UNIT 3 THE MACRONUTRIENTS-I1 :

PROTEINS AND FATS

Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Proteins
3.3 Fats
3.4 Let Us Sum Up
,3.5 Glossary
3.6 Answers to Chcck Your Progress Exercises

3.1 INTRODUCTION

In Unit 2 you learnt some aspects relating to two categories of macronutrients i.e.
carbohydrates and water. This unit will cover another two categories of
macronutrients i.e. proteins and fats. Like carbohydrates, proteins and fats are also
organlc compounds. This unit discusses the nature, functions and food sources of
proteins and fats. In addition, the processes of digestion, absorption and utilization
of ~rotejnsand fats in the body are also discussed.

Objectives
After studying this unit. you w~llbe able to:
describe the chemical nature of proteins and fats
list the food sources of proteins and fats
state the role of proteins and fats in the body and
describe the processes of digestion, absorption and utilization of proteins and
fats id the body.

3.2 PROTEINS

You have so far studied about carbohydrates and water. Let us now concentrate on
the study of yet another category of macronutrients i.e. proteins. Proteins like
carbohydrates are organic compounds but are distinct from carbohydrates in certain
respects. Besides carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, proteins also ~ontain~another
element called nitrogen. The basic building blocks of proteins are nitrogencontaining
units called amino~acids.Amino acids are joined or linked together in chains by
linkages called peptide linkages. Several hundreds or even thousands of amino acids
are strung'together in specific strands and coils to form proteins (Figure3.1).

You may be amazed to know that these proteins are built up of just 22 amino acids.
Food has an almost endless variety of proteins and no two proteins have similar
structure. This is because the twenty or more amino acids are present in varying
proportions and are arranged in varying sequences in different kinds of proteins. Of
these about 8 cannot be manufactured by the body while the rest can. Those which
cannot be manufactured by the body must be supplied by the diet. These amino
acids are called essential. The amino acids which can be manufactured by the body
need not, of course, be supplied by the diet. They are hence called nun-essenriul.
Here the terms "essential" and "non-essential" only refer to whether it is essential or
not essential to provide them in the diet. We must remember that for the synthesis of
body proteins both essential and non-essential amino acids are equally important.
 Peptide
Linkage

Fig. 3.1 Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins

Table 3.1 lists the essential and non-essential amino acids.

Table 3.1 : Essential and Non-essential Amino Acids

E u m t h l amino aclds on-enra;tial unino acids

Alanine
Asparagine
Aspartic acid
Cystine
Phenylalmine Cysteine
Threonine Glutamic acid
Tryptophan Glutamine
Valine Glycine
Histidine* Hydroxyproline
Hydroxylysir~e
Proline
Serine
Tyrosine
*Eswntid for infants only

The quality of food proteins depends on the number and the proportion of essential
amino wids contained in them. Proteins are obtained from both animal and plant
foods. The proteins in animal foods are of good quality because they contain all
essential amino acids in the required aniounts and proportions.
 The Macronutricns-11 :
0i the other hand, the proteins in plant food generally lack one br two essent~al
Proteins and Fats
amino acids and, therefore, are not of good quality. For example, cereals are poor in
lysine and rich in methionine. On the other hand, pulses are poor in methionine and
rich in lysine. When cereals are combined with pulses in the same meal then the
quality of protein improves. Protein quality of'plant foods .can be thus improved by
the combination of one or more kinds of foods of plant origin. If you look at the
traditional Indian diets (whatever the region you may belong to), you will find many
dishes which are prepared by using either a cereal-pulse combination as in dosa.(rice,
1
I urad dal); dal-roti; rice-dal or cereal-animal food combinations as in dalia (milk,
broken wheat); rice-bh. This is one of the ways of improving the quality of food
proteins. By a judicious combination of foods of animal and plant origin, you can
1 ensure that the protein consumed will be of good quality. You must remember that
even small amounts of animal protein with vegetable protein in a meal greatly
improves protein quality.
Food Sources: Here is the list of some of the rich sources of proteins. The list is vast and
includes: milk, milk products (like curd, khoa, paneer), flesh foods (meat, fish, poultry),
eggs, nuts and oilseeds (groundnuts, almond, cashewnut, walnut) and pulses (bengal
gram, lentils, green gram, rajmah, soyabean). Among pulses, soyabean is particularly
rich in protein. Protein content of some of these foods is given in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2 Proteln-lfch Foods

