2! kt .() Thus by calculating various powers of A and then few terms of power series, e“' can ‘be evaluated. As the power series is infinite, it is necessary to stop after calculating first few terms of the series. Calculating high powers of A is practically time consuming and hence this method is not practically used to obtain state transition matrix. ump Example 4.2: Find e of A = [: 3 ] using power series method, Solution : Let us obtain various powers of A. 2 . fo -1}fo -1] f-2 3 Avs = 2 -3)[2 -3. 6 7 ae f° 7 3776 7 2 -3)|-6 7 14 -14Modern Control Theory 4-10 Solution of State Equations s At a Tr ates ates aes 1 0) fo al 2 31, 1f6 7] 3 = ( +f a oot ttl al + rt? 4194... ate1s 21a... = 6 2t-3t Be. 1-3+3.5t? -2 +. Consider the first element of et which is 1-7 +4... -t_ Le yza dy Now e' = 1+[- H+ Shh eri tae : 2et = 2-24 P24. -» (1) ait and . J = 14C2)4 aia +t (- 28 +... 1-2428-8P4.. -. Q) From (1) and (2) we can write, dete 2 140-4 e.. Paha. Hence the series present as the first element is 267! - e774 But practically such a task is difficult to identify the combinations of series. Hence this method is rarely used. 4.9 Cayley Hamilton Method This method is based on the Cayley Hamilton theorem. The theorem states that, every square matrix A satisfies its own characteristics equation. Let f(4) be the characteristic equation which is given by, iQ) = |AI-A] =0 W ie. fQ) = Peay Pls ea para, =0 . () According to Cayley Hamilton theorem, the matrix A has to satisfy the characteristic equation. Hence, HA) = AT 4a, A™ 14 +a, pA+a,I=0 @Modern Control Theory 4-1 Solution of State Equations where I = Identity matrix The theorem is used for evaluating the function of a matrix. Consider a matrix polynomial as, P(A) = agh + aA + aA? +... + aA" +aq,, A" * +... eal) This polynomial has degree more than the degree of A which is n. The above polynomial can be calculated considering the scalar polynomial, PO) = apt ata + tay eagy ete... + Divide this by the characteristic polynomial f(A), PA _ RO 5 fay” 28 * FG “®) where RQ) = Remainder polynomial pA) = £2) QM + RQ «+ (6) Now the remainder polynomial R(A) has order less than the characteristic polynomial and can be expressed as, RO = cy + aAt +... 4+0,.,87! wo Let Ay, ag, -.. a, are the n distinct eigen values of matrix A and f(A) = 0 fori = 1, 2, ... Tas Ay, Ag, -.. Xy are the roots of f(A) = 0. Evaluate p(A) at all the eigen values, pA) = £0) Q0) + RO) fori=1,2,..0 But £0) = 0 hence, PO) = RG) = oy + yh +a Ay to oy ATT oy 8) ‘Substituting Ay, 2o, ... 4) in equation (8) we get the set of simultaneous equations which is to be solved for the values of dg 0%... Oy — Now replace }. in scalar polynomial by matrix A, P(A) = f(A) Q(A) + R(A) but f(A) = 0 «. By Cayley Hamilton theorem ptA) = R(A) = Gl + A+ a AP +... yy Ant v= (9) ‘Thus knowing Gp, @ ... 04, _ y any matrix polynomial p(A) can be evaluated.Modern Control Theory 4-12 Solution of State Equations 4.9.1 Procedure to Calculate eo“ The procedure to calculate e“* using Cayley Hamilton theorem can be generalised as, 1. Find the eigen values of matrix A from [41-A| = 0. 2. Form the remainder polynomial R()) of order (n - 1). RQ) = og + ay A+... + 0y_, A -) = pa 3. If all the cigen values are distinct then substitute Ay, 2, ... 4, in remainder polynomial R(4) to obtain simultaneous equations interms of Gg, 04 ... &_ 1. important Note : If the eigen value 4, is repeated r times, any one independent equation can be obtained by substituting 4 in R(A). Then remaining (r - 1) equations are to obtained by differentiating both sides of the equation, PQ) = RQ) Alp) = TRO co tr-1 ves (10) aR thea aN haa 4. Solve the simultaneous equations 0, Oy, ... % 4. 