Professional Documents
Culture Documents
15 Matching networks
impedance matching: Smith Section 4.5
series to parallel conversions: KBR Section 3-5
effect of loading on circuit Q: Smith Section 4.5
17 Stability of rf amplifiers
amplifier stability criteria: KBR Sections 4-3, 4-4
Miller's Theorem: Smith p.148-149
27 PLL fm demodulators
fm demodulation: Smith p.319
PLL loop error analysis: Smith Sections 9.2, 9.3
PLL transient behavior: Smith Section 9.4
Page 1
Network Analyzer Basics
Author: David
Ballo
Router
Bridge
Repeater
Hub
Adapters Amplifiers
Opens, shorts, loads Antennas
Delay lines VCOs
Cables Switches VTFs
Transmission lines Multiplexers Oscillators
Waveguide Mixers Modulators
Resonators Samplers VCAtten's
Dielectrics Multipliers
R, L, C's
Diodes Transistor
Low
s
Passive Device type Active
TG/SA Isolation
Rtn Ls/VSWR
SNA Impedance
S-parameters
tool
NF Mtr. NF
Absol.
Power Mtr.
Power
Det/Scope Gain/Flatness
Nonlinear networks
harmonics, intermodulation
compression
noise figure
A * Sin 360° * f ( t - t )
A °
Linear behavior:
input and output frequencies
Time
to are the same (no additional
frequencies created)
A
output frequency only
Sin 360° * f * t
phase shift = to
* 360 °* f
undergoes magnitude and
Time f
1
Frequency phase change
Nonlinear behavior:
f output frequency may undergo
1 Frequency Time
frequency shift (e.g. with
mixers)
additional frequencies created
(harmonics, intermodulation)
f Frequency
1
Phase
Frequency Frequency
Time
Time
Linear Network
Magnitude
Linear Network
Time Time
Magnitude
Frequency
0°
Frequency Frequency
-180°
-360 °
Time Time
Frequency Frequency
KPWR FM 97 KPWR FM 97
1. Complete characterization of S 11 S 22
linear networks 4. Time Domain
S 12
Characterization
Mag
2. Complex impedance needed to
design matching circuits
Time
High Frequency
Transistor Model
Incident
Transmitted
Reflected
o
+jX 90
Polar plane
1.0
.8
.6
+R
.4
0 o .2
+ 180 o
- 0
-jX
Rectilinear -90 o
impedance plane
Constant X
Z L = Zo Constant R
= 0
RL
For complex impedances,
maximum power transfer
occurs when ZL = ZS*
(conjugate match)
Load Power (normalized)
1.2
1
0.8 Zs = R + jX
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
RL / RS
ZL = Zs* = R - jX
Low frequencies I
Wavelength >> wire length
Current (I) travels down wires easily for efficient power
transmission
Voltage and current not dependent on position
High frequencies
Wavelength or << wire (transmission line) length
Need transmission-line structures for efficient power transmission
Zo = characteristic impedance
Zs = of transmission line
Zo
Zo
Vinc
Vrefl = 0! (all the incident power
is absorbed in the load)
Zs = Zo
Vinc
Zs = Zo
ZL = 25
Vinc
Vrefl
Incident
Transmitted
R
B
Reflected
A
REFLECTION TRANSMISSION
Reflected A Transmitted B
= =
Incident R Incident R
Return Group
SWR Gain / Loss Delay
Loss
S-Parameters Impedance, Insertion
S11,S22 Reflection Admittance S-Parameters Phase
Coefficient S21,S12 Transmission
R+jX,
G+jB Coefficient
V Incident V Transmitted
DUT
VTransmitted
Transmission Coefficient = = =
V Incident
V
Insertion Loss (dB) = - 20 Log
Trans
= - 20 log
V Inc
V
Gain (dB) = 20 Log
Trans
= 20 log
V Inc
Network Analyzer Basics
24
DJB 12/96 na_basic.pre
Deviation from Linear Phase
Use electrical delay to remove linear
portion of phase response
Phase 1 /Div
o
o
+ yields
Frequency tg
Group Delay
Group
Delay
to
Phase
Average Delay
d
Group Delay (t g) = Frequency
d
1 d
= * df Deviation from constant group delay
360 o indicates distortion
in radians
in radians/sec
Average delay indicates transit time
in degrees
Phase
Phase
f f
d d
d d
Group
Delay
Group
Delay
f f
h11 = V1
I1 V2=0 (requires short circuit)
h12 = V1
V2 I1=0 (requires open circuit)
Reflected b1
S 11 = = a
Incident 1 a2 = 0 b2
S Reflected
b 22 = = a
Transmitted 2 Incident 2 a1 = 0
S 21 = = a