~ m o u n of
t Protein (g)
6 ,(per lOOg of edible portion of food)

Foods of Anlmd Origln

Flesh Foods:
Goat meat 21.4
Fish (Pomfret) 20.3
Egg 13.3
Milk and Milk Products:
Milk (cow) 3.2
Khoa 20.0
Paneer (Cottage cheese) 18.3
Foods of P h t &gin
Nuts and Oilseeds
(fashewnut 21.2
Groundnut 25.3
Nses
Soyabtan 43.2
Rajmah 22.9
Bengal gram (whole) 17.1

1 Source: Nutritive Value of IndQn Foods by C. Gopalan. B.V. R m a Sastri and S.C. Babubrmanian;
revisal and updated by B.S. Narasinga Rao, Y.G. Deosthale and K.C. Pan?; National Institute of
I Nutrition (1989)

If you look at the current prices offoods of animal origin like meat, fish, poultry,
you will find that most of these aie very costly. The only. animal foods which are
relatively less expensive (though expensive as compared to plant foods) are milk and
eggs. As the protein in foods of animal origin are of good quality, one should try to
include small amounts of these foods in the daily diet. Milk is the only animal food
used by both vegetarians and non-vegetarians. Although the protein content of lOOg
milk is only 3.2 g yet it contains protein of very good quality and is rich in lysine.
Hence, even a small amount of milk added to a basic Indian diet of dal-roti greatly
enhances the protein quality of the whole diet. One should therefore try to include at
least a small amount of milk in the dsily diet. Non-vegetarians, who cannot afford
meat, fish and chicken can eat eggs which are cheaper and as nutritious as meat, fish
or chicken.

Let us now take a look at the foods of plant origin. According to Table 3.2, pulses,
nuts and oilseeds are rich sources of proteins. But these foods are also very
expensive. Pulses are the major source of protein in Indian diets. One can try to
improve the quality of cereal proteins by combining them with pulses. A small
amount of milk, if it can be afforded, will further improve the quality of food
rotei in.
Bade Concepts in Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Nutrition-l
1) How can we improve the protein quality of cereals?
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2) List the sources of animal and vegetable praeins in your diet and compare
their cost.
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..................................".............................................................................,.e...,........