5, Then f(A) = R(A) = gf + aA +... #0, AN o 1 mm Example 4.3; Find f(A) = A” for A= [= 4 using Cayley Hamilton theorem. Solution : The function to be evaluated is, f(A) = A™ hence p(t) = 2? Step 1: Find eigen values. Rh -1 [AT~ Al 2 A+3 P4942 = 0 ie (+1) @+2)=0 hy = -Ldg=-2 Step 2: RA = oy + % A= pl)... asn = 2. Step 3: Substitute 4 and d in RQ). ty + Oy My = Oy)? and y+ Gy Ig = (2g) as p= A? ie. My -a = 1)? =1 )Modern Control Theory 4-13 Solution of State Equations and Gj - 20, = (- 2)" = 4036 (2) Step 4: Subtracting (2) from (1), * a, = —4085 and oy = — 4034 Step §: A) = A” = RA) 0 o1 = gl + ay - «34 t] =| | 4] _ [-4034 -4035 ~ [| 8070 8071 aia [7403-4035 ~ | 8070 8071 Similarly e“t which is a power series interms of A can be evaluated using Cayley Hamilton theorem. imp Example 4.4: Find the state transition matrix for A 0 -1 [: 31 Using Cayley Hamilton Theorem, Solution : The function to be evaluated is, A) = ec" hence p(t) = ett Step 1: Find the eigen values, Al [AT Al -2 243 Oie, =0 P43h42 = 0 ie (+1 A+2=0 a Step 2: Construct R(A) RQ = Og + Okt oe + Gy BO! but = 2 RQ) = 09 + a, 4= pQ .. By Cayley Hamilton method where pa) = e& ... replacing A by 4 in {(A). Og +h = etModern Control Theory 4-14 Solution of State Equations Step 3: Substituting values of 4, and Jy, Ug-u = 0! ofl) and Up - 2 = oo * woe (2) Step 4: Solving equations (1) and (2), mm = ee sand Gy = 2% - oo ™ Step 5: f(A) = R(A) = og + aA ... replace A by A in RQ) At © ot nfl 9 -t_ af -1 ete *]) Ole eM» 3 of Qe et et get 2e7t 20° oh 4 207 ° " This is the required state transition matrix. timp Example 4.5: Fitd the state transition matrix of, 00 -2 A=|0 1 0) by Cayley Hamilton theorem. 10 3 Solution : The function to be evaluated is, f(A) = e** hence pi) = e” Step 1: Find the eigen values. AO 2 Jat-aj =] 0 aa 0 [eo -1 0 4-3 » AA=-1I)A-3)+2A-)p=0 Q-1) 2? - 3.42] = 0ie @-N@-)M-H=0 y= Mad, Iga? Thus 44 = 1 is repeated 2 times Step 2: RQ) = oy + OA + ar? wn =3 = p@=e*Modem Control Theory 4-15 Solution of State Equations. Step 3: For =1, My + +0, = of « f) For Ag = 1, as it is repeated use, Spm! = Sra dak lhedg ih Iedy doa d 2 ie. a ‘lo = quit tee at - te larg = a, +20, Whar + 2a, = tel - 2) Note that differentiation is with respect to A and not &. and for g = 2, Cg t+ 2a +4o, = 2. (3) Step 4: Solve equations (1), (2) and (3). From (2), a, = te'-2a, From (1), Oy = eh a - a = el - tel + 2 - = -p+a Using in (3), fl - +a). +2te-4uytda=e% a = ct ch tet ate = e%- cl tet a = te 20 + 20! + 2te! = ate! + 2e' - 207 and og = ef tel + et — ef ~ tel = — atel + Step 5: f(A) = RA) = ogl + A + 0 A? 0 0 -2}fo 0 -2] [20 + A’ =/01 O}f0 1 o]=}01 0 to 3)[1 0 3 3.0 7 100 00 ~2 20 6 fA) = eteag|0 1 Ol+a,jo 1 Ol+a,)0 1 0 001 10 3 3.0 7 ‘Substituting values of og, 0 and cy and rearranging,Modern Control Theory 4-16 Solution of State Equations 2et—e* 2c" —207 oft es 0 et 0 wel te™ 267 -e' ‘This is the required stale transition matrix. 4.10 Similarity Transformation Method Consider a matrix A of order n * n having eigen values Ay, dy, ... dy. There exists a diagonal matrix A such that its diagonal elements are the eigen values of matrix A. A Os 0 0 dy 0 | | A ot = Diagonal matrix ~- () 0 Ow A, n Both A and A have same eigen values and hence are called similar matrices. ‘The diagonal matrix A can be obtained by defining a similarity transformation of state variables as, X(t) = M Z(t) In such a case, M is the modal matrix of A. And the diagonal matrix is obtained as, A = M7'AM 2) Now ec = lear aes.. 1 07-0) 4, 0 0-0 2 0 0-0 22 PO F0 2 OO) alo Boo mole, . 