Developments in Petroleum Science, 15B

fundamentals of
well-log interpretation
2. the interpretation of loggingdata

0.SERRA

Geological Interpretation Development, Schlumberger Technical

Services, Montrouge, France.

ELSEVIER ELF-AQUIT AINE

Amsterdam - Oxford - New York - Tokyo 1986 Pau
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Printed in France
 Since the first recording of a wireline log, in September 1927, by a team
working for the Schlumberger brothers, geologists have shown their interest
in this new way of analyzing subsurface formations. The first name given to
this measurement by Marcel and Conrad Schlumberger, electrical coring,
shows remarkable foresight. This term is becoming more and more applicable
with the introduction of the newest sensors, capable of describing formations
in ever greater detail, both in their composition (elemental and mineralogical),
and their textural and structural features. These steps towards a more precise
analysis of the formation have created a renewed interest by geologists in
wireline data. However, a good knowledge of both geology and log interpre-
tation is necessary in order to extract the maximum amount of information
from wireline data. This work is the contribution of an eminent geologist and
expert in wireline log interpretation to bring the two sciences together.
Oberto Serra has a doctorate degree in geology. He also has acquired
twenty years experience of wireline log interpretation, firstly with the
ELF-Aquitaine group, where he was the head of the well logging department
for ten years, and secondly with Schlumberger since 1978. His constant
concern is t o establish links between geology and wireline logs. His approach
to their interpretation shows how log data are dependent on geological
parameters and, conversely, how to extract geological information from
wireline logs.
The work presented in this book is Oberto Serra’s contribution to
improving wireline log interpretation for geological and reservoir description
purposes. We hope that it will be useful to geologists and other professionals
involved in wireline log interpretation.

Jean BOUCAU
President
Etudes et Productions Schlumberger
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to express my thanks to the oil companies for permission t o use

their data, without which this book would not have been possible.
I would also like to thank Jean Gartner and Jean Suau, my Schlumberger
colleagues and friends, who accepted to review and critic the book, for their
very helpful and constructive remarks, their constant support and their
encouragement t o conclude this project.
My thanks also go t o other Schlumberger colleagues, in particular
C. Boyeldieu, C. Clavier, J. C. Minne, Ph. Souhaite, P. Delfiner and J. P. Del-
homme, for their useful advice and help during discussions we have had on
many subjects.
Equally, I extend my thanks to C. Gras and L. Sulpice, who during and
since my time with ELF-Aquitaine have patiently encouraged and helped me
to develop some of the ideas presented in this book. I am indebted to
J. Henry, who has contributed t o Chapter 14 giving me the benefit of his
considerable experience on the subject. Special thanks should go to H. Oertli
for his friendly support, patience and considerable help such that this
document has finally seen the light of day. I ask him to excuse me for all the
concern I have caused him for several years.
My gratitude also goes to M. Ryan and M. Bett who undertook the task
of translating and reviewing this document from the original french edition.
For permission t o use previously published illustrations I am grateful t o
the following : Academic Press, the American Association of Petroleum
Geologists, American Geological Institute, Applied Science Publishers,
Blackwell Scientific Publications, the Canadian Association of Petroleum
Geologists, Chapman and Hall, Elsevier Publishing Company, W. H. Freeman
and Company, The Geologists Association of London, the Geological Society
of London, Geoscience Canada, Gulf Coast Association of Geological
Societies, the Institute of Petroleum, the Journal of Geochemical Exploration,
the Journal of Geology, the Journal of Petroleum Geology, the Journal of
Petroleum Technology, the Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, McGraw-Hill,
Masson, the Offshore Technology Conference, Oil & Gas Journal, Petroleum
Publishing Company, Prentice-Hall Inc., the Society of Economic Paleontolo-
gists and Mineralogists, the Society of Petroleum Engineers, the Society of
Professional Well Log Analysts, Springer, John Wiley & Sons, Wilson and
World Oil.
Finally, I am grateful to the Schlumberger management for that support
in this work and permission to use a large number of their documents.

Oberto SERRA
 INTRODUCTION

Our modern society has a constant need for raw
materials and energy. An on-going effort in explo-
ration and research is necessary, therefore, t o
discover and develop them. And, in this effort, it is
better to appeal to geology than t o rely on chance.
Geology is by definition "the study of the planet
Earth. It is concerned with the origin of the planet,
the material and morphology of the Earth, and its
history and the processes that acted (and act)
upon it to affect its historic and present forms"
(Glossary of Geology, 1980).
This study, even when it includes fundamental
research, is aimed a t a better understanding of the
influences that have formed, transformed and
modelled our planet, of the laws ruling the forma-
tion of rocks, their distribution, their transforma-
tion, their deformation, and of the laws governing
the accumulation of those raw materials which are
of economic interest. This scientific guidance is
available t o help us discover the low cost minerals
and energy resources that humanity needs so
much.
The work of the geologist (Table 1 ) consists of :
- the complete and objective observation and
description of rocks and geological phenomena;
- the interpretation of these observations by
comparing them with :
. those made on recent series or phenomena
(existing models),
. those coming from the study of reconstructed
models or from laboratory experiments,
. observations made on ancient formations
which have been studied in detail and are well
understood (ancient models and application of
theories of actualism or uniformitarianism as
developed by Hutton ( 1 788).
In the case of the study of sedimentary rocks,
this interpretation must lead t o a reconstitution of

Table 1
A general approach for the analysis of sedimentary rocks.

I-Observe and describe 2-Compare with current models or %Interpret &Predict

the sedimentary body well understood ancient models

Composition
Texture
Colour
Fossils
I Lithology

Palaeontology
Location,
Volume,
Extent
of mineral
Sedimentaty structure Palaeocurrents resources
Depositional
environment
Thickness and
Lateral extent Geometry palaeogeography

Vertical evolution Relations with Sequences

Lateral evolution neighbou ring Rhythms

\
sedimentary bodies

I
Presence,
Nature,
Structural dip Distribution
Folds Tectonic features of permeability
Fractures, stylolites Structure barriers
and stresses
Faults
12
the geographic and climatic frame and, conse-
quently, to the understanding of conditions under
which the rocks are formed. From this reconstitu-
tion the geologist will try :
- t o predict those zones most favourable for the
accumulation of mineral resources,
- t o specify the extent of the resources,
- t o evaluate their volume from the estimation
of the content of these mineral resources in rocks.
1. ORIGIN OF GEOLOGICAL DATA
To proceed with study and research, the geolo-
gist utilises three sources of information.
1 . I . Outcrops
(Quarries, trenches, ditches,
tunnels, mines)
In certain types of research, natural or man-
made outcrops are still the essential source of
geological information (Fig. 1); in others (petro-
leum, coal, geothermal resources) outcrop infor-
mation has been progressively replaced by drilling
Fig. 1. - Photograph of an outcrop in Peira-Cava, South of
France, showing several sequences of massive sandstones
interbedded with laminated shales, in a deep marine environ-
ment (photograph taken by Serra).
data or completed by surface geophysics (gravi-
metry, seismic surveying, magnetism), or borehole
geophysics (wireline logging).
This is because in modern exploration, drilling
and geophysical techniques are more often used,
not only in the petroleum industry, but also in
subsurface storage, or t o discover coal, uranium or
metallic minerals, and in geothermal resources.
With deeper targets, outcrops, as a source of
information, are less frequently used because
extrapolations established from them are less
reliable. Moreover, the geological complexity of
targets increases (stratigraphic traps,, fluid per-
meabilit ybarriers, size and depth of structures, ...).
As a result, a t the present time, most knowledge
concerning geological sedimentary basins (espe-
cially deep basins) comes from drilling and geo-
physics. As stated by llling (1946) ... if geology has
"
contributed greatly t o the growth of the oil indus-
try the debt is not a one-sided one. Geology owes
a great deal t o the oil industry in the expansion of
its knowledge and the increased efficiency of its
methods ...'I.
1.2. Surface Geophysics
Two and often three dimensional pictures of
subsurface can be obtained by today's surface
geophysical techniques. They are extremely impor-
tant tools for the exploration of subsurface, since
it gives direct information, not only on the shape
and arrangement of beds, but also on their nature,
their petrophysical properties and even sometimes
their fluid content (seismofacies, "bright spot", ...).
The hypotheses drawn by the interpretation of this
information must be verified by drilling. The tran-
slation of surface geophysical data into a geologi-
cal interpretation will be considerably easier and
more reliable if it is supported by well log measu-
rements. The former has thus t o be correlated with
the latter. In other words, wireline log data provide
the link between geophysics and geology :
- wireline logs are the only means for providing
an accurate transfer of time data to depth data.
They allow for the transfer of amplitude and signal
frequency data to sedimentological or economic
data (facies, porosity, fluid content, ...).
In fact, measurements of the density and the
travel-time of acoustic sound derived from boreho-
les with well logging tools, make it possible, after
corrections, t o determine the accurate acoustic
impedence and reflection coefficient for each
boundary in formations. A reflectivity log made
from acoustic and density data provides a basic
document for the establishment of a theoretical
seismic section through the GEOGRAM *, pro-
gram, which, when correlated with real seismic
sections, permits its conversion into depth and
makes a composite log possible.
* Mark of Schlumberger

VSP real
LOGS
GEOGRAM
VSP synthetic
Fig. 2. - Composite display of the different geophysical answer
products; the logs, in time scale, are reproduced on the side
of the GEOGRAM. VSP and synthetic VSP are also shown
alongside (from Mons & Babour, 1981).
The Vertical Seismic Profile (VSP) obtained in a
well provides the best vision and exact depth of
each reflector, its signature and the effect over the
underlying reflectors. It enables the transformation
to be made from reflectors t o beds, providing a
precise measurement t o go from depth t o time
and vice versa. For example, it is possible t o (( see"
the beds which underlie formations with strong
reflectance (anhydrite, halite, compact dolomite or
limestone), or with strong attenuation (undercom-
pacted shales), or formations below the bottom
well depth. It also makes it possible t o remove the
multiples that often complicate the interpretation
of seismic sections. VSP can also be used t o
analyse the rock properties through the study of
seismic waves (Direct Signal Analysis DSA
method).
A graphic display of logs versus time instead of
depth can also be easily obtained and reproduced
alongside VSP and GEOGRAM (Fig. 2 ) .
* Mark of Schlumberger.
13
1.3. Drilling
Two kinds of data are obtained during drilling :
- those linked t o rock samples (full diameter
cores or sidewall cores, cuttings), and to fluid
samples;
- those provided by physical measurements
made in drilled holes essentially by wireline log-
ging tools.
Standard cores, if they are continuous, consti-
tute a sampling of good quality that will give
abundant data. Unfortunately, for economic and
technical reasons, coring can be a rare operation,
particularly under certain drilling conditions or in
certain types of formations. Therefore, often the
only rock sample available consists of the cuttings
obtained during drilling, or sidewall cores cut with
the help of a bullet core barrel which runs with a
wireline.
In some cases, there is considerable uncertainty
over the depth of a given cuttings sampling and
furthermore it can be difficult t o restore the
constituents and thickness of the lithological
column from cuttings alone. This is due t o mud
swirling, caving, the loss of some constituents (silt
size grains, salts) during washing or by total lost
circulation events. The reduced dimension of this
type of rock sample does not generally allow a full
analysis, and makes an observation incomplete.
Cores may also have drawbacks such as partial
recovery or none at all, sample damages (mecha-
nical fracturation, depth matching, ...).
The geologist is therefore often short of, or
deprived of representative or good quality Sam-
ples. Sidewall cores can partly compensate for this
shortcoming but, because of their small size,
observations or measurements may still be inaccu-
rate compared t o those carried out on larger
samples. As a result of these limitations, the
second type of information (obtained from wireline
logs) has become increasingly important, espe-
cially as the quality and diversity of tools and
methods of interpretation have been developed. It
has not only proved its complementarity t o the
preceding geological data, but also the invaluable
and essential aid it provides in synthesis of data.
Wireline logs are of special interest in that
they :
- provide the only source of data t o give accu-
rate information on the depth and the apparent,
and even real, thickness of beds if a dipmeter has
been recorded.
- give a nearly continuous analysis of the for-
mations (one sampling every 15 c m for traditional
open hole logs; this frequency can be increased to
one sample every 3 c m if required, and one Sam-
pling every 5 m m or even 2.5 m m for dipmeter
tools). In contrast, information extracted from
cores is more discontinuous, and often scattered
in depth. Even in the case of continuous coring, all
analyses are not systematically made on each plug
taken from the cores.
14

- generally analyse a volume of rock that is
much greater than the one represented by a core
or plug, and consequently than a cutting. Conse-
quently, they are more representative of the mean
properties of the rock, especially in heterogeneous
rocks.
- measure rock properties a t depth conditions.
- The information logs provide is :
. quantitative and, consequently, it allows us to
think about geological objects represented by
wireline measurements by using the full the com-
puter’s capacity to process the information;
. precise, even if, sometimes, errors are pre-
sent;
. objective and repetitive;
. permanent; whereas the cores are destroyed
for analysis, preventing any further study, log data
can be reinterpreted with new ideas, new techni-
ques, or new parameters;
. obtained rapidly, even on the well site;
. economic, coring and analysis of cores are
expensive and time consuming, and the desired
information is obtained only several weeks later.
- The measurements made with wireline tools
are strongly dependent on geological parameters.
Consequently, the information they provide is of
the utmost interest for geologists.
In the previous volume the principles of the
different logging tools were explained as well as
the geological parameters which affect each
measurement. Table 2 attempts to establish a
hierarchy in the influence on each tool of the three
principal geological parameters : composition, tex-
ture and structure. The influence of fluids is also
indicated because fluids are indissociable from
rocks, in subsurface, and can influence certain
measurements.
One can reasonably conclude that wireline logs
”photograph” the drilled formations. They provide
a spectral picture, albeit particular and incomplete,
Table 2
Comparative response of well logs to the four
main geological parameters
(from Serra & Abbott, 1980).
EDIMEMARY
LOG TYPE COMPOSITION TEXTURf
which is practically continous and always perma-
nent, objective and quantified. It is easily unders-
tood that the ”picture” will be clearer when the
number and the diversity of the log measurements
are greatest. One can say that logging tools are to
subsurface rock description what the eyes and
geological instruments (hammer, magnifying
glass, ...) are to the surface outcrop. Thus, the logs
can be considered as the “signature“ of the rocks
since they depend on their physical properties.
Log data must be treated like geological data and
any log interpretation is in itself a geological
interpretation, whether we are aware of it or not.
Wireline logging tools measure the physical
characteristics of drilled formations. These charac-
teristics in fact result on the one hand, from
physical, chemical and biological (hence also
geographical and climatic) conditions that existed
in the deposits and which characterize environ-
ment (Table 3), and on the other hand from the
evolution that these formations were subjected to
during their geolog icaI history .
The mineralogical composition, texture, sedi-
mentary structure and nature of facies, deduced
from the data measured by logs, are not the only
available information. Table 22-1 from Volume 1
(page 329) has a more or less complete list of
direct or indirect measurements, which is summed
up under the following headings :
b Description of rocks : Petrology
- Mineralogical or elementary composition;
- Texture;
- Sedimentary structures;
- Paleocurrents.
b Study of static and dynamic behaviour of
reservoirs
- Petrophysical characteristics (porosity, per-
meability ...);
- Nature and volume of fluid content (porosity,
saturation), a t the begining of production and in
certain periods of the life of a producing well;
- Fluid dynamics : formation pressure; mobility
- of fluid; evolution of saturation with time of
:LUID production; reservoir modelling.