Incident 1 a2 = 0 b
Transmitted 1
S 12 = = a
Incident 2 a1 = 0
a1 = 0 b2
Z0 S 22
DUT
Load Reflected Reverse
a2
Transmitted S 12 Incident
b1 Network Analyzer Basics
30
DJB 12/96 na_basic.pre
Measuring Nonlinear Behavior
Most common measurements:
Using a spectrum analyzer + source(s)
harmonics, particularly second and third
AM to PM conversion
Noise figure
LPF
DUT
Power
Measures Measures
known unknown
signal signals
Frequency Frequency
DUT
SOURCE Reflected
SIGNAL
SEPARATION
RECEIVER / DETECTOR
PROCESSOR / DISPLAY
Open-loop VCOs
Synthesized sweepers
6 dB
50 Splitter
usually resistive
non-directional
50
broadband
6 dB
Coupler
Main signal
directional
low loss
Coupler
directional
low loss
Bridge
used to measure
Detector
reflected signals only
broadband
Test Port
higher loss
Coupling, forward
-20 dBm
.01 mW
Source
Z0
Example of 20 dB Coupler
P coupling forward
Coupling Factor (dB) = -10 log
P incident
Network Analyzer Basics
38
DJB 12/96 na_basic.pre
Directional Coupler Isolation (Reverse
Coupling Factor)
Coupling, reverse
this is an error signal during
-50 dBm
measurements
.00001 mW
Source
Z0
Pcoupled reverse
Isolation Factor (dB) = -10 log
Pincident
Network Analyzer Basics
39
DJB 12/96 na_basic.pre
Directional Coupler Directivity
Pcoupled forward
Directivity (dB) = 10 log
P coupled reverse
Coupler
Directivity Good approximation for
35 dB coupling factors 10 dB
short
Source .018 (35 dB) (normalized)
Directivity = 35 dB - 0 dB = 35
dB
Source
0
Data Max
DUT RL = 40 dB
Directivity
Add in Phase
Return Loss
Device
30
60
Frequency
Device
Data Min
Data = Vector Sum
Device
Directivity
Directivity
Cancel Data 0
DUT
SIGNAL
SEPARATION
RECEIVER / DETECTOR
Tuned Receiver
RF IF = F LO F RF Scalar narrowband
(magnitude only)
ADC / DSP
Vector
IF Filter (magnitude and phase)
LO 44
Network Analyzer Basics
DJB 12/96 na_basic.pre
Broadband Diode Detection
devices
Improve dynamic range by increasing power
ADC / DSP
f
Harmonic
frequency "comb"
generator
-50 dB -50 dB
-100 dB -100 dB
-60 dBm Sensitivity < -100 dBm Sensitivity
10 - magn (dB)
phase (± deg)
phase error
1
magn error
0.1
0.01
0.001
0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30 -35 -40 -45 -50 -55 -60 -65 -70
Interfering signal (dB)
Network Analyzer Basics
H DJB 12/96 na_basic.pre
Example: HP 8757D
requires external detectors, couplers, bridges, splitters
RF R A B
RF R A B
Detector
Detector
Detector
Bridge DUT
Termination
DUT
Reflection Transmission
Network Analyzer Basics
50
DJB 12/96 na_basic.pre
Modern Scalar Analyzer
Everything necessary for transmission and
reflection measurements is internal!
Narrowband and
Large display broadband detectors
RF in
IF
SPECTRUM ANALYZER 9 kHz - 26.5 GHz
8563A
LO
DUT
Spectrum analyzer
TG out
DUT
f = IF Tracking generator
Phase 4 kHz
Lock R S
DU
T
ADC CPU Display
Digital
Control
Source Test Receiver
Set
Transfer switch
R R
A B A B
Transfer switch
Transfer switch
R R1
A B A B
R2
3 samplers 4 samplers
cheaper more expensive
TRL*, LRM* cal only true TRL, LRM cal
includes: includes
DUT
SOURCE Reflected
50 MHz-20GHz
H NETWORK ANALYZER
SEPARATION CH1
CH2
S 21
S 12
log MAG
log MAG
10 dB/
10 dB/
REF 0 dB
REF 0 dB
1_ -1.9248 dB
1_ -1.2468 dB
839.470 000 MHz RESPONSE
PRm
Duplexer Test - Tx-Ant and Ant-Rx
Cor
INCIDENT REFLECTED TRANSMITTED 1 1
1
880.435 000 MHz STIMULUS INSTRUMENT STATE R CHANNEL
Cor
T R L S
PASS
Hld HP-IB STATUS
PROCESSOR / DISPLAY
PORT 1 PORT 2
markers 1 1
pass/fail indicators 1
880.435 000 MHz
Cor
grid/polar/Smith 2
charts Hld
PASS
CH1 START 775.000 000 MHz STOP 925.000 000 MHz Network Analyzer Basics
56
CH2 START 775.000 000 MHz STOP 925.000 000 MHz
DJB 12/96 na_basic.pre
Internal Measurement Automation
Simple: recall states
More powerful:
Test sequencing
HP 8510C family
HP 8720D family
110 GHz in coax
40 GHz
pulse systems
economical
antenna meas.