2 | oo—1f [0 — —a, o— —2 1 42,24 Tea tto yt 0 1 42,2 = 0 THhgt+ sagt Q —~-- — 0 | | | - ( i 12,2 0 0 —— Itdgtt rant +Modern Control Theory 4-17 The transformation used is, x(t) = M Z(t) X(0) = M Z(0) M~!X@) = M7'M Z(0) = Z(0) and XW = MZ Thus X(t) = AX(i) = AMZ{(t) Mit) = AMZ() Mo vz) = MAM Z(H 2) = AZ) This is transformed state model. The solution of homogeneous state equation in X(t) is, x() = e“* x(a) While solution of equation (5) is, Zz) = eM 20) Using equation (4) in (7), Zi) = e M7?) xq) Premultiplying by M, Mz) = Me M7! xc) But MZz(t) = X(t) x) = Me*tmM7? x@y Comparing equation (6) and (9) it can be written as, et = Me“) where M = Modal matrix and e“ is given by equation (3). Solution of State Equations « (3) . 6) +» (6) + (8) +> Transformation used 9) w+ (10)Modern Control Theory 4-418 Solution of State Equations mm Example 4.6: Find state transition matrix of, oO -1 A= [ 3] by similarity transformation method. Solution ; Find the eigen values. AOI AI-Al = | | -2 A+3 =H 4324220 (A+ 1) (2+ 2) mech yen Calculate eigen vector. -11 For 4 = -1, [Ay b= A] = (2 2] = eal El-f] “21 For i = -2, yt al=[% il le )-G] oi M (My Mal =|, 2| elt eto |_fet 0 0 et *['o et 2 -1 Mole aan [A i]. 2-1 — Mp At ay,-1_f1 fet o ]f2 eo MeM [i alt ety a »». Required state transition matrix o tt M,Modern Control Theory 4-19 Solution of State Equations im Example 4.7: Obtain the complete time response of system given by, i 072 7 X(t) = [s al X(t) where X(0) = [i] and Y(t) = [1 — 1] X(t) (VTU: Jan/Feb,-2008) Solution : Given system is homogeneous whose solution is X(t) = e** X(0) Now As ot fo-ay th I-A] = 10 01 _/s 71 Ust-Al = |g a] > [2 of*|2 5 (st-ayt = Adj(sl- A) |sI- A] Adj (sI - A) |st- Al (sl- Ay s 2 At w1 {8° +2 e =e L- . 2 ut | = +} = (actga| vit st + st + afa| lala. 2 |.41, . (Fal “E {e =m Boer uf = I = “fa xl 2 sin J2t 8° + (v2)? At cos V2 t pin . -VEsinv2t og yaModem Control Theory 4-20 Solution of State Equations 1. x = x@0) 2M fl cos /2 t+ Fe sin V2 t cos /2 t-/2 sin W2 t -. Output response Y(t) = [1 - 1] X(t) 1. h =u errant cos 2 t- V2 sin V2 t 0 Fein Bt 2 sinJ2t — is the required response. YO = ium Example 4.8 : Find out the time response for unit step input of a system given by * ol 0 o 1 1 iw -[o 5] xw [3] Ut) and vo -(5 sl X(t) and xo =[j]. Solution = sO] fo 1]_fs -1 {st- A] = [0 Ho als [2 s+ 3] ; — [Cy Cy] _fs+a -2]" fea 1 Adj [ sI- A] {er c. 4 sl 7|2 5 |sl-A| = s?+3s+2=(s +1) (6 +2) et = LT st-ay] s+3 1 - erner2) ernie) = (6) (s+1)(s+2) (8+1)(s+2) Finding partial fractions, es Lt At Lol | Stl s+2 s+1 s+2 ee LY =| 2 a 2Modern Control Theory 4-21 Solution of State Equations | Qe bag 2 eta t ~ 2°! 207 FF oF 4 207 nt n2t ZIR = e™ x(0) =e“ [| roene ~2e' +2072! To find ZSR = L! { o(s)BU(s) F Ut) = Unit step ..U(s) = 1/s 3 zsR = 1 eeDee2) anaes (| [V/s] (s+1)@+2) res rresiy Se) (283 88 _ pg [S++ 2)) yf 8 sel s+2 wy PE ss {s+ 1) (s+ 2) s+1 s+2 _ [25-578 #250771] So"! sg 2t | 25-3et 415077! X(t) = ZIR +ZSR = Fiee 3e7t ~3e77! oi Yi) = [. al x(t) YO] [0 1) [2s-set+1se"?*] [get — 307 ¥3(0] [3 | ge'-se"2t | | 54 607% - 307! Y(t) = 3(e"t -e"™) Y,() = -54+3(2e* —e) These are the outputs for unit step input applied. wm Example 4.9: For a system X= AX, X(t) -| . =2e xo=| ° -| H| -e -l Determine the system matrix A. 2 1 . | when xo =| 3] andModern Control Theory 4-22 Solution of State Equations Solution : System is homogeneous so ZSR = 0 x(t) = et x@) Ay | Let Aes Now X(t) = andatt=0 Xx) i So x0). = Similarly X(t) = =1 +1 So x0) = [:3] when x0={")] Substituting in X() = A X(t) [Ja RE) Cyt 2) A,-2A, = -2 ~ Q) Ay-2A, = +4 ~ @ +A ,-A, = -1 » @) A,-A, = 1 = (4) Solving these 4 equations simultaneously, Ay=1, A,=0, A,=-3, Ay=-2 As 01 [2] 4.11 Controllability and Observability In a control system analysis, it is necessary to find an optimal control solution for a given control problem. The existence of such a solution depends on the answers of two basic questions which are, 1. For a given system, is it possible to transfer any initial state to any other desired state in a finite time under the effect of suitable control input force ?Modern Control Theory 4-23 Solution of State Equations. 