*... ...
STRUCTURE
RESISTIVIV
SP
**
.
**
...
+t+

..* b Formation of rocks : Sedimentology

..
EPT (Propagation .t t

..
Time)
- Facies analysis;

... .
EPT (Attenuation) t. t t t t
- Sequential analysis;
....+
GR
***
...
- Reconstitution of the geometry of sedimen-
+.
NGS

... .
CNL .*
tary bodies : correlation of facies;

..
FDC. LDT (pb) +
- Depositional environment.
.+
LDT (Pel
TDT (1) + b t.t

BHC (At) +** + +*

.... .+. .
BHC (Attenuation: +. +* .+t

GST *.+ t. + t
. b Transformation of rocks : Lithification

..
HDT or SHDT t

CAL - Diagenetic phenomena;

HRT **. -
.t. **
- Compaction.
 15

Table 3
Relation between geometry, facies, sequences, and environment
(adapted from Krumbein & Sloss, 1963).
I I
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS RESULTING FEATURES

.
IGeometry of the environment 1 0 Size of the deposits Geometry

-
4 Energy of the4environment I 1
0 Properties of the sediments
- Composition Lithology
-Texture
- Sedimentary structures Palaeocurrents
1 Materials of the environment 1 - Colour
- Fossils Palaeontology
+
environment 0 Lateral variations in the Lateral
sedimentary properties sequences
I

II Environment

b Organization of series : Stratigraphy and also in hydrocarbon storage, in the study of

water nappes and in geothermal research.
- Study of serial succession : relative dating;
Hence, the use and interpretation of wireline
- Significance of breaks;
logs in different fields will be discussed in this
- Detection of unconformities;
volume.
- Stratigraphic correlations.

b Deformation of series: Tectonic or structural

geological
- Determination of structural dip;
- Detection and study of folds;
- Detection and study of faults;
- Detection and evaluation of fractures.
b Role and importance of wireline logs in geolo-
gical synthesis : sections, maps, block-dia-
grams
b Geophysical applications
b Application in discovery and exploitation of
geothermal resources
b Other applications : Exploration for water, ura-
nium, coal, subsurface storage of gas, or liquid
hydrocarbons, ...
Upon examination of this list one realizes that
the use of logs goes far beyond the frame of
reservoir studies. Reservoir and production engi-
neers are not the only ones to exploit the logging
data. Geologists and geophysicists do the same.
It is to be noted that if wireline logs owe their
rise to oil exploration in particular, other sectors
have also become aware of their use. Thus logs
are presently used more extensively in exploration
for coal, uranium, potassium, metallic minerals
2. CLASSIFICATION OF DRILLING
The existence of wireline logs is conditioned by
drilling. Users must also know that the number and
the type of logs or, in other words, the logging
program, will closely depend, on the one hand, on
the category of drilling and therefore on the
objectives and the informaton to be collected; and
on the other hand, on hole characteristics (vertical
or deviated, bit diameter, ...), and on drilling mud.
In oil exploration, drilling is usually classified
into four major categories, depending on the
principal drilling objectives. This type of classifica-
tion can easily be used in other fields.
2.1. Exploration or Wild-Cat Drilling
This category of drilling generally plays a double
role :
- As a test - in fact drilling most often allows
one to confirm or to reject previously formulated
hypotheses on stratigraphic series, types of facies,
tectonic aspect, the existence or non-existence of
horizons that contain mineral resources such as
hydrocarbons, potassium, uranium, fresh or hot
water.
- As a purveyor of information; it gives minera-
logical, palaeontological, sedimentological, geo-
physical, geochemical, hydrological data ..., all
16
necessary for a better knowledge of regional
geology.
- Thus, it is better not to "skimp" if the drilling
is to achieve its objectives. Therefore, exploration
geologists have not only to insure a serious
geological surveillance by a good sampling of
rocks and fluids (cutting, cores, tests), but also to
see that a complete set of wirelin elogs are
obtained to provide answers to overcome the
shortcomings of the sampling, and also to respond
to the whole series of geological and economical
questions that will be raised by drilling.
2.2. Evaluation Drilling
The essential task of evaluation drilling is to
determine the extent of a discovery. But it also
allows one to verify the accuracy of newly formu-
lated hypotheses, suggested by exploration dril-
ling. Finally, it will complete the information collec-
ted from previous drilling, thus giving a more
accurate idea of the lateral evolution of facies and
of the petrophysical properties of rocks. Thus, it is
generally subjected to the same geological and
logging surveillance as previous drilling.
2.3. Development or Extraction Drilling
The principal objective of development or ex-
traction drilling is the extraction of a previously
discovered mineral substance. But depending on
the geological complexity of the oil field, or mine,
the geological objectives assigned to this type of
drilling will remain more or less important, as will
the program of geological and logging surveil-
lance.
In the oil industry, with this type of drilling, it is
desirable to monitor hydrocarbon saturation in the
reservoir with time. This will lead to the periodic
recording of certain logs through casing (for
example TDT ').
This knowledge of changes in saturation with
time makes it possible to explor ethe field more
thoroughly and to improve hydrocarbon drainage
(additional perforation, intercalated wells, secon-
dary or tertiary recovery, ...).
2.4. Injection Drilling
This kind of well is needed to inject fluids
(water, gas, solvents, ...) into subsurface forma-
tions, either to maintain formation pressure and
improve drainage, and thereby the additional re-
cuperation of hydrocarbons, or to recycle and
reheat water in geothermic exploitation, or for
hydrocarbon storage.
Knowledge of geological models remains es-
sential, particularly to know where the injected
fluids go. This situation requires that geological
Mark of Schlurnberger.
surveillance be maintained, and consequently that
a minimum logging program be carried out in
injection wells.
3. LOGGING PROGRAM
Regardless of drilling category, before drilling is
started it is necessary that every user (geologists,
geophysicists, drillers, reservoir or production
engineers) define the information that he expects
to obtain from logs. This definition will ensure a
drilling program that takes into account the log
information needed as well as factors that affect
log quality.
The latter will depend on the objectives of each
specialist. It is advisable that the program be
established jointly by all users.
It should be noted in passing that the choice of
wireline log smust take into consideration the
following parameters and restrictions :
- nature of drilling;
- hole diameter compared to tool diameter;
- nature of drilling fluid : air, water, oil, foam;
- nature of mud : salinity, density, viscosity, free
water ...; barite, potash salt;
- anticipated temperature and pressure during
drilling;
- type of formations expected : consolidated,
unconsolidated, fractured;
- assumed salinity and fluid aggressivity pre-
sent in formations : brine, fresh or with changea-
ble salinity; gas (COz, HzO), oil rich in sulfurous
products.
It is particularly important to know that
- the tools with electrodes (normal, inverse or
lateral, laterolog, spherically focused log, micro-
log, microlaterolog, proximity log, dipmeters
(HDT + or SHDT *) cannot be used in oil-base mud;
- an acoustic tool does not give accurate
measurements in a hole with a large diameter or in
a hole filled with air or foam mud;
- the measurement of the photoelectric capture
cross section realized by the lithodensity tool
(LDT +) is greatly affected by baritic mud. This mud
will also influence the measurement of natural
gamma radiation spectrometry (NGS +);
- a mud with potash salt will influence the
natural gamma radioactivity measurement or the
proportion of potassium in rocks.
Before a logging program is established it is
important that each user be informed of the
drilling program (hole diameter, casing, type of
mud used), and that he knows the size of the
logging tools and the restriction in their use. The
tools are in fact made up of different components
(transistors, printed circuits, etc. ...) that are sensi-
tive to temperature or to the infiltration of fluids
under high pressure, and to fluid aggressivity
(HS).
The logging companies generally indicate the
restrictions (diameter, temperature, pressure, log-

ging speed, ...) for each tool. The user may refer t o
Volume 1, appendix 1, Table A1-2 and Table 2-2
from Chapter 2. There are also certain tools that
are designed for "hostile" environments (tempera-
ture, pressure, fluid, deviation, ...), and these
should be used in such situations.
Finally in preparing a logging program the
possibility of combining tools, allowing a number
of data to be recorded in only one run, also has t o
be taken into consideration. This possibility contri-
butes to a diminution of rig time and is thereby
more economical. With the new cable-communi-
cation system proposed by Schlumberger (CCS *),
all tools can be combined.
However, we have t o be aware of the fact that
we always lose information from intervals corres-
ponding to the distance between the bottom of
the hole and the recording point. It is obvious that
this lost distance is more important in combined
tools when the tool is situated higher in a combi-
nation. The loss of information in certain cases
may correspond t o as much as 30 meters. This fact
naturally represents a serious handicap for combi-
ned tools. The use of separated lo grecording is,
therefore, preferred. Separated log recording can
be made over the interval missed by the combina-
tion tool string and still save time if the interval is
large.
We must also remember that in combined tools
the logging speed of the whole system is adjusted
to the speed requested for the slowest device. This
is not necessarily a disadvantage. On the contrary,
it actual1 ysuits radioactive tools, where measure-
ments are subjected t o statistical variations.
During logging and after the logs have been
run, several stages of interpretation can be consi-
dered :
- to provide information needed t o make rapid
decisions, "Quick Look" interpretations are made
during recording or immediately after, therefore
on the well site.
- later, for more elaborate studies necessary for
pursuit of exploration;
* Mark of Schlumberger
17
- a t any time after the drilling of a well, for
synthetic studies on a field, an area, a basin.
Because of the capital importance of well site
interpretation, the first chapter will be devoted to
this subject. Regardless of the period of exploita-
tion of wireline data, the interpretation must be
done in the same way and in the same spirit as the
analysis of rock samples. The log data has t o be
considered, in fact, in the same way as geological
data, and the same principles and methods must
be applied. All log interpretation is, in itself, a
geological interpretation, whether we are aware of
it or not.
It is necessary, therefore, to observe, describe,
analyse and interpret the wireline "objects" as we
would any other geological object. In the following
pages we will try t o explain and to demonstrate
this point.
It must be noted that a clear interpretation of
wireline logs has not only to be supported by an
accurate and detailed analysis of obtained log
data, but must also be based on a solid knowledge
of tool principles and serious geological concepts.
It is important not only t o understand how the
measurements of physical parameters are obtai-
ned, but also t o know t o which geological reality
they correspond.
Log interpretation consists, thus, of a data
"translation" from lo gparameters t o geological
data. To do this we need a good "dictionary" or an
"interpreter" who knows the two "languages" well.
In fact, t o determine if wireline logs are capable
of giving information concerning mineralogical or
elementary composition, texture, sedimentary or
tectonic structures, facies, stratigraphy, ..., we
need first t o define what these geological terms
cover.
Only then we will be able t o specify how and in
what proportion these geological parameters af-
fect tool responses and, through this, by inverse
reasoning, t o deduce the geological parameters.
The purpose of the first volume was t o facilitate
the access of geologists t o log knowledge. The
review of fundamental geological notions, at the
beginning of each chapter of this volume, is
presented for non-geologist log analysts or geo-
physicists.
 Chapter 1
"QU ICK-LOO K" METH0 D S
In view of the high cost of operating drilling
equipment, in particular in the offshore environ-
ment, it is of the greatest importance to minimize
down-time by being able to make key decisions
quickly. Such decisions include whether to conti-
nue drilling or to plug and abandon, whether to do
formation tests, take further samples, run casing
etc.
Well logs provide valuable information which
will help in making such decisions by answering
the sorts of questions asked by geologists, geo-
physicists, reservoir engineers or drilling engi-
neers :
- Are there any reservoirs present ?
- What are
- their upper and lower limits
- their fluid contents ?
. type of fluid : gas, oil or water
. quantity of each fluid : porosity, satura-
tion, effective thickness, volume
. fluid mobilities
- their petrophysical characteristics ?
. lithology (mineralogy, texture)
. porosity
. permeability
- where is the oil-water contact ?
- are there any deeper horizons ?
- what is the dip of the formations ?
- how are we situated relative to the highest
point of the structure, and relative to a possible
fault or stratigraphic trap ?
- are there any open fractures ?
- is additional information required to clear
up any doubt as to the nature of the fluids in place
or the type of mineralogy ?
- what is the formation pressure ?
- are there any undercompacted zones ?
- what is the true vertical depth ?
- what is the hole trajectory, and what are
its geographical coordinates as a function of
depth ?
- how much cement is required for casing ?
- how good is the cementation ?
The log analyst must have at his disposal quick,
reliable and proven methods so that he can
answer these questions confidently and in the
shortest possible time.
Originally, these methods relied on ovedays of
logs, interpretation charts, or graphic methods
such as crossplots, the objective being to minimize
methods requiring detailed calculations.
However, with the advent of programmable
pocket calculators, and above all with the intro-
duction by service companies of trucks equipped
with digital logging systems and computers such
as the Schlumberger Cyber Service Unit (CSU *),
came programs which greatly simplify the work of
the log analyst. They allow greater speed and
flexibility of processing, provide crossplots and
overlays a t the desired scale, give better accuracy
and facilitate more elaborate and comprehensive
interpretations using programs written specially
for wellsite computers.
Regardless, however, of the method of interpre-
tation used a t the wellsite - be it manual, with the
aid of a pocket calculator, or on the wellsite
computer - it is essential to start with a set of
measurements which are of good quality.
1.1. QUALITY CONTROL OF LOGS
Clearly log data are only usable when the raw
measurements are accurate and reliable. It is
important, therefore, to ensure that all equipment
is in good working order. The service company
engineer and the supervisor are assisted in this
task by equipment such as the CSU which provi-
des means of verification. The control process
proceeds in several stages which are illustrated in
Fig. 1-1.
Mark of Schlumberger.
20

;F&,
I INITIAL LOGGING
PROGRAM 1 CALIBRATI N RECORD

CALIBRATIONS

0 MOHlTOR

PLAVBACKS. K PLOTS
>It 5UIVtV
I

RECALIBRATION

1 lv

7
w i T n PREVIOUS PROBLEM '

v
3

I..
INFO,
2

TRANSMISSION
d+k TAPE
0 FIELD
EDIT TAPE
~ COMPUTING
CENTRE ' I..
OUICK LOOK EVALUATION

Fig. 1-1. - Flowchart of the logic used in the CSU for control-
ling the quality of the measurements
(courtesy of Schlumberger).