fast, small
Tx/Rx module test
test mixers, high-
highest accuracy
power amps
4 S-parameter
S-parameter
display
RF HP 8753D family
6 GHz
HP 8712/14C
52C: T/R test set
3 GHz
53D: S-parameter
low cost, fast
highest RF accuracy
narrowband and
Offset and harmonic
broadband detection
RF sweeps
T/R test set only
HP E5100A/B
300 MHz HP 8751A
economical
500 MHz
fast list sweep
fast, small
impedance matching
test resonators,
4 trace display
filters
parameter
analysis
Combination
HP 4195A HP 4396A
500 MHz 1.8 GHz
network/spectrum/
network/spectrum/
setup
are assumed to be time invariant (predictable)
main contributors:
SYSTEMATIC
instrument noise (source Measured Unknown
Data Device
phase noise, IF noise floor, etc.) RANDOM
switch repeatability
DRIFT
connector repeatability
Drift errors
are due to instrument or test-system
R A B
Directivity Crosstalk
DUT
Frequency response
reflection tracking (A/R) Source Load
transmission tracking (B/R) Mismatch Mismatch
simple to perform
SHORT
OPEN
thru
S11 LOAD
A
S11
M 63
Network Analyzer Basics
DJB 12/96 na_basic.pre
What is Vector-Error Correction?
Process of characterizing systematic error terms
(SOLT)
Some standards can be measured multiple times
(e.g., THRU is usually measured four times)
Standards defined in cal kit definition file
network analyzer contains standard cal kit definitions
USED! 64
Network Analyzer Basics
DJB 12/96 na_basic.pre
Reflection: One-Port Model
Ideal If you know the systematic error terms,
1 results ED = Directivity
RF in
ERT = Reflection tracking
S11M ED ES S11A ES = Source Match
S11M = Measured
ERT S11A = Actual
0
2.0
Data Before
Error Correction
20
Return Loss (dB)
1.1
VSWR
40
1.01
60 Data After
Error Correction
1.001
6000 12000
S21
A ETT b2 Forward model
a1 ES
ED S11 S22 a2
A A
b1 EL
ERT S12
A
Isolation calibration
terminations
if dependent on DUT match, use DUT with termination on
output
Isolation cal when crosstalk is
dependent on match of DUT
Calibration 12
7
four known impedance states presented at each
OPEN
Reflection tracking
Directivity
Source match
* HP 8711C enhanced response cal
Load match ( * )
can correct for source match during
transmission measurements
DUT
16 dB RL (.158) Measurement uncertainty:
1 dB loss (.891) -20 * log (.158 + .100)
= 11.4 dB (-4.6dB)
.158 -20 * log (.158 - .100)
= 24.7 dB (+8.7 dB)
(.891)(.126)(.891) = .100
RL = 18 dB (.126)
RL = 14 dB (.200)
Calibration Uncertainty
= (1 ± )
S L
= (1 ± (.200)(.126)
= ± 0.22 dB
(.126)(.158) = .020
(.126)(.891)(.200)(.891) = .020
(.158)(.200) = .032
DUT
Source match = 14 dB 16 dB RL (.158) Load match = 18
(.200)
dB (.126)
1
(.126)(.158) = .020
(.158)(.200) = .032
= (1 ± (.0178)(.126)
= ± .02 dB
DUT
Source match = 35 1 dB loss (.891)
dB (.0178) 16 dB RL (.158) Load match = 18
dB (.126)
1
Measurement uncertainty
(.126)(.158) = .020 =1±
(.020+.0018+.0028)
(.126)(.891)(.0178)(.891) = .0018 = 1 ± .0246
(.158)(.0178) = .0028 = + 0.211 dB
- 0.216
Transmission uncertainty
S21m = S21a ± (E I + S11 aE S+ S22 aE L+ S21 aS12 E
a E
S +
L S21 E )
a TT
2
= .891 ± (10 -6+ .158*.0158 + .158*.0045 + .891 *.0158*.0045 + .891*.003)
= .891 ± .0059 = 1 dB ± 0.06 dB
Cor
After 2-port calibration
Uncorrected
Cor
probing)
Uses the same 12-term error model as the more common SOLT
cal
Uses practical calibration standards that
TRL
Four samplers are necessary for all the measurements required for a full TRL
In noncoaxial applications:
TRL achieves better source match and load match correction than TRL*
Coaxial TRL is usually more accurate than SOLT but not commonly used
Adapter removal
defined
for other adapters, measure electrical length and modify cal-kit definition
Cal
Port 1
Adapter
Adapter Port 2 1. Perform 2-port cal with adapter on port 2.