2. If the output is measured for finite time then with the knowledge of the input, is it possible to determine initial state of the system ? The answer to the first question gives the concept of the controllability while the answer to the second question gives the concept af observability of the system. 4.12 Controllability The answer to the first question means the concept of controllability of a system which is related to the transfer of any initial state of the system to any other desired state, in a finite length of time by application of proper inputs. Hence controllability can be defined as, A system is said to be completely state controllable if it is possible to transfer the system state from any initial state X(t,) to any other desired state X(t,) in a specified finite time interval (t,) by a control vector U(t). The concept of controllability and observability were originally introduced by Kalman hence Kalman's tests are used to find out whether the system is controllable and observable or not. 4.12.1 Kalman's Test for Controllability Consider n'* equation as, order multiple input linear time invariant system represented by its state X = AX(t) + BU(t) wf) where A has order nxn matrix and U(t) is mx1_ vector i.e. there are m inputs. X(t) is nx 1. state vector, The necessary and sufficient condition for the controllable is that the rank of the composite matrix Q, ‘The composite matrix Q, is given by, Q. = [B: AB: A7B:... A" ~ 1B] Q) In this composite matrix Q,, B, AB, A°B ... are the various columns. Proof : Let us see the proof for this condition. Assume that the final state is the origin of the state space while the initial time is zero ie. tg = 0. As final state t = t;, is the origin of the state space then X(t) = 0. Xtp = 0 +B)Modern Control Theory 4-24 The solution of the state equation (1) is given by, xt) = eM XO) + fe &) BUC de a Substituting t = t; for the final state, At ' Xi) = © EXO)+ { MW pugs 0 Using (3) in (5), t 0 = eix@e freee BU (dt 0 At van e §X(0) = -fe f eA® BULa)dt o ' f X(Q) = -fe*" BUG) dr 0 Solution of State Equations ~@ wl5) + (6) This shows that any initial state X(0) must satisfy the equation (6) for complete state controllability. Thus the controllability depends on matrices A and B and is independent of matrix C. Now mathematically e** can be expressed as, = okt 2 Fae ak k=O Using (7) in (6), aad, ft x0) = - Plaka faye U(t)dr k=0 0 t Let fay Udi = By 0 azl x0) = - SA*BB, k=0 6, X(0) = -[B:AB:...:A"~" B] Baa ata) - (B) + 9)Modern Control Theory 4-25 Solution of State Equations Be B, x@) = ~Q, v-- (10) Bua The vector matrix of By, is of order n x 1 and if system has to be state controllable then any X(0) must satisfy equation (9) for which rank of Q, must be n which is a nxn matrix. For any rank of Q, less than 'n’ it indicates that some of the states are not controllable. This proves that the rank of composite matrix Q, must be 'n' for complete state controllability of the system. The advantage of Kalman's test is that for any form of matrix A whether A is canonical or otherwise, the test can be applied. But its limitation is that it does not give a physical feel of the problem. lf the answer to the Kalmans test is uncontrollable then it