1.1.1. Calibrations
Quality control starts with checks on the cali-
brations. These can take the form of a film which
records galvanometer readings under suitable
calibration conditions (Fig. 1-2a), or of a tabular
summary in the case of CSU.
These summaries are an integral part of modern I. YlCMANIC4L 2110

measurements. They provide, in particular, a 1. I I C O l D I D S l N S l l l V l l V ~ l l M l U Y l Y O l l Z I l It US101

control of the quality and an evaluation of the

accuracy of the measurement.
In the past, most of the steps were to record the
>. I I .b 4.* -0.1 1.4 0 .I
calibration of galvanometers and other surface 4.
5.
I
a
15.b
31.a
19.7
16.0
8.1
15.1
11.0
19.1
9.0
1r.1
apparatus for processing and recording the mea- b. 4 S7.1 61.4 51.0 31.1 65.1
PO1OSllV N O l Y 4 L l Z l O W I l M C N 1 - 4 I N P L A C I
sured signals. With the advent of CSU, this 7.
7.. IOOL IN N C 1 - 0
8. LOG P O S l l l O N W 1 1 M C N 1 . A I N P L A C I
method has become obsolete. #A. LOG ? O S I I I O N W I I M TOOL I N N C t - l

The basic measurements of the CSU are "raw" OM CM

I S IS 00 L IS L I
quantities such as millivolts, count rates etc. In
order to obtain graphic logs, these raw measure-
ments must first be converted into the desired
I8 11.1

@A110 I N O I M 4 L I Z I D l - ,Al,d',Ecl-,,
l0.l IS.) 11.1

1 4 1 1 0 ILOGI

parameters such as ohm-m, bulk density, etc., by Fig. 1-2a. - Sample calibration record for the CNL'
means of exact mathematical relationships.
The relationships used in these operations are
established by means of calibration procedures,
and then stored in the computer memory. It is
these values which determine the accuracy and
validity of the measurement, and these are the log
parameter values shown on the calibration sum-
mary attached to the CSU measurements (Fig.
1-2b). * Mark of Schlumberger.
 21

P F T E R SURVEY TOOL CHECK SUMMPRY

PERFORMED1 78/1 O / l O PLUS CAL

PROGRaM F I L E : NUC (VERSION 10.2 78/ 6/27) /3 POINT

UNCALIBRATED
CHTA TOOL CHECK RESPONSE
JIG CALIBRATED \SLOPE CHANGE
BEFORE PrTER VALUE = CALIBRATE GAIN
NRRT 2.18 2. 1 9

POROSITY CHQNGE (LIME): 0.002

B E F O R E SURVEY C P L I B R P T I O N SUNMPRY
'
CALIBRATED
PERFORPIED: 78/10/10 RESPONSE
/
/'
PROGRPM F I L E : NUC (VERSION 10.2 78/ 6/27)
~

/
CHTP DETECTOR C a L i B R a i i o r i SUNMPRY ZERO CAL POINT
TQNK JIG
CPLIBRPTED NEPSURED CQLIBRATED MEASURED VALUE
NRPT 2 . 15 2.39 2.18
OFFSET
SHOP SUMNPRY

Fig. 1-3. - Two-point calibration principle

PERFORMED: 78/09/21
PROGRM FILE: SHOP (VERSION 10.2 78/ 6/27) (courtesy of Schlumberger).

cmn DETECTOR C P L I B R P T I O N SUIIMARY

TRNK
MEPSURED CRLIBRPTED MEPSURED
NRAT 2.37 2.15 2.38
(CNC:1262 I CNB:1290
Fig. 1-2b. - Sample calibration summary for the CNL obtained
with the CSU.
Calibration theory
We will now review the calibration theory of
logging tools.
A logging tool must provide the recording
system with a signal which is related t o the
parameter t o be measured in a known way, and
the calibration is the means by which this rela-
tionship is established.
In order to illustrate, we will take a very simple
tool - the caliper. The downhole tool sends a
signal to the surface which varies linearly with the
hole diameter. A two-point calibration method
(using a large ring and a small ring) is used in
order to determine both the slope and the offset of
the relationship.
Thereafter, if the response is truly linear, and
there is no drift in the electronics, the recorded
values correspond exactly to the variations in hole
diameter.
Linearity is assured by periodic shop calibra-
tions, while possible drifts in the electronics are
checked before and after logging.
In the analog system, this two-point calibration
lumps together the various drifts and other errors
in the system and cancels them out. No distinction
is made between descent and ascent, and no
record is kept of raw measurements. Because of
the digital nature of the CSU system, there is no
possibility of drift in the surface recording system.
However, there is still a possibility of drift in
downhole tools, and therefore both the raw and
JIG
CPLIBRPTED calibrated measurements are retained, but the
2.16 presentation of these measurements on the CSU
) system does not depend on galvanometer respon-
ses.
During logging, the engineer observes the
various curves on the video monitor, and checks
that the measurements made by the tools are
consistent with each other and with those made
over similar zones in nearby wells, as well as with
known log responses such as those of casing, or
of formations such as anhydrite or salt.
He has at his disposal various aids such as
histograms, crossplots, and "quick-look" presenta-
tions of basic parameters such as
- formation water resistivity
- density of the solid fraction (log matrix
density )
- porosity
He also checks that the tool has been correctly
calibrated, and will re-calibrate if necessary. The
engineer must then verify that all the necessary
data for a complete interpretation are available.
Finally, he checks that all recorded data are well
presented and correctly labelled and scaled on
each of the presentations required.
1.1.2. Repeat sections
Each log is repeated over a certain depth inter-
val (Fig. 1-4). This is t o ensure that the recorded
parameters repeat exactly over the same forma-
tions, apart from statistical variations. If they
repeat exactly, or nearly so for nuclear logs, this
proves that there are no drifts in the measurement,
or "parasitic" effects associated with the tool, the
latter, if they exist, tending t o occur in a random
fashion.
Mark of Schlumberger.
22

I REPEAT SECTION 1-

1 -w+ I 1-7 I 1

I I

1-1 .
...
...
...
...
..

Fig. 1-4. - Example of a repeat section and calibration tail, in this case for an IL-SFL-Sonic BHC combination,

This is the means by which the correct opera- original pass t o be assured of good agreement.
tion of the tool is verified, and hence the quality of Comparing histograms run over the same interval
the measurement. It is always necessary, there- of the original log and of the repeat section is an
fore, to compare the repeat section with the excellent means of verification.
 23

1.2. CORRECTION OF R A W MEASUREMENTS . & W I I , ,

As we have seen in the study of the individual

tools (see Volume l), the formation signal is
superimposed with spurious signals from the J
K
borehole, and with effects due t o the type of w
\ 15
measurement itself. Clearly, if these "parasitic" 2
b

signals become too large, the measurement be- (3 10

a9
comes unusable. lt is not advisable, therefore, t o 08

attempt to interpret raw log measurements, but 07

rather t o start by correcting them for these parasi- I I I I 1 I J

tic effects. As we have seen, these effects are of 24 6 8 10 12 14 16

d , , Hole Size, inches

various types.

1.2.1.Borehole Effects

Borehole effects are themselves related t o

various factors which are now analysed.
K
w IS
k'
1.2.1.1.Drilling Fluid 2
w 10
a9
08
Drilling fluids can be of various types : 07
- air 06
051 1 1 1 I I 1 I
- foam 0 I2 4 6 8 10 12 14 I6
I'h
- water carrying varying amount of solids d,, H o l e S i z e , i n c h r r
(bentonites, barite, lost circulation materials LCM), "GR,.," is defined as the response of D 3 W n . tool excentered in on &in. hole with 10-lb mud.
or dissolved salts (halite, sylvite)
- oil, either as an emulsion or a continuous Fig. 1-5. - Gamma Ray corrections for hole diameter, mud
phase. density and tool position (courtesy of Schlumberger).
The composition of the drilling fluid will deter-
mine its density (and hence its power t o abso7b
gamma rays), its salinity, its resistivity (and hence
that of the invaded zone), its inherent radioactivity
(due to bentonite and potassium salts), the quan-
tity of free water and thus the invasion diameter,
and finally the thickness, composition, density and
radioactivity of the mud-cake.

1.2.1.2.The Volume of Drilling Fluid Surrounding

the Tool

This will depend on the hole diameter and

section (circular or ovalised), the smoothness or
rugosity of the borehole wall, but equally on the
tool diameter and positioning (centred or eccen-
tred) and on whether it is a pad or mandrel-type
tool.
The interpretation of certain measurements
requires as precise a knowledge as possible of the
hole geometry around the measuring device, and
certain tools are fitted within centering devices t o
maintain as simple a geometry as possible.
Influences of this type can be eliminated
manually using corrections provided for each tool
by the service companies (Fig. 1-5 and 1-6).They
can also be done automatically either a t the
wellsite by means of programs written specially
for the wellsite computer, or a t the computing
centre.
HOLE O U H E T E R IINCHESI
The hole-conductivity s i p d i s to be rubtrodad when neceiiory, from the Induction-togconductiv
ity reading before other ~~rrections are made: This ~ ~ m c t i o
applies
n to all zones (including shoulder
beds) having thc same hole size ond mud resistivity.
Rcer-4 gives Corrections for 6FF40 or ILd, ILm, end 6FF28 for various wall stand-offr. Dashed work-
ing lines illwtrdc use of the chart for the case of a 6FF40 sonde with a 1.5-inch standoff in a 14.&inch
brehole, ond R., = 0.35 O'm. The hole signal is found to be 5.5 rnSIm. If the log reads R,, = 20 R'm.
C,,(Conductivity) = 50 mS/m. The corrected CILiithcn(50 -5.5) = 44.5 mS/m. R,, = lwO/44.5 =
22.4 R'm.
* CAUTION: b m c Induction Logs, especidly in salty muds, ore adiusted so t h d the hole signal for the
nominal hole size is already subtracted out of the recorded curve. Refer to log heading.
Fig. 1-6a. - Hole size and stand-off corrections for the Induc-
tion (courtesy of Schlumberger).
24

IATEROLOG 7 BOREHOLE CORRECTION

DEEP LATEROLOG BOREHOLE CORRECTION

D L S B Tool Centered, Thick Beds
15

1.4

1.3

E 1.2
c; 1.1
ci
10

09

081 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 5000 10,000

R d R m

SHALLOW LATEROLOG BOREHOLE CORRECTION

DLS-B Tool Centered. Thick Beds
15
14

13

g 1 2

4 11
r;
10

09
08
1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 5000 10,000
Fig. 1-7. - Example of gammma ray and neutron corrected for
RLLSIR,
borehole effects at the wellsite using the CSU (courtesy of
Schlum berger) .
LATEROLOG.8 BOREHOLE CORRECTION
l'i,.in 138 mmi Standoff Thick Beds
15
14

13

$12
The effects - known as environmental effects
$11
- which can be corrected by the CSU are listed
E
10 below. Fig. 1-7 is an example of corrected neutron
09 and gamma ray logs obtained at the wellsite.
08
1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 5000 10 000

1.2.2. Effects due to the Tool

R d R m

SFL' BOREHOLE CORRECTION

15
These are also of various types.
14

13
1.2.2.1. Vertical Resolution of the Tool
E l 2

Ejll Whenever formation layers are thin compared

10
with the vertical resolution of the tool, the measu-
09
rement does not give a true representation of the
''1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 5000 10.000 layers because it is influenced by the surrounding
Rsri I R m
layers. These effects can be corrected manually
with charts provided by the service companies
Flg 1-6b - Borehole corrections for various laterologs and for (Fig. 1-8). This is not yet possible on the wellsite
the Spherically Focused Log (SFL) computer because the problem is complex and
(courtesy of Schlumberger) requires substantial computer memory and pro-
 25

2
2/

o.6 / - - = = , a 5 a
04
a3 0*3
a2
0.2
R,* I a m @ Schlumberger
"'0
4 8 12 (11) 16 20 24
b i i 3 4 m( l 5' 6 7 8 6 1 2 3 4 [m l 5 6 7 8
Bed Thickness Bed Thickness

m- 2wr

100 100
80 80
60 60
40 40
30

20 20

10 IC
6 t
6 E t
K
4
3
4
-
C
- 4
= :
i

I
O.€
a6
a5
0.4 /
013 a: 0;3

-a2 0.2

.R 4 Om @ Schlumberger @ Schlumberger
0.10- 0.I
4 8 12 (fll 16 20 24 i ) 4 8 12 (ft) 16 20 24 2
b i i 3 4rmIj 6 i i b l 2 3 4 (ml 5 6 7
Bed Thickness Bed Thickness

Fig. 1-8a. - Shoulder bed corrections for Induction (courtesy of Schlurnberger).