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- . , - --- - .- - _----
Functions: Remember your childhood days when your parehts/elders forced you to
drink milk. They always said that you need milk for the proper growth of your
body. Now, as an adult and a student of nutrition, you wobld realize that they were
right. Milk is a good source of protein and proteins do play a role in growth and
body-building. Let us now study the body-building and other functions of proteins in
detail. Some of the functions of proteins are given below:
1) Body-building: Proteins supply amino acids for building new body tissues and for
the replacement of worn out tissues. Thus they help in the growth and the
maintenance of the body. For the constant growth of human beings from birth till
adulthood, a regular.supply of dietary protein is required. This does not mean that-
proteins are not needed when growth ceases. Even during adulthood worn out body
tissues need continuous replacement. Thus, proteins are required throughout life
for the growth and maintenance of the.body.
2) Proteins as regulatory and protective substances: Proteins are also part of some
chemical substances essential for the regulation of vital body processes. You are
aware of the role of enzymes in the process of digestion of food. All enzymes
are proteins in nature. Like enzymes, hormones are also chemical substances
vital for the regulation of metiibolism as well as some other body processes.
Some of the hormones (like insulin) are proteins. ~ntibodieswhich protect the
body from iUness are also proteins.
3) .Proteins as carriers: Some of the proteins act as carriers and help to transport
certain substances from one place to another. One prominent example of a
protein carrier is haemoglobin, the red coloured protein-containing substance
present in the blood. Haemoglobin carries oxygen from the lungs to various
body tissues and carbon dioxide from body tissues to the lungs.
4) Energy-giving function: Proteins can also be broken down in the body to
provide energy. Each gram of protein yields about 4 Kcal. This. however. is not
the major tuntion of proteins and only takes place when the diet does not
supply enough energy-giving nutrients such as carbohydrates and fats.
Digestion, absorption and utilization: Dietary proteins chiefly consist of proteins
and small and large chains of amino acids. Digestion of proteins involves the
breakdown of thest amino acid. chains to their constituent amino acids.
Since saliva contains no proteolytic endyme (enzymes which bring about breakdown
of proteins), protein digestion mainly occurs in the stomach and the small intestine.
Pepsin, a proteowic enzyme, present in gastric juice breaks down pmteins into
smaller amino acid chains. But pepsin itself cannot complete the digestion
proteins. p a d y bmken down proteins from the stomach are released into the snlall
intestine .here funher digeation takes place in two Steps : i) Breakduwn * f p a r r k
lo smaller amino acid chains :There are several proteOlytic en73mes
digested
 called proteases in the small intestine which act on partly digested proteins and The Macronutriens-ll :
convert them to even smaller amino acid chains: ii) breakdown ofamino acid chain$ P r o t e i ~and Fats
to amino acids: Finally other kinds of proteolytic enzymes called peptidases act on
amino @cidchains and convert them to their constituent amino acids.
The metabolism of proteins is essentially the metabolism of amino acids as these are
the end products of the process of digestion of proteins. After digestion, amino acids
are carried by the blood to the liver. Here amino acids are used in three ways :
I a) some of them are used for building of blood proteins; b).some are retained in the
liver gnd c) the rest enter the blood circulation as amino acids. Some of the amino
1 acids remain in circulation and others are taken up by body tissues for protein
I synthesis whenever needed. It must be emphasized here that only proteins of guod
quality are maximally utilized by the body for synthesis of its own proteins.
Foods of animal origin like milk, meat have proteins of good quality. This is because
the animal proteins have the right proportions and amounts of all essential amino
acids. Food of plant origin, on the other hand (like wheat, rice and pulses), have
protein of poor quality because they generally lack one or more essential amino
acids.
Thus the amino acids present in proteins of good quality can be used optimally for
body protein synthesis. On the other hand, proteins of poor quality are less likely to
& used for tissue protein synthesis. These proteins (amino acids) are more likely to
beYlsed for other purposes including release of energy. Like glucose, amino acids can

I
I
i
also be oxidized or burnt in the body to produce energy.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

i 1) Fill in the blanks.

a) ...........................are the building blocks of all proteins.
b) Pulses are lacking in the amino acid.: ......................and rich
in. ....., ...................
i c) A good quality protein has the right: .........................and ..;.........................
of all tssential amino acids.
d) Amino acids in proteins are linked together by the ...........................
I linkage.

2) Indidate whether the following statements are true or false. Correct the false
statements.

l
a) Cereals contain relatively poor quality protein. (True/ False)
.....................................................................................................................
b) The energy-giving function i+the major function of proteins. (True/ False)

c) All hormones are proteins. ( ~ n r eFalse)

/

' d) Haemoglobin is the red caloured substance present in the blood.

(True/ False)

e) Combination of cereal and pulse in a meal greatly improves the quality of

protein. (True/ False)
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- - -

3.3 FATS
Fats, like carbohydntea, ore compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. However,
they differ from crrbohydtoter in rtnrcture and propertier. The term fat include8 fatr
Basic Concepts in and o i l s ~ h i c hare gre&y in feel and insoluble in water. In addition to fat and oils
Nutrition-I there are certain fai-like substances such as cholesterol which are important in the
body. You can 1ea.m more about cholesterol from Box 3.1 given at the end of this
section.