does not indicate which mode is uncontrollable. But due to mathematical simplicity of its application, Kalian’s test is used to test the controllability. Key Point: The matrix has a rank r means the determinant of order r x r of the matrix has nonzero value and any determinant having order r + 1 or more than that has zero value. ‘Thus rank of Q. = n for controllab: tam Example 4.10 Find the controllability of the system, ef} n=2 1 61 0] Solution : A= [: 4] [1] 1 ae = [2] 01 Q. = [B AB] = fF 4] ol a Now ( [#7 Ewhies is nonzero Rank of Q, = 2 =n Hence the given system is completely controllable.Modern Control Theory 4-26 Solution of State Equations imp Example 4.41: Evaluate the controllability of the system witht, X = Axs BU 1 4 fi] A= B and [0 “1 io Solution : n=2 Q. = [BAB] Determinant of 2x2 = 0 Now | Hence rank of Q.r = 1 and Rank of Q, 4 0 ©. The system is not state controllable. 4.12.2 Condition for State Controllability in s-Plane The system is represented by its transfer function in the s-plane. Such a system is completely state controllable only if the denominator and numerator polynomials of the transfer function do not have a common factor, except the constant. Such polynomials are called coprime. In other words, there should not be a pole-zero cancellation in the s-domain transfer function of the system for complete state controllability. If the pole-zero cancellation exists then all the information about the dynamic behaviour of the system is not carried all along the system. In such a case, the system cannot be controlled in the direction of the cancelled mode. 4.12.3 Gilbert's Test for Controllability For the Gilbert's test it is necessary that the matrix A must be in canonical form. Hence the given state model is required to be transformed to the canonical form first, to apply the Gilbert's test. Consider single input linear time invariant system represented by, X@ = AX +B UQ)Modern Control Theory 4-27 Solution of State Equations where A is not in the canonical form. Then it can be transformed to the canonical form by the transformation, X(t) = M Z(t) where M = Modal matrix The transformed state model, as derived earlier, takes the form, 2) = AZ) + BUN) where A B=M-'B 4 Diagonal matrix It is assumed that all the eigen values of A are distinct. In such a case the necessary and sufficient condition for the complete state controllability is that the vector matrix B should not have any zero elements. If it has zero elements then the corresponding state variables are not controllable. If the eigen values are repeated then matrix A cannot be transformed to Jordan canonical form. If A has eigen values y, hq, to, gr dye Age Aye - 4, then the transformation results Jordan canonical form as, ree2eo Socaooc In such a case, the condition for the complete state controllability is that the elements of any row of B that corresponds to the last row of each Jordan block are not all zero. hump Example 4.12: Consider the system with state equation. Xi 0 1 Ojfx,] fo Xz] =] 0 0 14}x, |+jo} ut Xa ~6 -11 -6}/x,] [1 3 Estimate the state controllability by i) Kalman’s fest and ii) Gilbert's testModern Control Theory 4-28 Solution of State Equations Solution : i) Kalman's test Q. = IB: AB: A*B)...n=3 0 1 o}fo 0 AB=] 0 QO 1/)/O}=} 1 6 -i1 -6{{1] [6 0 1 «o}fo 1 0 0 0 1 A =o 0 if{0 0 i=/-6 -11 -6 6 -11 6] [4 -11 -6} [36 60 25 0 0 1] {o 1 A%B = | -11 -6| |0]=|-6 36 60 5} jl] [25 00 1 Q=|o 1 -6 1-6 3B oo 1 0 1 -6; = 1, Thus |Q,| is nonsingular. 