 DEEP LATEROLOG BED-THICKNESS CORRECTION
Squeeze: R,/R, = 30, Antisqueeze: RJR, = 30
2.4
2.2

2.0
2.0
1.8
1.8
2
.1.6
0

1.6
1.4
8
cC
1.4
9 1.2
r; 1.o
1.2
1.o
.8
.8
.6
.6
.4
.4
1

1 (m) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 20 30 .2

BED THICKNESS 1' 1.5' 2' 3' 4' 5' 6' 7'8'9'10' 15' 20' 30' 40' 50' 60'

SHALLOW: LATEROLOG BED-THICKNESS CORRECTION LL-7 SHOULDER EFFECT CORRECTION

Squeeze: RJR, = 30, Antisqueeze: RJR, = 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6
2.4
2.2

2.0 INFINITELY THICK SHOULDER

2.0
SONDE AT BED CENTER
1.8
s 1.8
$ 1.6 AND N AT INFl
a 1.6
0 1.4
u 1.4
2 1.2
J
cC 1.2
1.o
1.o
.8
.8
.6
.6
A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 (Ft) 20 30 40 50 60708090100 .4

1 (rn) 2 3 4 5 678910 20 30 .2 t

BED THICKNESS

Fig. 1-8b. - Shoulder b e d corrections for Laterologs (courtesy of Schlumberger)

 27

lo Th 1

i
0
pi w5
0
25
w4 251 WI 400

Fig. 1-9. - Geological model with pre-defined contents of Fig. 1-10, - Theoretical readings in counts per second (cps) by
thorium, uranium and potassium (courtesy of Schlumberger). window for the model in Fig. 1-9 (courtesy of Schlumberger).

cessing time. The computing centre, however,
provides correction programs, in particular for the
laterolog and induction tools of Schlumberger.
1.2.2.2. Statistical Variations
As was seen in Chapter 5 of Volume 1, the
measurement of nuclear parameters is subject to
statistical fluctuations related to the random na-
ture of the underlying phenomena. These varia-
tions can sometimes be sufficiently large to
warrant a preliminary filtering on every measure-
ment. A case in point is the Natural Gamma Ray
Spectrometry (NGS '). To illustrate the importance
of these effects, we will take a geological model in
which the levels of thorium, uranium and potas-
sium are known for each formation (Fig. 1-9). We
will create an artificial log, with theoretical window
responses (Fig. 1-10) which will be used to recalcu-
late the thorium, uranium and potassium levels
(Fig. 1-11).
Mark of Schlumberger.
28
Fig. 1-11, - Computation of contents o f thorium, uranium and
potassium from the theoretical responses and from standard
calibration blocks (courtesy of Schlumberger).
As a result of statistical variations, on the one
hand greater in the high energy windows than in
the low, and on the other appearing sometimes t o
be of opposite phase in the different windows, the
parasitic effects appear as thorium-uranium or
uranium-potassium anti-correlations, and as nega-
tive values, particularly for uranium. The effective-
ness and reliability of the filter used is demonstra-
ted by the disappearance of these effects after
filtering (Fig. 1-12).
This correction can be applied a t the wellsite on
the CSU, or at the computing centre.
Fig. 1-12. - Computation of contents of thorium, uranium and
potassium from the theoretical responses and from standard
calibration blocks, but also applying a Kalman filter (courtesy
of Schlumberger).
1.3. LOG DEPTH MATCH - COMPOSITE LOGS
This operation consists of depth-matching the
various parameters, whether they are recorded on
the same pass or not. Obviously, measurements
corresponding to the same depth, and hence to
the same level or geological layer, but recorded by
different tools, may not show the same depth for
a particular feature, even when the logs are recor-
ded by tools run in combination using a memoriza-
tion system.

Depth mismatches are due t o a combination of
factors :
- sonde and cartridge weight, which varies
from one tool t o another, and depends on tool
characteristics, e.g. whether the tool is a simple
mandrel or is pad-mounted, usage of centralizers,
etc. All these factors affect cable stretch, which
will vary from one tool t o another;
- hole conditions, e.g. whether the hole is
vertical or deviated, rugosity, caves, eroded soft
clays interspersed with uneroded hard formations,
density of the drilling mud, etc;
- offshore, the effects of tides, swell and even
the movement of a semi-submersible or drillship
with imperfect wave motion compensation.
These factors, whether they result in a "yo-yo"
effect, varying friction or even sticking or momen-
tary catching, result in increased pull on the cable,
and the resulting stretch will vary from one run t o
the next.
These phenomena do not occur at the same
depth for every tool, and because the logging
cable is elastic, a bed which is opposite the tool at
the moment of sticking will appear t o be thicker
than it really is. It is essential, therefore, t o
compensate for these variations.
It is important t o depth-match measurements
corresponding t o the same level in order t o
eliminate errors which could result from associa-
ting a measurement X at level A with a measure-
ment Y at level B.
This matching can be done manually, interacti-
vely or automatically.
Manually or interactively, the method relies
partly on the depth of the casing shoe and partly
on reliable markers which give characteristic,
unambiguous responses on each measurement.
Typical markers are anhydrite, halite, coal or even
sands or shales. Moreover, the general behaviour
of curves over successive intervals usually exhibits
a degree of correlation or anti-correlation. Within
such intervals, the depths of the points of inflec-
tion are noted on each curve and used t o deter-
mine the depth mismatch. The depths read from
each log for each marker level or correlation point
are entered manually or with the aid of an interac-
tive screen. A program is used t o squeeze or
stretch the curves so that the difference in depth
is distributed linearly between t w o successive
markers. Naturally, one log must be selected as a
reference base for depths. The gamma ray log is
widely used because it can also be run in cased
hole.
For automatic processing, various methods
have been proposed.
Recently, Kerzner (1 984) proposed a mathema-
tical optimization model based on correlation
coefficients and dynamic programming. A pair of
logs may be measuring parameters which are
correlating, anti-correlating or independent. The
method consists of choosing a correlation window
and a correlation interval along which the second
29
r n '1 PLAVBACK FILMS
DATA 14PE 2
K€VB041D/ PMINTfI
Fig. 1-13. - Diagram showing how two tapes are merged.
(courtesy of Schlumberger).
curve will be displaced relative t o the first, deter-
mining whether there is a correlation between the
t w o parameters, and finally tying-in the two logs
by adjusting the second log until it matches the
reference log.
Although these methods provide a means of
depth-correlating logs with each other, they do not
provide an absolute measurement of depth or of
bed thicknesses. The dipmeter log is the best
method of obtaining this type of information. This
tool includes a device t o measure tool velocity-
accelerometers in the case of the SHDT', an
additional electrode situated just above the mea-
sure electrode in all tools. The latter device allows
a correlation between t w o almost identical curves,
from which variations in tool speed can be dedu-
ced by comparing the displacement between the
t w o curves with the known distance between the
t w o electrodes. The dipmeter provides the dips of
the beds together with the hole deviation, and the
apparent bed thicknesses are corrected for these
t w o factors t o provide the actual thicknesses.
The introduction of accelerometers in every tool
string should allow this automatic correction for
variations of apparent bed thickness from one
curve t o another, and provide easier and more
accurate depth-matching of the different measu-
rements.
One cannot over-emphasize the importance of
this stage in the preparation of log data. The
quality and reliability of the entire interpretation,
be it qualitative, as in the case of FACIOLOG or
LITHO, or quantitative as in the case of GLOBAL *,
will depend on the precision of the log correla-
tions.
Log correlation and the generation of a compo-
site log can now be done automatically using the
CSU. Two magnetic tapes containing different
parameters can be combined t o give a single tape
containing all the parameters, depth-correlated
(Fig. 1-13).
* Mark o f Schlumberger.
30
Iff!
- 00 25
Fig. 1-14. - Example of a composite log obtained at the wellsite
using the CSU (courtesy of Schlumberger).
This tape can be replayed using a suitable
display program will give a graphic record of the
full suite of logs on a vertical scale, and with the
desired sensitivities (Fig. 1-14).
In the case of deviated wells, it is possible t o
re-display the measurements in true vertical depth
(Fig. 1-15). This is achieved by introducing hole
deviation data (angle and azimuth), either as
values entered on the keyboard or as continuous
measurements providing this information (dipme-
ters-HDT’ or SHDT, or a tool which measures
borehole geometry-BGT *).
1.4. IDENTIFICATION OF RESERVOIRS
Since it is only zones which are potential reser-
voirs which are of economic interest, these zones
must first of all be identified so that attention may
be focussed on them.
Reservoirs zones produce typical log responses
because of their petrophysical properties, most
notably because of their porosity and permeability.
These two properties are responsible for the fact
that a reservoir usually becomes invaded by mud
filtrate, accompanied by the formation of a mud-
cake, especially when the borehole pressure ex-
ceeds that of the formation. This results in an
annular region in the reservoir containing fluids
which generally differ from those of the reservoir,
and there will be several coaxial rings of varying
resistivity, fluid density, hydrogen index, capture
cross-section etc.
A reservoir zone may simultaneously exhibit
some or all of the following properties.
1.4.1. Deflection of the Spontaneous Potential
Curve
If there is sufficient contrast between the
salinities of the filtrate and the formation water,
the spontaneous potential curve (SP) will deflect
from the baseline reading in shale. The first step is
t o connect the SP readings opposite the shale
zones (Fig. 1-16). Shale zones are characterised by
higher radioactivity, large separation between
hydrogen index and density readings (when the
scales are compatible), high sonic travel time,
resistivities from the various devices tracking
closely, absence of mud-cake and often by the
presence of caves.
Every zone in which a deflection occurs is a
potential reservoir. The deflection will be positive
if Rmf < R,, negative otherwise. It must be noted,
however, that an SP deflection does not necessa-
rily mean that the reservoir is sufficiently permea-
ble. It is possible t o have a deflection opposite a
formation of low permeability due t o the develop-
ment of an electrokinetic potential which is greater
in the case of fresh muds.
It must be noted that no SP deflection does not
imply there is no reservoir. This situation occurs
when Rmf = R,.
Mark of Schlumberger.

I 1 I I
FILL
I1
7600
7700
7800
7900
8000
FILE
1.4.2. Radioactivity
Reservoirs usually exhibit very low radioactivity
(Fig. 1-17), due to traces of potassium. It must be
remembered that there are certain sands and silts
which are radioactive (Fig. 1-17) because of a high
content of potassium feldspars, mica or heavy
minerals containing thorium or uranium. Radioac-
tivity in calcites or dolomites may be due to
phosphates or glauconite, or to organic matter or
bitumen.
On the other hand, non-radioactive zones are
not necessarily porous and permeable, for exam-
ple anhydrite, gypsum or halite.
31
Oapth
If11
I I I
FILE
TVO
FILE
11
Fig. 1-15. - Example of a log made in deviated hole brought to
true vertical depth (courtesy of Schlumberger).
1.4.3. Presence of Mud-cake
A mud-cake is commonly deposited on the
borehole wall as a result of the invasion process,
and this has the effect of reducing the nominal
hole diameter (Fig. 1-18). However, if there is any
erosion of the formation, as with loose sands or
fractured carbonates, the mud-cake deposit will
not be detected because of the hole enlargement.
1.4.4. Separation on Resistivity Curves
The micronormal and microinverse curves of
the microlog normally show a positive separation
 1 1
32

I sp 150
G A M M A RAY
(API) MICROLOG
(0hrns-rn2/rn)
Microinverse 1" x 1" >
s
0
Micronormal 2"
10- - --- ..- -

MICROCALIPER
...- .-.
.....-.
Pt
16' 4
SP

Clean sand SP
base line
SP base line
of shales
Fig 1-16 - Identification of reservoir zones using SP and Fig. 1-18. - Identification of reservoir zones using SP, caliper
gamma ray and microlog.

Fig. 1-17. - Example of radioactive reservoirs (levels c) confir-

med by the SP response.
due to their differing depths of investigation (Fig.
1-18). It must be noted, however, that such a
positive separation is possible in caved zones (Fig.
1-18), and that the separation in porous zones with
mud-cake is negative, especially when R', c R.,
On macrodevices such as DLL' or DIL"-LL8,
separations are observed between the curves of
different investigation depths because of invasion,
Fig 1-19 - Example of identification of reservoir zones from
the separation of the resistivity curves Hydrocarbon-bearing
reservoirs (3760-3788 ft) are revealed by comparing the
(Rxo/R,)aL curve with the SP (after Dumanoir et a / , 1972)
a t least when the formation is permeable and
when there is sufficient contrast between the
filtrate and formation water resistivities.
Mark of Schlumberger
 33

1.4.5. (Rxo/Rt)Quick-look Method PONTANEOU

POTENTIAL INDUCTION
GAMMA MICROLATEROLOG RESISTIVITY
Similarly, one can compute the ratio ( Rxo/Rt)aL, RAY
and this will be close to unity in shaley or compact
20 mV
zones, close to Rmr/R, in water-bearing zones, and - 8 L. ---
well below Rmf/R, in hydrocarbon-bearing zones. Unit (API) MLL
7! 2 1
As was suggested by Dumanoir et a/. (1972), a
curve - Klog(Rxo/Rt)aL can be superimposed on
the SP, choosing a scale such that the curves
overlay opposite shaley and water-bearing zones
(Fig. 1-19). Hydrocarbon-bearing zones then show
up as a separation of the two curves. Shaliness
has little effect on the separation, the variations in
SP due to shale being more or less proportional to
the variations in (Rxo/Rt)aLdue to shale. Further-
more, this overlay method is not sensitive to
variations in R.,

1.4.6. Porosity Tools

Each porosity tool should give a reading in

porous zones which, when converted to porosity
as a function of lithology, will show the same
porosity in reservoirs which are free of gas and
clay effects.
It must be remembered, however, that some
rocks of low density and high hydrogen index,
such as gypsum, bischofite or epsomite may
appear to be reservoir rocks. Fig. 1-20. - Hydrocarbon detection by resistivity curve overlay.

1.5. CHARACTERISTICS
OF RESERVOIR FLUIDS

The objective here is to determine whether any

of the reservoirs contain hydrocarbon, and if so,
what types of hydrocarbon are present.

1.5.1. Search for Hydrocarbon-bearing Reser-

voirs

Several methods are available for identifying

reservoirs which contain hydrocarbons.

1.5.1 .l.Resistivity Methods

If the formation water does not change bet-
ween a hydrocarbon-bearing zone and a water-
bearing zone, that is, if its salinity and hence its
resistivity remain constant, reservoirs which
contain hydrocarbons will exhibit resistivities
which are higher than those of water-bearing
zones.
At the same time, the ratio RxO/Rtwill be lower
in water zones, because filtrate invasion alters the m 72 20

fluid and lowers the hydrocarbon saturation in the Fig. 1-21. - Evaluation of hydrocarbon-bearing zones using
invaded zone, and because of the different inves- crossplots of resistivity and porosity (pb, $N
I , At) (courtesy of
tigation depths of macro- and microresistivity Schlurnberger).
34

WPWI 4259.7 I4
CROSSPLOT
C R O S PLOT
At VB 1
RHOS -
.
I? 81 I 1 3 W 23 20 33 39 44 20 I2 I2 .I
39 118 61 IS 24 31 31 4d W 21 20 7
2.800 + ~ + + , , + + * + + + + + + * + + + + + * * * + * + * + . *
+
+ + +
+ + * + + +

.
+ +
.?.?I*)* + * * * * * * * * * + * + * + * + * + * + * * + + * + * + *
+ + + +

.,
3
+
* * * 7
17
+ 2.2 11
2 + .13 16
54 42
+ * . 45
3 ' 3 7 6 7 2 , ? < 5 4 ~ 4 1 Z ~3 46
4 1 3i
3 8 311 7 4 I 2 5 3 3 5 3 ;4 3 3 I
4 I + 61
3 3 51712 7 7 3 5 i 3 5 4 3 1 4 6 3 4 3 I -2
im

..
1 ,? :?511:313? I 1 2 1 3 3 I 3 1 2 3
+ + 31419171e 4 + 2 3 I i + ,?
a?
.? 4 + 3 I 2 I + + + I14
6328213 2 2 I .I I 1 I 3 1 1 3 ,? + '3- 1%
,? ' 1 4 1 2 'i P + 1 I 1 + I * 1 2 53 116
,157.1 + I + I ,? I ,> 25 98
1 2 1 3 1 +

* I
. + I
+ + + l + ? + + r + + , r r + l + r + + * + l + + * * +
+ 3 1 2
I I + l +

,
+
I2
1:
I +
+
3 4
1
+
, + , * I
, , + , , + + + + * + + + . + + * * + + + + + + + + + + ,?,2,33+ + + + + + * + + l + * * * * l * ~ t r i * * * + * + * + * * 2
a.203 1.923 n.'x23 0.5'4* $3.354 qo.zw 141.9 e.207 1.323 0.923 $3.548 0.314 0.254

LL3 --P.;t LLJ -CSR

Fig. 1-22. - Crossplots combining (a) At and I/dR,, (b) pb and l/l/Rt, made with the CSU as an aid to hydrocarbon identification
(courtesy of Schlumberger).