Let us first discuss the chemical nature of fats and oils. The major constituent of all
fats and oils are fatty acids and glycerol. The fatty acids are composed of a chain of
carbon atoms with other elements like hydrogen and oxygen. Some of the common
fatty acids are palmitic, stearic, oleic and llnoleic acids. The fatty a c ~ d scan be
classified in three categories on the basis of chain length. There are shorter chain
fatty acids (I0 or fewer carbon atoms), long chain fatty acids (12 to 20 carbon
atoms) and very long chain fatty acids (20 or more carbon atoms).'

Whenever we talk about fats and oils we come across terms like saturated fatty
acids, unsaturated fatty acids and essential fatty acids. What do we mean by these
terms? A fatty acid chain of specified chain length (in terms of number of carbon
atoms) .has a fured maximum number of hydrogen atoms. Certain fatty acids have as
many hydrogen atoms as the carbon chain can hold. They are called $oturotedfottv
acidr. On the other hand, unsaturated fatty acids have the capacity to accommodate
more hydrogen atoms i.e. some hydrogen atoms are missing from the carbon chain.

Now let us learn about the essential fatty acids. There are two fatty acids which
cannot be synthesized in the body. These fatty acids have to be provided in the diet
and are referred to as essential fatty acids. These are linolenic and linoleic acids.
Both these fatty acids are unsaturated in nature.

You may recall that fats and oils are made up of glycerol and fatty acid. In fact a
molecule of fat or oil has three fatty acids and a molecule of glycerol. This is called a -
triglyceride (Figure 3.2). Fats and oils are composed of many triglycerides or fat
molecules.

r-------------------- -1

It is made up of a molecule of glycerol !

I
I and three fatty acid molecules. I
L- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -.I
Fig. 3.2 A molecule of fat (triglyceride)