14 3 Hence the rank of Q, is 3 which is 'n’. Thus the system is completely state controllable. ii) Gilbert's test For this, it is necessary to express A in the canonical form. Find eigen values of A. A -1 0 JAI-A| =|0 & -1)=<0 6 ll Ate 3B +6R411k+6 = 0 2+ 1) (h+ 2) (+3) =0 Ay = 1, We-2% Ige-3 As matrix A is in phase variable form, the modal matrix M is Vander Monde Matrix. 111 11 M = 4 4 hy =|-1 -2 -3 WwW 14 9Modern Control Theory 4-29 Solution of State Equations T 6 6 =2 6-5 =1 38 3 6 8 2 3 25 0s 50. - Adj[M]_|[-1 2-1 2-3-1 Mo! = MS EES ela aA [M| ~ ~ 115 05 3.25 05]f0] fos B= Mi B=]-3 - -1|lo/=|-1 115 o5ffa} [0.5 As none of the elements of B are zero, the system is completely state controllable. Key Point; As Gilbert's test requires to transform matrix A into canonical form, it is time consuming and hence Kalman’s test is popularly used to test controllability. 4.12.4 Output Controllability In the design of some practical systems, it is necessary to control the output variables rather than the state variables. In such a case complete output controllability is defined. Consider the state model of a linear time invariant system as, * X(t) Yo A X(t) + B Ut) Cc X(t) + D U(t) ‘The system is said to be completely output controllable if it is possible to construct an unconstrained input vector U(t) which will transfer any given initial output Y(t) to any final output Y(t) in a finite time interval ty st s ty. In such a case, construct the test matrix Q. as, Q, = (CB: CAB: CA’B:... CA"-! BD] ‘Thus if the order of matrix C is p x nie. there are p outputs then for the compleie output controllability, the rank of test matrix Q, must be p. 4.13 Observability The observability is related to the problem of determining the system ‘state by measuring the output for finite length of time. Hence observability can be defined as, A system is said to be completely observable, if every state X(t.) can be completely identified by measurements of the outputs Y(t) over a finite time interval. If the system is not completely observable means that few of its state variables are not practically measurable and are shielded from the observation. Similar to the controllability, the ebservability of the system can be obtained by using Kalman's test.Modern Control Theory 4-30 Solution of State Equations 4.13.1 Kalman's Test for Observability th Consider n'" order multiple input multiple output linear time invariant system, represented by its state equation as, X= AX(t) +B U(t} +) and ¥) = C X(t) +2) where Y() = px1 output vector and C = 1xn matrix The system is completely observable if and only if the rank of the composite matrix Q, is tn’. The composite matrix Q,, is given by, where c! = Transpose of matrix C and Al = Transpose of matrix A Thus if, rank of Q, =n, then system is completely observable. Proof: For the system described by the equation (1) and (2), the solution is, t xt) = eM! xO) + fe? BUD dr we (3) t Yi) = Ce’ x@sc ferro B U(x) dt ve (4) oO Now as the matrices A, B and C are known and the input vector U(t) is known, the integral term in the equation (4) is known. This can be subtracted from observed value of Y(f, to modify the lefthand side. Hence the obserability can be investigated by considering the equation, Yt) = Ce™ xy . wa 6) as the left hand side is known due to measured output. Thus for observability, the unforced system can be considered i.e. homogeneous state equation can be considered. ‘Consider the state model of unforced system as, X= AX) and Y()=C X(t) The output is given by, Yi) = Ce™ xo) wa (6)Modern Control Theory 4-31 nol But ets Yaak k=0 —1 vo = Faw akxoy k=0 Y(t) = colt) CX(0) + cy lt) CA X(0) +... Solution of State Equations .@ + Oy) CAT? X(O) . 8) For the system to be completely observable, from the given output Y(t) over the interval 0