'.
devices Thus water zones yield maximum values
of this ratio, that is, the maximum spread between
the microresistivity curves (MLL, MSFL, PL) and
the macroresistivity curves (LLD, ILD) when R ~ LorL
MSFL) > R ( L L o r IL), or conversely, the minimum spread
when R(MLLor MSFL) < R(LL IL). Hydrocarbon zones
are identified by a minimum spread in the first
case, and by a maximum spread in the second.
One can equally well overlay the macro- and
microresistivity in the water zones, and in that
case the curves will be spread in the hydrocarbon
zones (Fig. 1-20).This method is known as Resisti-
vity Overlay.
These methods are not recommended when
there are frequent variation in water salinity, and
are of little use when the invasion is either very
shallow or very deep.
Finally, the ( Rxo/Rt)OLmethod already discussed
(Fig. 1-19)has the advantage of giving an indica-
tion of hydrocarbon mobility, and is little effected
by shaliness or R, variations.
1.5.1.2.Ratio Plots
This method consists of plotting p b , qh or At, on
a linear scale, as a function of l/l/Rt(Fig. 1-21).
Points corresponding to water zones usually plot in
a straight envelope of points corresponding to the
lowest values of R, for a given value of pb, qh or At.
Gamma ray or SP readings may be displayed as a
Z-axis to ensure that the points chosen are clean.
~-
'
According to the Archie equation, the
R.,/R, is given by (Rxo/Rt) = (RTdRw) . (SE/St,).
In water zones S, and S., are both unity. In hydrocarbon-
bearing zones s, is less than Sro.
Points representing hydrocarbon zone will fall
clearly below this line. The same plots can be used
to determine the saturation S, by adding lines of
equal saturation. All these lines pass through an
origin representing the matrix (pma, qh = 0, A t m a )
where R, = 00. The S, = 50 O/o and S, = 25 Oo/ lines
are constructed by joining the matrix point to a
point which, along the same vertical line corres-
ponds respectively to 4 and 16 times the value of
Rt on the water line (which corresponds to Ro).
These plots can easily be obtained using compu-
ters on board the modern wellsite truck (Fig. 1-22).
These methods give their best results in zones
of salty water, little or no shale, constant lithology,
constant water salinity and moderate invasion.
1.5.1.3.Formation Factor Method
Apparent formation factors can be computed
from density (FDC *), neutron (CNL"), micro- and
macroresistivities (MLL or MSFL, LL or IL) and
compared with each other. The various factors
are : FDN= a/@%, FR, = Rt/R, and FR.~= R x o / R m f .
The computation of these factors is done auto-
matically on the wellsite computer, and reprodu-
ced on a logarithmic scale as a function of depth
(Fig. 1-23). This method is known as the F-
Overlay method.
In clean formations, what ever the lithology, #DN
is very close to the true formation porosity. In
clean, water-bearing formations the three values
of F are more or less identical and equal to the true
ratio
formation factor, always assuming that R, and R m f
have been correctly chosen. In formations with
* Mark of Schlumberger.

Fig. 1-23. - Example of the use of the F-overlay for locating
hydrocarbon-bearing zones (courtesy of Schlumberger).
movable hydrocarbons S, < S, < 1, and there-
fore FR, > FRxo> FDN, with FDNstaying close t o the
true formation factor.
In shaley formations, this method does not give
very good results because the Archie equation
does not apply.
1.5.1.4. R, Method
,R, is the apparent resistivity of the formation
water obtained from the Archie equation, which
assumes a clean, water-bearing formation. R w a is
defined by the following relationship :
In clean, water-bearing zones ,R, is a t a
minimum, roughly corresponding t o R,, whereas in
hydrocarbon-bearing zones the value is much
higher since in reality :
S, being well below unity. If the value of R w a is
then plotted as a log versus depth, hydrocarbon
zones are characterised by high values of ,R, (Fig.
35
I
I
10850
I 10875
10900
0925
0950
I
5
Fig. 1-24. - Example of the use of the R,, log for locating
hydrocarbon-bearing zones and for computing R.,
1-24). This presentation is made a t the wellsite,
and is known as a merged quick-look. (Fig. 1-25).
This technique may be used to determine the
formation water resistivity R.,
A similar technique may be used t o calculate
Rmf : RMLL or RMSFL
Rmfa =
FDN or FS
1.5.1.5. Fresh-water Reservoirs
Where the formation water is fresh, it is difficult
t o distinguish water and hydrocarbon-bearing
zones on the basis of resistivity alone. In such
cases it is useful t o compare the porosity from the
EPT + with that from a neutron (CNL) or a density
measurement (FDC). The diagram in Fig. 1-26
explains how t o simultaneously identify hydrocar-
bon zones and identify hydrocarbon type.
1.5.2. Determining Hydrocarbon Type
Once the hydrocarbon zones have been identi-
fied, the next step is t o determine hydrocarbon
type, and several methods are available.
36

ACCORDING T O
DIAMETER OF
FRESH 1
I N V A S I0 N
NATER; 04s
AND Rml

ACCORDING TO
DIAMETER O F
FRESH 1 INVASION.
WATER; OIL RESIDUAL,
OIL S A T U R A T l O h
AND Rmf

FRESH j FRESk
NATER WATEI
~

1--
SHALES
I

HIGH
ATTENUATION
SALT SALT
FOR LOW
~

WATER ~ WATEl Rml VALUES

Fig. 1-26. - EPT Quick-look : diagram showing how the diffe-

rent types of fluid in the reservoir may be identified (courtesy
of Schlumberger).

which the porosity from the neutron (&J) is subs-

tantially lower than that from the density (&)are
gas reservoirs (Fig. 1-27).

1.5.2.2. Cross-plot Methods

When the density pb is plotted against hydrogen
index lHN, or better P, against p b or (p,), against
(ha), (Fig. 1-28), the effect of gas appears as a
displacement of points as indicated in the figure,
corresponding t o a reduction of the density and
hydrogen index, while the P, and (ha), are unaf-
fected.

Fig. 1-25. - “Merged Quick-look“ example made with the CSU

(courtesy of Schlumberger). 1.5.3. Determination of Formation Water Resis-
tivity

1.5.2.1. Comparison of Porosity Curves
In gas zones, the pososity derived from the
density measurement is noticeably higher than
that derived from the hydrogen index of the
neutron log. This is because of the low density of
gas which results in its having a much lower
concentration of hydrogen than water. When
these porosity curves are produced, based on a
correct mineralogical composition, the zones in
The resistivity, R,, of the formation water must
be determined in order to be able to compute
saturations. Several methods can be used for this,
and indeed must be to ensure a reliable result.
1.5.3.1. Computation from SP
This method proceeds as follows :
- the shale baseline of the SP is defined, if
necessary by referring to the gamma ray, neu-
 37

I
IEl
1.85 glcm'
DENSITY
2.35
RESISTIVITY
Ohrnr-m'lm
2.85
1
I
1 REs:AtlTY(
! POROSITY OVERLAY I
C
B
A

Fig. 1-27. - Examples of density-neutron and porosity overlays for detection of gas zones.

RHGI
relationship if Rmf < . 1 R a t 75 O F : (Rmf), = . 85
12 206 248 348 2 4 1 18
1 6 2 210 2 1 5 365 90 6 Rmf,
:,5*u + + * + + + + + + + + + + + * + + + + + + + * + + + + * + * +
1 1
+ I a 3
+
12
z - the ratio ( R m f ) e / ( R w ) e is determined using the
32 chart in Fig. 1-31,
:.GOl., + f + I +
f

+
1117 1 +
+ 2 621 Z
5 51510 1
I + + + f f t i 1 + + + + + + + + .
I + + +
+

+
21
31
36
- from this ratio, (Rw)e is computed,
+ 0 * 2 151410 + + 41 - the corresponding value of R, is calculated
+ 44

+ + + + +
+ 48
4,
using the chart in Fig. 1-30.
+ 68
+ 133
+ 185
+ 127 1.5.3.2.R, Method
+ + t + + 206
+ 4 6111 + 268
2 s?; 1 270
+ 233
In the case of clean water-bearing zones of
t t t ' l
+ 136
72 constant salinity, R w a is a t its minimum value,
1110542\*J,
+ 3 4 1 1 1
+ +
+
24
10 which corresponds to R,. R, can be determined
+
I +
I l +
+
+
2
2 statistically using a histogram of ,R, values (Fig.
3.<:>00 + + + + + + + + + + 1 + + + + + * + * * + * + * + * + + + 1
1-32).R w a can also be plotted on a logarithmic
+ I

1 + + I scale as a function of gamma ray or SP (Fig. 1-33).

+ I
R, generally corresponds to the zones with lowest
+ 1
3.100 + + * + + + + + + + * + * + + + + + + + + * + + + + + + + + +
4.000 8.000 8.000 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00
UMPIR radioactivity, or with maximum SP deflections.
Fig. 1-28. - Example showing the use of the vs (Uma)a
for
detection of gas zones.
1.5.3.3.Resistivity Plot Method - R~MLL
or MSFL) vs

R(ILor LL)
The ratio R M L L / R I L is a t a maximum in clean
water-bearing zones, where it is equal to R m f / R w .
tron-density and caliper to locate the shales in the Knowing Rmf and the value of this ratio, we can
section of interest deduce R,. The water line is then the locus of
- the maximum deflection of the potential points having the highest values of RMLLfor a given
(SSP) opposite "clean", thick beds is defined, value of
- the readings are corrected for thin beds The method consists o f :
( h/dh), invasion (di/dh)and for resistivity contrasts - choosing a linear grid (Fig. 1-34) if the
(RJR,, R t / R m , Rxo/R, and Rx,/Rt) using the charts extreme values of R w L L and RIL are within a ratio of
shown in Fig. 1-29, 1 :lo,otherwise choosing a log-log grid (Fig. 1 -35),
- the temperature a t the point where the SSP - drawing a line through the points of maxi-
was read is determined, mum RMLL for each value of RIL, i.e. the most
- the value of Rmf at this temperature is north-westerly points on the plot. This line should
computed, pass through the origin in the case of the linear
- Rt, is converted to ( R m f ) e by the chart in Fig. grid, or be parallel to the grid bisector for the
1-30 if Rmf < . 1 R a t 75oF, or by the following log-log grid,

4
38

No Invasion r--------- Invasion, dl /dh = 5- - - - - - - - - -,

I Rxo = 0 . 2 R , Rx, = Rt R,, = 5 R t I
10
I
10

01 01

06 06

04 04

02 OL

40 34 20 K) 7. 5 4

$R = 5 1.0 10 10 1.0

a1 0.8
aa

1
Y
06 08 06 06

04 04
4, 04 04
W

02 02 02
0.Q

40 w 20 I. 10 7. I
h / dh h/dh @ Schlumberger
1.0

0.6

0.4

02

1. Select row of charts for most appropriate value of R,,/R,.

2. Select chart for No Invasion or for Invasion of d,/d, = 5, as more appropriate.
3. Enter abscissa with value of h/dl, (ratio of bed thickness to hole diameter).
4. Go vertically up to curve for appropriate R,/R., (for no invasion) or R.,/R, (for invaded cases), inter-
polating between curves if necessary.
5. Read EsP/ERPeor in ordinate scale. Calculate E,,, = EsP/(ERP/ERPror). (ESPis SP from log.)

Fig. 1-29. - SP correction charts (courtesy of Schlumberger).

- deriving from this the value of the ratio, and 1.5.3.4. RMLJRILvs Gamma Ray or SP Plot Me-
from this the value of R, ( = R,t . RIL/RMLL). thod

This type of plot can be used t o determine the
saturation S, by drawing lines of equal saturation.
These lines are constructed by computing values
of RMLL for fixed values of S, and RIL, and by
drawing lines through these points and the origin
in the case of a linear grid, or parallel t o the grid
bisector in the case of the log-log grid.
S,, can be calculated, assumed or taken t o be
equal t o .
':S As an additional safeguard, gam-
ma ray or SP values may be plotted as a Z-axis.
Once again we recall that in clean, water-bea-
ring zones the ratio RMLL/RILtakes its maximum
value, the gamma ray generally shows its lowest
readings, and the SP its maximum deflection. We
will therefore seek the maximum value of this ratio
for the cleanest zones, where the SP deflection is
greatest. R, is then deduced from the ratio and a
knowledge of R,' (Fig. 1-36). This method is to be
avoided if there are no 100 O/O water-bearing zones,
or if the invasion is either very shallow or very
deep.
 39

HISTOGRAM R wa
2 2
s
<s 10

e05

:
iQI
c c

z02

E
a
g m
-
I
-
4 02

;01
I

1005
001 002 005 01 02 05 01 02 a5 10 2

Rmfr or R, ( a t Formation Temperature)

Fig. 1-30. - Chart for converting Rmt t o (Rmt). and (R& to R,

(courtesy of Sc hlum berg er) .

40

33

20
15

10

6 ;:, +-
t +
4
'ig. 1-32. - Histogram of R,, values obtained with the CSU.
3

:,. .....
L ! I ! ! ! ! = ! ! ! ! ! ! ! I ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! I
a,.-,
,1.(10
I>I > ,.I
..................................
111 >..I.. 11"
I
..
8, ,I

i FRECUE~Y PLOT

............
.......... ...
I.., ,I

4 ,.a .
,,.,
,.?
. ," I..,,

+60 +40 + 2 0 o -PO -40 -60

~

-80: -100 -120 -140 -160 -ieo

........
,,,.,"
STATIC SP ( rniiGolts)
._."
Fig 1-31 - Chart for obtaining (Rw)e from the SSP (courtksy of
Schlu m berger)
.........
.........
*,.I I.

