INDUCTIVE REASONING BINET’S FORMULA

𝑛 𝑛
- The type of reasoning that uses specific examples to 1 1 + √5 1 − √5
reach a general conclusion of something 𝐹𝑛 = [( ) −( ) ]
√5 2 2
- CONJECTURE – the conclusion formed by using
inductive reasoning, may or may not be correct

Example: PASCAL TRIANGLE

5, 10, 15, 20, 25, __
Solution:
Each successive number is 5 units larger than the
preceding number. Thus, it can be predicted that the
next number in the list is 5 units larger than 25, which is
30.
Blaise Pascal
- Used to determine the pattern of coefficients that
appear when a binomial is multiplied by itself a
certain number of times.

DEDUCTIVE REASONING
- A type of reasoning that uses general procedures
and principles to reach a conclusion
- Process of reaching a general conclusion by applying
general assumptions, procedures, or principles

Example: Tower of Hanoi – Edouard Lucas 1883

Use deductive reasoning to make a conjecture.

Consider the following procedure:

Pick a number. Multiply the number by 10, add 8 to the
product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 4. POLYA’S PROBLEM SOVING STRATEGY
Solution: George Polya
– How To Solve it
Let n represent the original number. – Father of problem-solving
Multiply n by 10 = 10n
Add 8 to the product = 8 +10n
Divide the sum by 2 = (8 + 10n) / 2 1. Understand the Problem
= 4 + 5n - State the problem in your own words
Subtract the quotient by 4 = 4 + 5n – 4 2. Devise a Plan
- Think of strategies to solve a problem
= 5n - Ex: organize given information, use a list, table,
chart, diagram, look for a pattern
FIBONACCI SEQUENCE
3. Carry out the Plan
Sequence – an ordered list of numbers - Implementing the strategy chosen in step 2
4. Review the Solution
Terms – the number separated by commas in a - Is your answer reasonable?
sequence - Check the veracity of the answer to the problem
ARITHMETIC MODULO N
a = b mod n congruence

n modulus

NOMINAL DATA
- Do not indicate the amount of the thing being
measured
- The numbers chosen are arbitrary The graph indicates a direct correlation between
variables x and y which appears to be increasing

PEARSON PRODUCT-MOMENT
ORDINAL DATA CORRELATION
- In order
- Karl Pearson
- Rank or rank ordered
- Reveals if the correlation is direct or inverse
- 1, 2, 3…
- Reveals if the data sets are not correlated
- Continuous scale
1 Perfect +
INTERVAL DATA 0.8 Strong +
- The differences between any two adjacent values 0.6 +
on a measurement scale are at the same time 0 Little or no Linear
- INTERVAL MEASURE – -0.5 -
-0.9 Strong -

DICHOTOMOUS VARIABLES
∑𝑛𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )(𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦̅)
- May sometimes be treated as nominal, ordinal, or 𝑟𝑥𝑦 =
interval √∑𝑛𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2 ⋅ ∑𝑛𝑖=1(𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦̅)2
- A variable that contains precisely 2 distinct values
- Example: gender

CORRELATION
- The relationship between two variables
- Measures the association or the strength of the Example:
relationship between two variables (x and y)
Study
Example: Student Scores
Hours
Math English 1 30 4
Student
score (x) score (y) 2 25 3
1 4 5
3 15 1
2 5 4
3 9 8 4 26 4
4 2 3 5 18 2
5 8 9
6 1 2
7 2 1
8 7 6
9 6 7
10 4 5
 Study
Scores Scores Scores Math English Rank
Student (x-x) (x-x)2 Hours (y-y) (y-y)2 (x-x)(y-y) Student d2
(x) in Math in English Rank Rank Differences
(y)
1 30 7.2 51.84 4 1.2 1.44 8.64
1 35 38 3 4 -1 1
2 25 2.2 4.84 3 0.2 0.04 0.44
2 64 87 9 10 -1 1
3 15 -7.8 60.84 1 -1.8 3.24 14.04
4 26 3.2 10.24 4 1.2 1.44 3.84
3 45 49 6 6 0 0
5 18 -4.8 23.04 2 -0.8 0.64 3.84 4 30 26 2 1 1 1
150.8 6.8 30.8 5 28 59 1 8 -7 49
6 60 54 8 7 1 1
= 0.961824 7 44 33 5 2 3 9
8 50 70 7 9 -2 4
Strong positive correlation 9 39 35 4 3 1 1
10 67 45 10 5 5 25
92

SPEARMAN’S RANK-ORDER
CORRELATION
- Charles Spearman
- Nonparametric version of Pearson’s product-
moment correlation
- Measures the strength and direction of association
between two ranked variables
𝑛
6 ∑𝑖=1 𝑑𝑖2
𝜌 =1−
𝑛(𝑛2 − 1)
Where:
d – difference of paired ranks
n - # of paired data

Example:

Scores Scores
Student
in Math in English
1 35 38
2 64 87
3 45 49
4 30 26
PHI COEFFICIENT
5 2 59 - More appropriate to describe the data set
6 60 54 - Pure dichotomous or nominal scale
7 44 33
8 50 70 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐
𝜙=
9 39 35 √(𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑐 + 𝑑)(𝑎 + 𝑐)(𝑏 + 𝑑)
10 67 45
Example:

Female
Capital Punishment
Yes No
Yes a=6 b = 14
Male
No c = 10 d = 13

= 0.1391 – weak negative correlation

POINT-BISERIAL CORRELATION
COEFFICIENT
- Measures the relationship between a real
dichotomous and an interval sets of data
- Interval data vs binary variable

𝜌 ̅ −𝑥
𝑥 ̅ 𝑛 𝑛
𝑥𝑦= 1 2 √ 1 2
𝑆𝑥 𝑛(𝑛−1)

Example:

Test
Students Gender
Results
1 1 10
2 2 9
3 2 10
4 1 17
5 2 18
6 1 8
7 1 10
8 2 12
9 2 19
Sx 4.245913
x1 11.25
x2 13.6