You might also like

• Addis Abeba

  

  Document31 pages

  Addis Abeba

  muler

  100% (1)
• Simulink Models For Automatic Code Generation

  

  Document16 pages

  Simulink Models For Automatic Code Generation

  muler

  No ratings yet
• Matlab Code Generation

  

  Document4 pages

  Matlab Code Generation

  muler

  No ratings yet
• • Magazines
  • Podcasts
  • Sheet music
• State Space 2 - Modelling

  

  Document16 pages

  State Space 2 - Modelling

  muler

  No ratings yet
• Chapter26 Digital Controllers

  

  Document61 pages

  Chapter26 Digital Controllers

  breno henrique

  No ratings yet
• User's Guide: Code Generation From MATLAB

  

  Document301 pages

  User's Guide: Code Generation From MATLAB

  muler

  No ratings yet
• State Space 3 - Models From An ODE

  

  Document13 pages

  State Space 3 - Models From An ODE

  muler

  No ratings yet
• Matlab Code Generation Exampls

  

  Document45 pages

  Matlab Code Generation Exampls

  muler

  No ratings yet
• 01 IndustrialRobots

  

  Document68 pages

  01 IndustrialRobots

  Aland Bravo

  No ratings yet
• 16-Sliding Mode Control

  

  Document9 pages

  16-Sliding Mode Control

  Mehvish Anwar

  No ratings yet
• Design Of Fuzzy Controllers: A Tutorial

  

  Document27 pages

  Design Of Fuzzy Controllers: A Tutorial

  muler

  No ratings yet
• Chapter4 DynamicAnalysis

  

  Document14 pages

  Chapter4 DynamicAnalysis

  muler

  No ratings yet
• The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good Life

  

  From Everand

  The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good Life

  Mark Manson

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (5783)
• The Yellow House: A Memoir (2019 National Book Award Winner)

  

  From Everand

  The Yellow House: A Memoir (2019 National Book Award Winner)

  Sarah M. Broom

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (98)
• Never Split the Difference: Negotiating As If Your Life Depended On It

  

  From Everand

  Never Split the Difference: Negotiating As If Your Life Depended On It

  Chris Voss

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (838)
• Shoe Dog: A Memoir by the Creator of Nike

  

  From Everand

  Shoe Dog: A Memoir by the Creator of Nike

  Phil Knight

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (537)
• The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer

  

  From Everand

  The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer

  Siddhartha Mukherjee

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (271)
• Fear: Trump in the White House

  

  From Everand

  Fear: Trump in the White House

  Bob Woodward

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (738)
• Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race

  