...........
........
,"1.1.1

1.5.3.5.RmLJRILvs Depth Plot Method . . . . . .

-
. , ,
. . , ao, t, 110
I . .

.@.
.
.................................................
0' 200 "llj",ll

Gbh GR
This ratio is computed and displayed as a log
versus depth. The water-bearing zones show up as
the highest readings (Fig. 1-37). Fig. 1-33. - Crossplot of R
., against gamma ray for determining
This plot can be used to locate the oil-water R, (courtesy of Schlumberger).
contact, the extent of the transition zone, and the
value of the exponent in the relationship between
S, and S, (So= Szp).
Having defined the water line (S, = l ) , the
153.6. Method combining Porosity and Resisti- value of Ro for a given value of porosity-or its
vity Tools equivalent in the form of p b or At-can be deter-
mined, and from that the value of R, using the
This method, already described in section 1.5.2, Archie equation :
Ro P
consists of plotting p b , IM, or At against l/dR, (Fig. R, = -
1-21 ). a
40

I *.*:...... ................................... ...........

: \ :
\ : i FREQUENCY PLOT i
...........

...........

...........
0 1 2 3 4 5 4
R It
...........i
~&SP clean

Fig. 1-34. - Crossplot of ,R,, against R,, on a linear scale for : h 11.- brip I
-
p..'*R 1.1
determining R, and saturation.
.,*
:-nw-
."a:. ..................................
#n
-.n n .I Y
......;
Log (Rae)- a
xi
b C

01
Fig. 1-36. - Crossplots combining R M t t / R i t (or log (Rxn/Rt) with
either SP (a and b) or gamma ray (c).

0.1 1 10 loo
RIL

Fig. 1-35. - Crossplot of R M L L against R I L on a logarithmic scale

for determining R, and saturation.

- -
1.6. POROSITY AND LITHOLOGY DETERMINA- Transition?: I I I
I
TION zone c I 1

The determination of porosity can only be

attempted in parallel with the determination of v..

9 O o r n I ; 3oO0aooo
lithology, and the first step is the identification of
rock type. Crossplot techniques combining two or
4

three tools will be used, in addition to computer
programs for "QUICK-LOOK evaluation.
It must be understood that lithology determina-
tion is only possible if there are a t least two
measurements available (porosity and resistivity)
in the case of simple lithologies (single mineral), or
a t least three, two of which should be porosity
measurements, in the case of more complex
lithologies. In general, the number of measure-
ments should exceed the number of unknowns.
1.6.1. Crossplot Methods
There are many different crossplots available,
and their usefulness depends on the complexity of
the lithology.
Cs Ci
,
Z
Fig. 1-37. - Plot against depth of the ratio (RMLL/RIL) for
detecting hydrocarbon-bearing zones and for computing the
coefficient l / p relating S,, and S,.
1.6.1.1. Single-mineral Reservoirs
These correspond to a pure sand or pure
limestone. In such cases, a plot of pb or At against
l / j R t is sufficient to establish the mineralogy from
the value of pma or Atma(Fig. 1-21 and 1-38). The
result can be confirmed from other plots described
below, or from a value of P, (photoelectric index),
if the Schlumberger LDT' tool has been run.
Mark of Schlumberger.
 41

1.6.1.2. Dual-mineral Reservoirs .......................................

...............................
............ .&, ......... ...............
.
L.,I*L.

.,.,,,,
Examples of these are shaley sands, limestones 4s ..................................................
.*,."I. I , , , t Y , " , . " 1 "
I .,I.Q I. a. 11 2, $3 1.
I
0
./
Y
I
0
Y
0
"
I
I ,
Y
"
0
b
0
"
Y
"
I
d
Y
Y
I
Y
Y
"
" 0
u1.1.1.
.I

or dolomites; sands with a calcitic, dolomitic or i FREQUENCY PLO

salty cement; or dolomitic limestones or calca-
reous dolomites.
.I5 .. o..,..:.,........................... .........
2 ;
The crossplots of interest here are p b vs &, &
vs At, P b vs At, or better M vs N, the MID plot (pma)a I5 ....................................... ........
vs (At,,,a)a proposed by Clavier et a/. (1 976), and the
@N

R
ILS P U I
.I5 .............
roi .. ;I
.. .01 .............

625 * * .- -.05 ............. .........

100 I.&,..,
I40

-. .. ....................................................
...............................
LOO
............
........ /"I.'**
j.L,r..
.I. I.."

,,s ...................................................
2% -* .. :GAMMA RAY 2 'LOT
35 :.........:. ............................ .........

loo .. .. .y5:.........:....... ..................... .........

(4 - .. ...... ....... .........
1b -.
... ..
.. i
IS
- .. . x?'.i:'+T
lb
-.
...-.
e ...- I I , ,

:.........
................... 5........................... .--
1 tso

-
I lab(

10.00
.?9
A t 1 SS.W IO.#b in.#*
be##
-.o r : . . . . . . . . . :
40 60
............................. .........
) M.16.1
10
At At loo

b
Fig. 1-38. - Crossplot of At vs l/dRt for finding (At)m. and Fig. 1-40. - Crossplots of & and At with (a) frequency and (b)
thence the lithology. gamma ray as the z-axis (courtesy of Schlumberger).

...........................................
....
...............................
2.. ...
.......................................
.... ."I...
....... ....................................................
...............................
............ ..............
."..
lll,ll.
?"l.*ll

:, ::': ,*:: : .?,,: .,! .':, !, : . : . :, : . : . :, : : . :. :. :, : . :

.I. ,..I

F
.".

1.10:. .I: , '.I*'' ...................................................

Y.10

FREQUENCY PLOT !GAMMA RAY 2 PLOT

.......... Y.30 : ..
GYPSJM 0

..... .......... 1.50 : ..

... .. ....... Y.70: ..

1.90. .......... Y.90:. .

..........
........ 4,
1.10.
..05
..................................................
.os, .2J ,15 ..I".L. 45

l5 qN(limartono p.u.1
a b

Fig. 1-39. - Crossplots of pb and & with (a) frequency and (b) gamma ray as a z-axis (courtesy of Schlumberger)
42

....................................................
...............................
........................ .......
.-
1,10.................
r*1.*11 .*.
..................................
a*.#

.................... ................ *
-"CLEAN MATRIX" LINE MATRIX" ,LIH€
1.30: 1.30 :*

1.30: .................... 1.50 : . ..

Pb FREQUENCY PLOT R A Y Z PLOT
2.70: .................... 1.70 i 4 ............... ..

1.90: ......................... .................... 1.90: I ................................ ............... * .

: 0 ANHYDUITE i
3.10:.
40
.................................................
60 SO 100 llo ..L,..l
140
At
a b
Fig. 1-41. - Crossplots of pb and At with (a) frequency and (b) gammay ray as a z-axis (courtesy of Schlumberger)

.............................................
...............................
.......................... I"*... IYI.#*.
.......
.o. 6S.L

1.03 ...................................................
GAMMA R A Y Z PLOT
.PI. ..................................................

.................
SILICA i
..
.
. ,
I

.................

.................

..................10
.70 *

Fig. 1-42a. - Crossplots combining M and N with frequency and Fig. 1-42b. MID-plot example (courtesy of Schlumberger)
gamma ray as a z-axis (courtesy of Schlumberger).

Fig. 1-43. - Crossplots combining (pm& and (Urn& for determining lithology (courtesy of Schlumberger)
 HOLE
DRIFT I! DIPS CORRELATION
3
W T V N
- -- ,.
RESISTIVITY b
,-CALIPER 1
r*E CURVES
s CADS

0' 10' 0' 10' 20' 40' 10' 10' 1 2 3 4 1

0 'I*

.r

Fig. 1-44. - Interpretation of a p, vs & crossplot for a sand

containing shale laminations. B

(pma)a vs (Uma)a (Figs. 1-39 to 43). These will enable

a determination of both minerals present, espe-
cially if the techniques of plotting gamma ray,
thorium or potassium, or SP values on the Z-axis
are used.
Porosity can easily be determined for "clean"
reservoirs using the plots shown in Figs. 1-39 to 41.
In the case of detritic sediments (sands and
clays), an analysis of the crossplots can give the
distribution mode of the clays, their percentages,
the average porosity, and in the case of laminated
series, the porosity of the sandy reservoirs (Fig.
1-44).The resistivity curves of the dipmeter log can
be used to establish whether the reservoir is
laminated (Fig. 1-45).
1.6.1.3. Three-mineral Reservoirs
These are typically mixtures of quartz, feldspars
and micas, or quartz, feldspars and clays, or quartz
and clay with a carbonate cement, or even a
mixture of calcite, dolomite and clay, or calcite
dolomite and anhydrite.
In each case, the mineralogical composition can
be determined from the above plots by interpola-
ting between the lines delimiting the ternary
mixture (Fig. 1-46). Plots of thorium and potassium
levels against other log parameters such as (pma)=
or (UmJaare useful for determining the types of
minerals present (Fig. 1-47). Having determined
the type and percentage of each of the three
minerals, an apparent matrix density can be calcu-
lated. Correcting for clay content will then give the
porosity.
Fig. 1-45. - Example o f a formation of sand/shale laminations
clearly identified on a dipmeter log interpreted by the GEODIP
program.
1.6.1.4. Complex Reservoirs with More than
Three Minerals
In such cases, the plots already described are
useful for determining the types of minerals
present, especially if Z plots and colouring are
used to identify a fourth or fifth component. The
calculation of the percentages of each mineral is
for the moment, however, not possible because of
the limited capacity of the wellsite computer.
1.6.2. Quick-Look Methods
Schlumberger offers various computer pro-
grams which provide quick interpretations at the
wellsite.
The Lithology Quick-Look shown in Fig. 1-48
computes the M and N parameters, (pma)a and
(Atma)a using the density-neutron-hydrogen index-
sonic travel time combination and displays them
along with the gamma ray curve, and an idea of
the lithology can be obtained from an analysis of
these parameters.
44

2.65,

Prnaa

2.70

2.75

2.80

2.85

D
1
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 I2 13 14
Umaa

Fig. 1-46. - Example showing h o w the percentage of each mineral in a ternary mixture is determined (courtesy of Schlumberger).

K ( % ) K ( % )
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Anhydrite /Io'O\ 2o 30 40 50 6o 70
0 10 20 30 4 0 50 60 70 I
K,O percentage Halite K,O percentage K 2 0 percentage

Fig. 1-47. - Examples of crossplots of various measurements for a better determination of lithology.
 45

M N 5 Grain Density 30
5 1.1 I 0.E
JMatrix travel time 80

f
I_;
,--

Fig. 1-48. - "Lithology Quick-look" example (courtesy of

Schlumberger).

The LDQL (Fig. 1-49) uses the measurements

of P, and P b from the LDT, and IHNfrom the CNL.
It determines the percentages of each of three
pre-defined minerals from a study of the cross-
plots or from a study of the relative positions of
the curves as illustrated in Fig. 1-50. The apparent
porosity is obtained using a procedure described
in Fig. 1-51. The values of ( & ) a and ( & ) a can
equally well be calculated assuming a calcite
matrix. Fig. 1-52 is an example of LDQL and
CYBERLOOK (DWQL) compared with the results
from the GLOBAL program.
The EPT QL uses the tpl measurement and the
data from the FDC-CNL combination. This me-
thod gives the various porosities which when
compared with each other as illustrated in Fig.
1-26, provide an indication of the type of fluid Fig. 1-49. - "Litho-density Quick-look" example (courtesy of
present in the zone investigated by the EPT'. Schlumberger).
CYBERLOOK uses the measurements of the
density, neutron, gamma ray or NGS, sonic, EPT,
resistivity and SP. The program executes two
passes. In Pass 1 (Fig. 1-53) the porosity from
density, neutron, and density-neutron are compu-
' Mark of Schlumberger. ted, along with the apparent fluid resistivity and
46
0
L
D
L D O L
4u P. @. P.
h hh
c 44
0 0
L L
D D
the apparent matrix density. This first pass enables
the engineer to choose the zones and parameters
for the final interpretation. The second pass (Fig.
1-54) displays the porosity, saturation, and clay
index, along with the resistivity of the formation
hypothetically saturated with water of resistivity
Rw.
1.6.3. LITHO (or GeoColumn *) Method
This method, which will be described in more
detail in the following chapter, is based on an
analysis of the crossplots and involves the
construction of a data base of electrofacies. It
provides a description of the lithological column
immediately a t the wellsite. It gives the geologist
an exact, continuous, synthetic record (Fig. 1-55)
which he can complete using his analysis of the
drill cuttings. It provides him with the means of
selecting depths for retrieving samples of either
rock or fluid. It also provides the data necessary
for a quick quantitative interpretation a t the
wellsite-choice of model, equations and parame-
ters.
1.7. SECONDARY POROSITY EVALUATION
This is computed from a comparison of the
porosity from the neutron-density combination
with that of the sonic log (Fig. 1-56). It is given by
the following relationship :
& ! = h D - @S
-
0
PI
-5-
ON
Qb -
*
Quartz.Limertona
Limeatone-Doiomita
D O
Quartz-Limeatone
Quartz.Doiomita
P.
0 Quartz.Doiomita
Quartz-Limeatone
or Quartz-Dolomite
minimum 60 % Quartz
Fig. 1-50. - Quick composition detection for a mixture of two
minerals by combining P., pb and &
(courtesy of Schlumberger).
It is based on the fact that the sonic measures
the shortest travel time, bypassing any vugs which
would slow the sonic wave, and therefore does not
"see" the secondary porosity, a t least when it is
not too significant.
1.8. SATURATION EVALUATION
Saturation can be determined using crossplots,
which have already been described, overlay me-
thods, or quick-look methods, which are described
above.
In the case of resistivity overlays or F-overlays,
the saturation can be read directly using a special
transparent grid as indicated in Figs. 1-57 and 1-58.
1.9. HYDROCARBON MOBILITY EVALUATION
Hydrocarbon mobility is derived from a compa-
rison of S, and SxD.The greater the difference
between them, the greater the mobility. It must be
remembered that hydrocarbons can easily return
to the vicinity of the borehole wall, especially in
the case of gas, so that in spite of high mobility,
S,, can be very close to S., On the other hand, the
apparent mobility can be high, in spite of very
similar values of micro- and macroresistivities -
undoubtedly indicating no invasion - when the
computation of S,,, based on a value of R,f much
above R,, gives high values.
Mark of Schlurnberger
 47

1.8

2.0

2.2

2.4

2.6

2.8

3.0

0 10 20 30 40 50 6 5 4 3 2 1

Fig. 1-51. - (a) Chart for determining composition in the case of a binary mixture; (b) Nomogram for determining (Urn& (courtesy
of Schlumberger).