Let us now see what is the difference between fats and oils. Both fats and oils are
triglycerides but fats are solid at room temperature and have a higher proportion of
saturated fatty acids e.g. ghee and butter. Oils, on the other hand. have more
unsaturated fatty acids and are liquid at room temperature e.g, mustard oil.
groundnut oil. Usualiy, the term fat is used for both ,fats and oils.
~~~d Source: ~ o osources
j of fats and oils include all'common fats'and oils like The Mmcronutriuns-ll :
Proteins and Fats
ghee,,vanupati, mustard oil, grounifnut oil, Soya oil, coconut oil. They are almost
100 percent fat.
The presence of fat is also evident in other foodstuffs like milk and milk products
(curd, paneer, khw), nuts and oilseeds (almond, groundnut, mconut, mustard seeds)*
eggs and flesh foods. These are known as f~t-rirh foods. They have 8 to 50 percent
fat in them flable 3.3).

Table 36: Fat-deb Fnoda

Foobtufr Fat Content (8)

(per 10% edIMe portbn)
!

blmond 58.9
Cashewnul 46.9
Groundnut 8
40.1
Coconut (fresh) 41.6
Mustard seeds 39.7
Soyabcan 19.5
Em 13.3
Mutton 13.3

Sour@ : Nurririw Volw of Indian Foods by C. Gopalan. B.V. Rama Sartri, S.C. Balaaubramaninn;
=vised and updated by B.S. Narssinga Rao. Y.G. Dtosthale and K.C. Pant; National Inatitutc of
Nutntion (1989)

You may be surprised to know that fat is present in very minute quantities in almost
all foodstuffs. Even foods like cereals, pulses, fruits have fats in them in minute
quantities (invisible form). These foods contribute a substantial amount of fat to
. Indian diets by virtue of being consumed in large quantities.

Functions: The term fat may be associated in your mind with a substance which is
harmful for h~alth.You may consider fats as substances which would make you
overweight and may endanger your life by causing disease like heart attack. This is
a negative view about fats. Fats as macronutrients play a crucial role in the body.
Problems come up only if you take fats in excess amounts i.e. more than the
requirement of the body. You would realize how important fats are for your body as
you go through the following important functions:
1) Source of energy: Fat is a concentrated source of energy. Each gram of fat
provides approximately 9 Kcal. This is more than double the amount of energy
supplied by a gram of carbohydrate or protein. Usually only a small amount of
fat is used to meet the energy needs of the bodv. Most of the excess fat is
stored in the body in specific tissues called adipose tissue. Adipose tissue is
present under the skin, and in the abdominal region among others.
2) Satiety Value: What happens when you consume fat-rich diets? Do you feel
hungry sooner or later? In fact, as you would have noticed, you feel full and do
not feel hungry for a long time. This is because fats remain longer in the
stomach and take more time to digest. Hence, like fibre, fats also give satiety
value.
3) Insulation and padding: You have read that fat is stored in the body in adipose
tissues at specific places. Layers of stored fat under the skin act as an insulator
and keep the body warm. A layer of fat is also present around the vital organs
of the body Like the kidney and the heart. This serves as a padding and protects
them against injury.
4) Source of essenti~ifatty acids: Fats serve as sources of essential fatty acids
which have important functions in our body.
5) Cankr of fataolubk vitamins: You have read about a category of
micronutrients called vitamins. Some of the vitamins ere soluble in fats and are
termed as fat-soluble vitamins. Fats serve as carriers sf these fat-soluble
vitamins in the body and also aid IR their absorption.
Digestion, absorption and utilization: In the process of digestion fats are broken
down to their constituent compQnents i.e. glycerol and fatty acids. The two enzymes
which aid. in the digestion of fats are gasrric. li'>asr present in gastric juice and
pancreatic) lipase poured into the small intestine from the pancreas. For enzyme
action. fats need to be dispersed or mixed in water. You know fats are ~nsolublein
water. A secretion from the liver called bile helps in fat digestion by breaking fat
into small droplets. These fat droplets are then dispersed in the liquid digestive juice
and are easily acted upon by enzymes. Since bile is not present in the stomach, the
action of gastric lipase is not very significant. This is the reason why fats are chiefly
digested in the small intestine where pancreatic lipase breaks them into glycerol and
fatty acids aided by the action of bile.

The end products of fat digestion i.e. glycerol and fatty acids present in the intestine
move into the intestinal cells. The fatty acids cannot enter intestinal cells as such.
Bile salts play a n important role in fat absorpt~onby dispersing the fatty acids into
small. tiny water-s_oluble units called mitulke.~which can easily move into the
intestinal cells.
Fatty acids and glycerol then get transported from the intestinal cells to blood
circulation. They d o not travel directly into the bloodstream but first enter the
network ol vessels (present in the villi of the small intestine) called lymph vessels.
Then fatty acids'from the lymph vessels enter the heart and from there move into the
blood. Blood then carries them either to the adipose tissues where they are stored a s
concentrated sources of energy o r to cells where they are broken down to provide
energy (in a similar fashion a s glucose and amino acids).

BOX 3.1: CHOLESTEROI

Cholesterol and its relationship to health and disease is a hot topic of discussion. YQU