  From Everand

  Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race

  Margot Lee Shetterly

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (890)
• The Little Book of Hygge: Danish Secrets to Happy Living

  

  From Everand

  The Little Book of Hygge: Danish Secrets to Happy Living

  Meik Wiking

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (399)
• Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln

  

  From Everand

  Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln

  Doris Kearns Goodwin

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (234)
• Yes Please

  

  From Everand

  Yes Please

  Amy Poehler

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1888)
• Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance

  

  From Everand

  Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance

  Angela Duckworth

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (587)
• Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New America

  

  From Everand

  Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New America

  Gilbert King

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (265)
• A Heartbreaking Work Of Staggering Genius: A Memoir Based on a True Story

  

  From Everand

  A Heartbreaking Work Of Staggering Genius: A Memoir Based on a True Story

  Dave Eggers

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (231)
• On Fire: The (Burning) Case for a Green New Deal

  

  From Everand

  On Fire: The (Burning) Case for a Green New Deal

  Naomi Klein

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (72)
• Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future

  

  From Everand

  Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future

  Ashlee Vance

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (474)
• Principles: Life and Work

  

  From Everand

  Principles: Life and Work

  Ray Dalio

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (599)
• Rise of ISIS: A Threat We Can't Ignore

  

  From Everand

  Rise of ISIS: A Threat We Can't Ignore

  Jay Sekulow

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (137)
• The Hard Thing About Hard Things: Building a Business When There Are No Easy Answers

  

  From Everand

  The Hard Thing About Hard Things: Building a Business When There Are No Easy Answers

  Ben Horowitz

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (344)
• The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America

  

  From Everand

  The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America

  George Packer

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (45)
• Steve Jobs

  

  From Everand

  Steve Jobs

  Walter Isaacson

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (806)
• The World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century

  

  From Everand

  The World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century

  Thomas L. Friedman

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (2219)
• Angela's Ashes: A Memoir

  

  From Everand

  Angela's Ashes: A Memoir

  Frank McCourt

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (440)
• The Gifts of Imperfection: Let Go of Who You Think You're Supposed to Be and Embrace Who You Are

  

  From Everand

  The Gifts of Imperfection: Let Go of Who You Think You're Supposed to Be and Embrace Who You Are

  Brené Brown

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1090)
• John Adams

  

  From Everand

  John Adams

  David McCullough

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (2409)
• Bad Feminist: Essays

  

  From Everand

  Bad Feminist: Essays

  Roxane Gay

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1015)
• The Glass Castle: A Memoir

  

  From Everand

  The Glass Castle: A Memoir

  Jeannette Walls

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (1711)
• The Outsider: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Outsider: A Novel

  Stephen King

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1800)
• The Woman in Cabin 10

  

  From Everand

  The Woman in Cabin 10

  Ruth Ware

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (2322)
• A Man Called Ove: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  A Man Called Ove: A Novel

  Fredrik Backman

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (4609)
• The Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)

  

  From Everand

  The Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)

  Viet Thanh Nguyen

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (119)
• The Light Between Oceans: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Light Between Oceans: A Novel

  M.L. Stedman

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (789)
• Brooklyn: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Brooklyn: A Novel

  Colm Tóibín

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (1937)
• Wolf Hall: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Wolf Hall: A Novel

  Hilary Mantel

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (3811)
• Manhattan Beach: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Manhattan Beach: A Novel

  Jennifer Egan

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (791)
• Little Women

  

  From Everand

  Little Women

  Louisa May Alcott

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (104)
• The Perks of Being a Wallflower

  

  From Everand

  The Perks of Being a Wallflower

  Stephen Chbosky

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (2099)
• The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel

  Garth Stein

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (4193)
• A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

  

  From Everand

  A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

  Betty Smith

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (1929)
• Her Body and Other Parties: Stories

  

  From Everand

  Her Body and Other Parties: Stories

  Carmen Maria Machado

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (821)
• Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel

  Jesmyn Ward

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1103)
• The Constant Gardener: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Constant Gardener: A Novel

  John le Carré

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (104)