B Save in cal set 1.
Cal Set 1
Cor
69.1 dB Stopband
rejection
Cor
1
Return loss
m1: 4.000 000 GHz -0.16 dB
m2-ref: 2.145 234 GHz 0.00 dB
ref 2
Saturated output
power
Output Power (dBm)
Compression
region
1 dB compression: input
power resulting in 1 dB
drop in gain
Ratioed measurement
0
Output power available (non-
0
ratioed measurement)
1
1
Start -10.00 dBm CW 900.000 MHz Stop 0.00 dBm
Start -10.00 dBm CW 900.000 MHz Stop 0.00 dBm
Network Analyzer Basics
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DJB 12/96 na_basic.pre
Agenda
Why do we test components?
What measurements do we
make?
Network analyzer hardware
Error models and calibration
Typical measurements
Advanced topics
Time domain
Frequency-translating
devices
High-power amplifiers
Multiport devices
In-fixture measurements
Crystal Resonators
Balanced-Cables
High-speed oscilloscope:
Network analyzer:
Zo
capacitive transition
Network Analyzer Basics
91
DJB 12/96 na_basic.pre
Time-Domain Gating
TDR and gating can remove undesired reflections
(a form of error correction)
Only useful for broadband devices (a load or thru for
example)
Define gate to only include DUTCH1 S11&M log MAG 5 dB/ REF 0 dB
2
CH1 MEM Re 20 mU/ REF 0 U
CH1 START 0 s STOP 1.5 ns START .050 000 000 GHz STOP 20.050 000 000 GHz
RF Output
Main Wave
Leakage Surface
Wave
Triple Travel
Cor
RF
Triple
CH1 S21 log MAG 10 dB/ REF 0 dB Leakage
Travel
Cor
Gate off
START -1 us STOP 6 us
Gate on
1 2
RESPONSE
MHz MHz
FIXED LO: 1 GHz
LO POWER: 13 dBm PORT 1 PORT 2
RF IF
10 dB LO
10 dB Lowpass
CH1 CONV MEAS log MAG 10 dB/ REF 10 dB Filter
10 dB
LO
DUT
3 dB
Signal Generator
RESPONSE
HP-IB
Source
STATUS
PROBE POWER
FUSED
H 8753D 30 KHz-3GHz
HP 8753D
NETWORK ANALYZER
PORT 1 PORT 2
Preamp
AUT
DUT
R
A B
AUT
Port 1
Port 2
Port 2 Port 3
Directional
Note: unused ports Test Set
are terminated Coupler
PR
CH1 S21
CH2 S12
log
log
MAG
MAG
10
10
dB/
dB/
REF 0
REF
dB 0
dB
1_ -1.9248
1_ -1.2468
dB
839.470 000dB
switches,
MHz
m
Co
r
Duplexer Test - Tx-Ant and Ant-Rx
1 1
50 or 75 ohms
degrade raw performance so calibration is
Hld
1
880.435 000
PAS
S a must (use two-port cals whenever
MHz
PR
m
Co
possible)
r
PAS
S
Hld
CH1 START 775.000 000
CH2
MHz START 775.000 000 STOP
STOP 925.000
925.000 000
000 MHz
MHz MHz
Calibration Measurement
Plane Plane
Fixture
ED ES DUT
ET
Loss
Phase shift
Error correction with coaxial calibration
Mismatch
Cor
0.00 dB
-20.00 dB
-40.00 dB
-60.00 dB
-80.00 dB
-100.00 dB
-120.00 dB
System
Example of near-end crosstalk (NEXT) measurement
Network Analyzer Basics
99
DJB 12/96 na_basic.pre
Challenge Quiz
1. Can filters cause distortion in communications systems?
A. Yes, due to impairment of phase and magnitude response
B. Yes, due to nonlinear components such as ferrite inductors
C. No, only active devices can cause distortion
D. No, filters only cause linear phase shifts
E. Both A and B above
2. Which statement about transmission lines is false?
A. Useful for efficient transmission of RF power
B. Requires termination in characteristic impedance for low VSWR
C. Voltage is independent of position along line
D. Used when wavelength of signal is small compared to length of line
E. Can be realized in a variety of forms such as coaxial, waveguide,
microstrip
3. Which statement about narrowband detection is false?
A. Is only available in vector network analyzers
B. Provides much greater dynamic range than diode detection
C. Uses variable-bandwidth IF filters to set analyzer noise floor
D. Provides rejection of harmonic and spurious signals
E. Uses mixers or samplers as downconverters
Network Analyzer Basics
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DJB 12/96 na_basic.pre
Challenge Quiz (continued)