The F-MOP method uses two resistivity curves, from a porosity tool. Comparing them will give an
one deep and one shallow, along with a porosity indication of mobility, and the saturation values
curve on a logarithmic scale. This gives three S,, and S,, can be computed using an appro-
values of F, namely Fdeep( = FS$), F, ( = FS;,), and priate overlay grid (Fig. 1-59).
48
I I
w I
Fig. 1-52. - Comparison Of the results of an LDTQL with those
Of a CYBERLooK and a GLOBAL (courtesy of Schlumberger).
* Mark o f Schlumberger.
I
1200
' J :
1300
Fig. 1-53. - CYBERLOOK Pass 1 example
(courtesy of Schlumberger).
1.10. EVALUATION OF FORMATION DIP
As soon as the dipmeter log from the HDT or
SHDT is recorded, it can be interpreted immedia-
tely a t the wellsite if the logging unit is equipped
with a computer (the CSU in the case of the
Sc hlumberger unit).
The interpretation program (CYBERDIP for the
HDT tool or DIP2 for the SHDT tool from Schlum-
berger) may not have the sophistication of the
programs such as CLUSTER *, MSD, GEODIP or
DUALDIP' used in the computing centres, but it
rapidly provides a good indication of the dips of
the bedding planes (Fig. 1-60).
CYBERDIP uses the logic of MARK IV *. It uses
data which is reduced by replacing four depth
samples by their sum. The correlation interval is 4,
8 or 16 feet, and the step distance can be either
half of or equal to the correlation interval. A speed
correction is applied. The search angle is fixed a t
850, and the California optionis used, Only those
dips having good contact on all four pads, good
planarity and good closure are plotted. Arrow plots
produced a t the wellsite are distinguished by a
dark band along the left edge of the plot.
 49

I
water Pororlty
Saturation Analyris
11 Wet Resistivity 1000 jIO0 0 150
(Ohm m) i%l !%I
Apparent 0
Gar
Igcm I

I
uso LOGS I nuoa WWI DI GI Pff

t . :'.'! ! ! " ' 1 J

7200

7300

Fig. 1-54. - CYBERLOOK Pass 2 example

(courtesy of Sc hlum berger) . /. ,,
9"AL

me
.
.........,
.,., . ..,.
., ..,." :
/, ,
.,....,I..

1.1 1. FRACTURE DETECTION A N D EVALUA-

TION

> I: ::::
I.,,......,., ,*I10

The fracture detection method used at the

wellsite relies on dipmeter data, and is known as
FIL *. It consists of superimposing the resistivity
curves of adjacent pads (1 on 2, 2 on 3, 3 on 4 and
4 on l ) , and shading the separations between the Fig. 1-55. - Example of lithology determination at the wellsite
using the LITHO program on the CSU
curves (Fig. 1-61).
(courtesy of Schlumberger).
Other methods of analysing the measurements
to confirm the existence of fractures are described
in Chapter 13 of this book.

1.13. DETERMINATION OF FORMATION PRES-

1.12. BOREHOLE GEOMETRY SURE
AND TRAJECTORY
As the formations are being tested by the
A dipmeter log from the HDT or SHDT, or a BGT Repeat Formation Tester (RFT *), the measure-
log which measures hole geometry and direction ments can be interpreted using a pseudo-real time
can be used to produce projections or vertical quick look program known as RFTI. Immediately
sections of the borehole trajectory (Fig. 1-62). after the two-rate pretest (Fig. 1-64) of the forma-
tion RFTI will automatically provide a computation
of the Horner and spherical functions and extrapo-
* Mark of Schlumberger. lated formation pressure (Fig. 1-65). It will also
50

6s .2 1. 10. 100. WOO.

30

sscundsry purusify

0 10 20
30 6N-D
Fig. 1-56. - Determination of secondary porosity index.

Fig. 1-59. - Use of the F-MOP as an indicator of hydrocarbon

moveability (courtesy of Schlumberger).

Fig. 1-57. - Resistivity overlay example using the transparent

scale for determining saturation (courtesy of Schlumberger).

800 I El IIII
Fig. 1-58. - Example of the use of the F-overlay (log F - log F,) Fig. 1-60. - Example of a CYBERDIP produced at the wellsite
for computing saturation (courtesy of Schlumberger). using the CSU (courtesy of Schlumberger).
 51

-160 -120 -80 -40 0 40METERS

XAXl = EAST
X F U N = IOEN
YAXl =SOUTH
YFUN =IDEN

METERS FILE
101
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10
10

5 ENLARGED
SCALE

0
XAXl = E A S T
XFUNZ IOEN
Y A X l = SOUTH
-5 Y F U N = IOEN

-1 0

-15
FILE
101
-150 -120 -80 -40 0 40METERS

XAXl = EAST
XFUN:IDEN
YAXl =TVO
YFUN=IDEN

FILE
330
3400

3500
DEPTH
(METERS)
HLl
101

Fig. 1-61. - FIL QL example for fracture detection at the Fig. 1-62. - Example of a borehole trajectory plot made on the
wellsite (courtesy of Schlumberger). CSU (courtesy of Schlumberger).
52

10.0 SGP
(PSIG)
10000. I (SEC)
0.00 PONE -10.00
It60.00

1050.00
,..- ....... A A
-I
I
I
I

1n1 040.000
PRESSURI
(PSIG :
650.000

420.000

~-
I
8lO.000
.m-
-
.OBOO
~

00 .0600 .0100 0.0

SPHERIC~L TInc FutitTIon
FILE L - LIMITED DIM-DOUN TEST - ncPTn i.ie0.030~
XTRRPOLDTED SPHERICDL PRESSURE1 1249.78 PSlG
PncRIcnL BUILD-UP SLOPEI -395.08 P S I /SPRT(S>

Fig. 1-65. - Examples of Horner and spherical functions Dlotts

to estimate the extropolated formation pressure
(courtesy of Schlumberger).

Table 1-1
Summary of data measured by the RFT
(courtesy of Schlumberger).

NAME VALUE UNIT

FTN 1 Formation test number

Fig. 1-63. - Pressure build-up example from the RFT tool
TS I PRET Test rample indicator
(courtesy of Schlumberger).
MTD 7975. FT Measured test depth
BTFS SPHE 8uild.up time function Strain (spherical)
OGS OIL Oil-gas switch
PGS STRA Pressure gauge sensor (stain gauge)
T1 19.00 S Time of flow rate no1
TPT 27.00 S Total producing time
CFF 0.0000 3000 Compressibility of formation fluid
FFV Om 5 0 0 0 CP Formation fluid viscosity
768.000
PHI 0.2000 Porosity
PRESSURE c1v 10.00 c3 Chamber 1 volume
c2v 10.00 c3 Chamber 2 volume
PT 1 0.0 PSI Pressure for pretest 1
PTP 0.0 PSI Pressure for pretest 2
HPRE 6360. PSI Hydrostatic pressure
FBP 4568. PSI Final build.up pressure
FBS -1285. Final build-up slope
FPRE 4574. PSI Final pressure
KD1 0.3256 MD Permeability from draw down no1
KD2 0.7733 MD Permeability from draw down no2
KIB 0.09296 MD Psrmeability interpreted from b u i l d w

W Y D R O S T R T I C PRESSURES 1309.53 P S I G
LOST R E R D B U I L D - U P PRESSURE1 1848.00 PSIG
DRRU-DOUN M O B I L I T Y 8 1 . 5 6 MDCP

Fig. 1-64. - Typical two-rate RFT pretest showing the picks

made by the RFTl program and the calculated draw-down
mobility.

calculate the formation permeability from either
the drawdown or buildup. After several tests it is
possible to make playbacks of formation pressure
(from the extrapolated data or Horner or spherical
plots) against true vertical depth. Likewise similar
playbacks can be made for drawdown or buildup
permeability, and merged with other log data such
as a gamma-ray:
- a resume of the interpretation with a compu-
tation of certain parameters (Table 1-1).
1.14. DETECTION OF UN-CONSOLIDATED ZO-
NES
The Trend of normal compaction of shales can
be defined on both the travel time and density logs
displayed on compressed scales, using the gamma
ray to identify the shales. Each increase in travel
time and decrease in density will then correspond
to an entry into an un-consolidated zone (Fig.
1-66). For further details, see Chapter 8.
 53

- 1.15. SEISMIC CALIBRATION

epth 1 At 200
lftl (usift) Igm’)
After a Well Seismic Service has been run using
the W S T ’ tool or SAT’ tool, the CSU system
provides the correction of the measured transit
-
3400 time t o true vertical depth (TVD) and seismic
reference datum (SRD) depth, the time-to-depth
relationship, interval velocities between shooting
levels, and sonic drift.
The conventional borehole seismic measure-
ment (“check shot survey”) consisted of measu-
ring the time taken for a signal generated a t
surface t o reach a detector anchored in the forma-
tion (Fig. 1-67). The modern tool records the
complete seismic signal using three mutually
perpendicular geophones. The procedure is repea-
ted as many as 56 times a t each station (Fig. 1-68)
and the signals are stacked after selection (Fig.
1-69). A series of stations along the hole allows the
acoustic velocity within an interval (between two
stations) t o be established. The CSU provides a
table of values (Table 1-2) and a curve of interval
velocity as a function of true vertical depth (Fig.
1-70), as well as the cumulative travel time against
depth (Fig. 1-71). The direct wave (“one-way time”)
from each station can also be displayed either as
a function of depth (Fig. 1-72) or aligned on the
first arrivals. The latter presentation provides a
good check on the detection of the first arrival, on
8000

Fig. 1-66. - Compaction profile example made on the CSU for

detecting under-compacted zones
(courtesy of Schlumberger). Mark of Schlumberger

Fig. 1-67. - Sketchs of borehole seismic measurement (from Goetz et a/., 1979).
54

FILE
2800

I 2850

~!;~~,;$&t;r,q&fa#g'
we 8b8,

*mT ' ~&gtwln e900

2950

3000

e
we LIII

uoT ' #&&Pf?& 5!;#,3L&$;r lf*f,+~" 3OSO

a
we CbI.
3100

3150

Fig. 1-68. - Example of seismic well site recording. Two

measurements at the same station, and the signal obtained by PlRlMETERS
stacking nine shots are shown (from Schlumberger, Well NlME VPLUE UNIT NlME VPLUE UNIT
Evaluation Conference. Egypt, 1984). IS 8.00000 IN BHS OPEN
PP MORM DO 0.0 f
TPPE N O T M O D E

Fig. 1-70. - Example of seismic results obtained at the wellsite

(SOL) (courtesy of Schlumberger).

Depth <M> TVD VS Corrected ttime curve

80.0
-0 LOW

Fig. 1-69. - Example of the same stacked signal played back 864.0
with an expanded time-scale (from Schlumberger, Well
Evaluation Conference. Egypt, 1984).
1648.0

Table 1-2 2 432.0

SOL results giving a listing of the stack number,
depth and transit time
3216.0
(from Schlumberger,
- Well Evaluation Conference.
Egypt, 1984).
ThCK NBR DEPTH ( I( > 4000.0 I I I I I 1
30.0 224.0 418.0 612.0 806.0 1000.0
30 ewe. o 836.9
e9 2550.0 844.4 Ttime < MS >
ee eseo. o e51. 7
e7 e610.0 e59.6
!4 2640.0
e65e. o
e6e.6
873.6 Fig. 1-71. - Plot of cumulative travel time against depth

iezi
e670.0 eit.6
9700.0 ee3.7
893. o
e x o .o
e730.0
901.4
90 e m .o
2790.0
908.1
19 909.)
eeeo. o
3 eeso. o
eeeo. o
9ii.e
9e4.3
933.0
the identification of multiples and on the stability
e91o.o 941.1 of the source signature. Finally, the two-way travel
14 e940. o 950. e
13 2970.0 957.3 time can be displayed as shown in Fig. 1-73.
ie
&;1
3000.0 964. b
The difference between the seismic time and
11 3030.0
3060.0
the integrated sonic travel time is known as the
3 3090.0
3120.0
3145.0
3180.0
99c.e
1ooe.e
1010.3
drift. A drift value can be calculated a t each
station, and the successive values plotted against
3e10.0 ioie. 1
3e40.0 ioe6.e
3e70. o 1034.3 depth (Fig. 1-74). The difference in drift between
3300.0 i01e.9
3330 :O 1049.7 the upper and lower levels give the correction to
33b4.9 105b.3
be applied to the sonic.
 55

250 1950

Fig. 1-72. - Time display of signals : (a) aligned in terms of real time and to their respective hydrophone breaks; (b) aligned to
the first break (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference. Egypt, 1984).

Milliseconds MilIirecondr
-30-20 -10 0 10 -30-20-10 0 10

1000 2700
Fig. 1-73. - Two-way time aligned presentation (from Schlum- Fig. 1-74. - Example of drift plot.
berger. Well Evaluation Conference. Egypt, 1984).

Where a recording has been made using either
the WST or SAT tools, a Vertical Seismic Profile
(VSP) can be obtained immediatedly at the well-
site. Figs. 1-75 and 1-76 show the downgoing and
upgoing waves on a two-way time scale. Figs. 1-77
and 1-78 show the results after deconvolution.
The vertical seismic profile of a well gives the
best view and the exact depth of each reflector, its
signature, and the effect of nearby reflectors. It
allows the reflectors to be transformed into layers,
because it is an exact means of converting depths
to times and vice versa. For example, it becomes
possible to see below formations which are strong
reflectors (anhydrite, halite, dolomite or compac-
ted limestones), or strong attenuators (under-
compacted shales), or even to "see" beyond the
total depth of the well. In addition, the vertical
seismic profile helps in the interpretation of seis-
mic sections by providing a means of eliminating
multiples. The mechanical properties of rocks can
56
-500 IS00
FILE + 101
Fig. 1-75. - Example of downgoing waves aligned t o the first
break (from Schlurnberger, Well Evaluation Conference.
Egypt, 1984).
~A . - - "
I000 3000
Fig. 1-76. - Upgoing wave aligned t o t w o way time (from
Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference. Egypt, 1984).
also be analysed by studying the received seismic
signals. Finally, it allows detection of deeper
horizons which may not be clear on the seismic
section but which may be of sufficient interest to
warrant drilling deeper, or indeed detection of an
offset from the apex of the structure or trap which
would warrant deviating the well in the required
direction.
A synthetic seismogram (GEOGRAM *, Fig.
1-79) can be constructed providing that the den-
-500 IS00
Fig. 1-77. - Example of downgoing waves after waveshaping
deconvolution (from Schlumberger. Well Evaluation Confe-
rence. Egypt, 1984).
Fig. 1-78. - Example of the final product obtained at the
wellsite showing the upgoing waves after waveshaping de-
convolution (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference.
Egypt, 1984).
sity, sonic travel time, hydrogen index and resisti-
vity measurements have been recorded, and that
the sonic has be calibrated using the data recor-
ded by WST or SAT tools. The interpretation of a
surface seismic section through the well can be
achieved rapidly using these results.
Mark of Schlumberger.
 57

Azimuth 360' [ I

I400

- I500

I600
-
I700

- 1800

- 1900

- 2000

PI00

-
2200

-
2300

-
2400

-
-
250e

I I 1 Depth
(mi
Caliper I 20

2600

-
2708

tNI

t w

1
Fig. 1-79. - GEOGRAM example (courtesy of Schlumberger).

1.16. CEMENT QUANTITY CALCULATIONS

The hole geometry information provided by the

BGT or dipmeter can be used t o compute the hole
volume, and hence the volume of cement required
for a particular size of casing. Two presentations
are available (Fig. 1-80). The first is aimed a t
providing the maximum of information for an
open-hole test; the second is specifically for
cementation purposes. In both cases, the total
hole volume and the volume of cement required
are displayed on the heading.