would probably have encountered this term in conversation, advertisements, newspaper
columns, magazines and books. What is cholesterol? Cholesterol is a fat-like substance
present in foods. It is different in structure from triglyceiides i.e. fats and oils. Animal
foods like milk, egg, org'm meats, ghee, butter, cream rue all rich sources of cholesterol.
Plant foods like vegetable oils (mustard oil, groundnut oil, soya oil), nuts and oilseeds do
not contain cholesterol. Some manufacturers of vegetable oils try to mislend the general
public by malung claims that their products do not contain cholesterol. Now, as a student
of nutrition, you know that this claim has no basis. None of the vegetable oils contain
Colour screen cholesterol.
Cholesterol plays many important roles in the body :
a) It is the structu-al component of membranes of body cells.
b) The break down of cholesterol by the liver produces bile salts. Bile salts are impor-
tant for the digestion and absorption of fats and some vitamins.
C) Cholesterol is also necessary for the synthesis of many hormones in the body.
However, extra cl~olesterolover and above the body needs can be hannful. You wil leam
more about this aspect in block 5.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1) How are'saturated fatty acids different from unsaturated' fatty acids?

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2) Name the two essential fatty acids.

 'The M.cronutriens-ll :
3) Fill En the blanks. Proteins a d Fau
a) All fats and oils are made up of ,........................and ................................
b) Each gram of fat provides approximately ...........................K-1.
c) The amount of energy supplied by a gram of fat is .....................the
amount of energy supplied by a gram of carbohydrate or protein.
d) .........................
essential for digestion and absorption of fats and.oils.
e) A molecule of fat has .....................fatty acids and a molecule of glycerol
and is called a ......................

3.4 LET US SUM UP

The discussion in this unit is on two categories of macronutrients.i.e. proteins and

fats. You have read that:
Anlino acids are the building blocks of proteins. Food and body proteins contain
22 different amino acids. These 22 amino acids are classified into two categories :
essential and non-essential amino acids. The quality of food proteins depends on
the relative proportion of essential amino acids present in them. As animal
proteins generally contain enough of all the essential amino acids needed by the
body, they are considered superior in quality as compared to plant proteins. The
.quality of plant proteins can be improved by combining plant foods with other
plant foods or animal foods e.g. cereal-pulse combinations or cereal-milk
combinations.
The end products of protein digestion in the body are amino acids which after
absorption are utilized for several functions in the body. The chief function of
proteins is growth and maintenance.
Fatty acids are the chief constituents of all fats and oils. Fatty acids can be
saturated or unsaturated depending on the numtier of hydrogen atoms present in
the carbon chain. A molecule of triglyceride or fat is made up of three fatty acids
and one molecule of glycerol. During the process of digesion triglycerides present
in the food are broken down to their constituent fatty acids and glycerol. The
fatty acids released as a result of digestion are concentrated sources of energy.

3.5 GLOSSARY
Essential amino acids : The amino acids' which cannot be synthesized in the
body and hence have to be provided in the diet
Fatty acid : An organic compound composed of carbon.
hydrogen and oxygen. In combination with
glycerol, fatty acids form fat
Hormone : Secretions of some glands of the body which travel
through the blood to specific target organs to exert
their specific effects e.g. the hormone insulin is
secreted by a gland (pancreas) and travels in blood
t o the target organ (i.e. muscle and adipose tissue)
Haemoglobin : A proteineontaining compound present in the
blood which helps to carry oxygen from the lungs
to the body tissues and carbon dioxide from the
body tissues to the lungs
Non-essential amino acid : An amino acid which can be synthesized in the
body and hence does not have to be provided in the
diet . *
Reserve : ~ e s e r v ehere refers to stores of various nutrients in
the body at specific sites
Triglyceride : A molecule of fat which is made up of glycerol and
three fatty acids

3.6 A N S W E R S TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) Cereals are lacking in one of the essential amino acids (lysine). Their protein
quality can be improved by combination with other foods which are rich in
lysine i.e. pulses or animal foods like milk. egg, meat.
2) Answer from your own experience.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

I.) a) Amino acids b) methionine, lysine c) proportion and amount d ) Pepude.

2) a) True b) False. The major function of protein is body-building. c) False.
Some hormones are proteins. d) True e) True.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

I) Saturated fatty acids contain all the hydrogen atoms which the carboll chains
can hold whereas in unsaturated fatty acids some of the hydrogen atoms are
missing fro^ the carbon chain. The degree of unsaturation will vary according
to the number of missing hydrogen atoms. The two essential fatty acids are
also unsaturated in nature.
2) Linoleic acid and linolenic acid.
3) a) fatty acids and glycerol b) 9 c) double d ) Bile e) rhree. triglyceride