Fig. 1-60. - Example of a borehole profile

(courtesy of Schlumberger). b
58

1.17. CEMENT AND CASING EVALUATION

Measurements from a sonic tool run in CBL

mode can be used to compute a cement bond
index in real time. This gives an indication of
cementation quality and reservoir isolation. The
bond index is computed as the ratio of the
attenuation of the sonic signal to the maximum
attenuation possible given the casing size and
weight and a cement of a certain compressive
strength. Two presentations are available, a varia-
ble density display, or a waveform display of the
trace of the received signal (Fig. 1-81).

........ L[..I..... > .........

1.000 0.0
........ITL.(V.%..).........
4DD. D 100.0
bl (G1Cl)i
0.D 100.0

....... ... .........

1.000

-1.000 1.000

Fig. 1-82. - Typical CET presentation

(courtesy of Schlumberger).

4 Fig. 1-81. - Variable Density Log and Waveform presentations

of a Cement Bond Log with the Cement Bond Index
(courtesy of Schlumberger).
 59

THICKNESS FOUR SECTIONS OF CASING

0;5 inch 0 1 inch

OUTER
WALL

OVALITY+ INNER
WALL

A
Fig. 1-83. - Typical CET presentation showing the caliper and
thickness measurements
(courtesy of Schlumberger).

The Cement Evaluation Tool, CET', uses a

pulsed acoustic signal to analyse the casing and
cement along 8 radii around the casing. As well as
being less sensitive to the effects of microannulus
the CET enables detection of channeling in the
cement sheath around the casing. An example
presentation is shown in Fig. 1-82.
The CET also measures the internal diameter
and thickness of the casing enabling monitoring of
internal and external corrosion or deformation of
the casing (Fig. 1-83). Presentations of the pipe
thickness can be made on the CSU using the PlQL
program.
When the CET and Cement Bond Tools (CBT * )
are combined the data can be merged into the
Cement-Scan Log (Fig. 1-84). The tools compli-
ment each other as they respond differently to
adverse environmental conditions that may exist in
the well. The Cement-Scan presentation gives a
visual representation of the degree of bonding
present, the distribution of cement around the
casing and casing irregularities.
Fig. 1-84. - Typical Cement-Scan presentation
4 (courtesy of Schlumberger).
60
1.18. REFERENCES
BEST, D.L., GARDNER, J.S., & DUMANOIR, J.L.
(1 980). - A Computer-Processed Wellsite Log
Computation. SPE of AIME, Rocky Mountain
Regional Meeting, Casper, Wyoming.
BURKE, J.A., CAMPBELL, R.L. Jr., & SCHMIDT,
A.W. (1969). - The Litho-Porosity Cross Plot.
SPWLA, 10th Ann. Log. Symp. Trans., paper Y.
Chambre Syndicale de la Recherche et de la
Production du Petrole et du Gaz Naturel. Comite
des Techniciens. (1 975). - Interpretation rapide
sur Chantier des Diagraphies Differees en trou
ouvert. Ed. Technip, Paris.
CLAVIER, C., & RUST, D.H. (1976). - MID-PLOT : a
new Lithology Technique. The Log Analyst, 17,
6.
CONNOLLY, E.T. (1974). - Digital Log Analysis :
Recognition and treatment of field recording
errors. SPWLA, 15th Ann. Log. Symp. Trans.,
paper S.
DELFINER, P., PEYRET, O., & SERRA, 0. (1984). -
Automatic determination of Lithology from Well
Logs. 59th Ann. Techn. Conf SPE of AIME,
Houston, Texas; paper no SPE 13290.
DESBRANDES, R. (1968). - Theorie et Interpreta-
tion des Diagraphies. Technip, Paris.
DESBRANDES, R. (1982). - Diagraphies dans les
sond a g es . Technip, Paris.
DEWAN, J.T. (1983). - Essentials of Modern
Open-Hole Log Interpretation. Penn Well Books,
Tulsa.
DUMANOIR, J.L., HALL, J.D., & JONES, J.M.
(1 972). - R,,/R, Methods for Wellsite Interpreta-
tion. SPWLA, 13th Ann. Log. Symp. Trans.
FERTL, W.H. (1981). - Openhole Crossplot
Concepts - A Powerful Technique in Well Log
Analysis. J. Petroleum Technol., March.
FROST, E. Jr., & FERTL, W.H. (1982). - Interactive
Digital Wellsite Formation Evaluation - The
Prolog System. J. Petroleum Technol,, August.
GOETZ, J.I., PRINS, W.J., & LOGAR, J.F. (1977). -
Reservoir Del ineat ion by W ire1ine Tech n i q ues.
paper presented at 6th Ann. Conv. Indonesia
Petroleum Assoc., Jakarta, May 1977.
HAMMACK, G.W., & FERTL, W.H. (1974). - Anoma-
lies observed on Well Logs. SPWLA, 15th Ann.
Log. Symp. Trans., paper V.
KERZNER, M.G. (1984). - A solution t o the problem
of automatic depth matching. SPWLA, 25th
Ann. Log. Symp. Trans., paper W.
KNOX, Ch. C. (1974). - Quality Control of Well
Logs. SPWLA, 15th Ann. Log. Symp. Trans.,
paper A.
SAVRE, W.C., & BURKE, J.A. (1963). - Determina-
tion of a more accurate porosity and mineral
composition in complex lithologies with the use
of the Sonic, Neutron and Density surveys. J.
Petrole urn Technol., Sept.
Schlumberger Ltd (1972). - Log Interpretation.
Volume I - Principles
.Schlumberger Ltd (1974). - Log Interpretation.
Volume II - Applications.
Schlumberger Ltd (1981). - The Schlumberger
Cyber Service Unit.
Schlumberger Ltd (1981). - Data Processing Servi-
ces Catalogue.
Schlumberger Middle East S.A. (1984). - Well
Evaluation Conference. Egypt.
SERRA, 0. (1984). - Fundamentals of Well-Log
Interpretation. Volume 1 : The Acquisition of
Logging Data. Developments in Petroleum
Science, 15A, 440 p., Elsevier, Amsterdam.
S.P.E. Schlumberger (1982). - Well Evaluation
Developments. Continental Europe.
 Chapter 2
INFORMATION ON ROCK COMPOSITION
(Rock description)
The nature of a rock and its composition are the
first characteristics which the geologist attempts
to determine, and a knowledge of these enables
him to name the rock. This is also his first concern
in the study of well logs.
He will therefore attempt t o reconstruct the
vertical lithological profile from an analysis of the
well logs. This reconstruction is aimed a t defining :
- the apparent thickness and the real thickness
of each electrofacies or electrosequence : ' will undoubtedly be useful to non-geologists to
- the type of rock and the mineralogical com-
position of each electrofacies or electrosequence.
In order to obtain the most reliable reconstruc-
tion possible, the interpreter, or log analyst, must
first of all procure a suite of logs which is as
complete as possible, and in addition, a good
description of cores and cuttings from the drilling
process. Secondly, he must possess the basic
concepts which are necessary for a good unders-
tanding of the problems involved in analysing the
logs, and the implications that these will have in
the choice of a quantitative interpretation model,
be,it manual or automatic.
Clearly, the interpretation of a volcanic or
granitic rock will proceed differently, and therefore
require a different model, from the interpretation
of a sedimentary rock such as an argillaceous sand
made up of a mixture of quartz, feldspar, kaolinite,
illite and montmorillonite. Moreover, taking ac-
count of the frequently limited availability of data
and recorded logs, it is not always possible to
simultaneously determine the nature of the mine-
rals present and their proportions, especially in the
case of complex composition.
' The prefix elecrro has been added t o the purely geologi-
cal nomenclatures to avoid any confusion with them, and t o
indicate that the term relates t o log measurements. There is,
however, no implication that the term applies only t o electrical
measurements.
It is often necessary, therefore, to obtain addi-
tional information from examinations of cuttings,
core analysis and local geological knowledge to
establish the mineralogy model, and thereafter to
restrict the investigation to determining the per-
centages of each of the principal minerals 'assu-
med to be present in the rock.
Before proceeding with the problem of deter-
mining rock type and composition from the logs, it
recall some basic concepts of petrography.
2.1. THE THREE MAJOR CLASSIFICATIONS
OF ROCKS
Geologists divide rocks into three main catego-
ries according to their mode of formation.
2.1.1. Igneous or Volcanic Rocks
These arise from the solidification of a molten
mass known as magma. Depending on whether
the solidification takes place a t depth or on the
surface, the rock can have a coarse texture (slow
crystallization), or a fine or even glassy texture
(rapid crystallization). The first type is known as
plutonic or intrusive igneous rock, and the second
as volcanic or extrusive igneous rock.
Plutonic rocks have the distinction of exhibiting
practically no porosity, the crystals being tightly
packed. Alteration and fracturing of plutonic bo-
dies usually favours the development of some
porosity and permeability, thereby conferring
some of the characteristics of a reservoir.
Volcanic rocks, on the other hand, can be
porous or even very porous, but the pores are not
always connected (pumice). They correspond to
bubbles separated by a thin lining of volcanic glass
which are formed by violent depressurization
when fragments of viscous magma are projected
into the atmosphere.
Plutonic rocks generally form the basement
rock of sedimentary sequences. Their upper zones
are often altered, or broken down and may consti-
tute a reservoir. Sometimes they can be found as
intrusions or sills in the sedimentary formations.
Volcanic rocks may be intercalated in the sedi-
mentary sequence, and can therefore be encoun-
tered at any level of the stratigraphic column.
Depending on their characteristics, they may
constitute a reservoir rock.
2.1.2. Sedimentary Rocks
These arise from the consolidation of sediment
formed on the surface of the Earth or on the
seabed by the deposition of various materials,
usually under the action of gravity, acting on rock
fragments or minerals of any size transported by
water, wind, or ice from their source, but also by
chemical precipitation from solution or by secre-
tion from living organisms. More often than not,
they are deposited in beds or strata. This family of
rocks is divided into several groups based on the
origin of the sediment.
2.1.2.1. Detrital or Clastic Rocks
These are formed from debris arising from the
alteration and decomposition of pre-existing rocks
and may be transported, often a considerable
distance, by wind, water or ice from the site of
erosion to the site of deposition. Sediments which
settle under the action of gravity a t a distance
from their source are termed allochthonous or
exogenous. The particles are usually bound toge-
ther by a cement of chemical or biochemical origin
formed subsequent to the deposition. It occupies
part of the pore space.
This group is divided into several subgroups :
- Terrigenous rocks are formed from accumula-
tions of rock debris from the alteration and erosion
of land-based outcrops.
- Pyroclastic rocks result from the accumula-
tion of fragments of solidified magma expelled
into the atmosphere from volcanoes, deposited
under the action of gravity, and then re-worked or
altered to varying degrees by the action of water.
- Bioclastic rocks result from the accumulation
of skeletons and other animal remains, typically
carbonate shells, and sometimes remains of vege-
tation.
2.1.2.2. Chemical and Biochemical Rocks
These are formed by the accumulation of
precipitates which fall out of solution following
changes of pressure, temperature or concentra-
tion (evaporites), or in response to chemical
changes within the water, due to the activity of
organisms such as plankton, algae or bacteria
(carbonates). Such rocks are termed autochtho-
nous or endogenous because the site of deposi-
tion is usually the same as the site of formation.
Frequently included in this group are the bio-
chemical rocks which result from the action of
organisms such as reef-building coral, or from an
accumualation of organisms having calcareous
shells, or of siliceous organisms (giving chert,
radiolarite, diatomite), or from the transformation
of vegetable debris (humic or sapropelic) under
the action of anaerobic bacteria (giving peat,
lignite, coal, hydrocarbons).
With the exception of purely chemical rocks of
the evaporite type, sedimentary rocks more often
than not exhibit connected intergranular or vuggy
porosity, which renders them potential reservoir
rocks in which fluids can accumulate (water, oil,
gas). As a result, they represent a major factor in
the search for these substances.
2.1.3. Metamorphic Rocks
These result from the chemical, mineralogical,
textural and structural transformation of rocks
under the action of high temperatures, and fre-
quently of high pressures. They are divided into
two groups depending on the type of metamor-
phism by which they are created.
- Rocks associated with a general or regional
metamorphism result from deep burial, and hence
the simultaneous action of heat and pressure on
pre-existing rocks, and facilitate the modification
of both texture and structure, and the formation of
new minerals. This type of metamorphism affects
bodies of rock over large areas and depths.
- Rocks associated with contact metamorphism
are produced by a mineralogical transformation of
formations in the vicinity of igneous intrusions,
usually under the influence of temperature alone.
The type of rock formed will depend on that of
the original rock. Metamorphic rocks seldom
present any porosity or permeability other than
that associated with the existence of fractures.
Regional metamorphic rocks sometimes form the
basement rock of sedimentary sequences.
2.2. RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF ROCKS
According to Pettijohn ( 1 949), igneous rocks
represent 9 5 % of the volume of the Earth's crust
(to a depth of 16 km), sedimentary rocks accoun-
ting for only 5 %. If, however, one only considers
the exposed surfaces, sedimentary rocks account
for 75 %, while igneous rocks account for 25 O/O (Fig.
2-1).
According to the data of Wedepohl (1969, table
2-1), the granites, granodiorites, and quartz diori-
tes represent 8 6 % of all plutonic rocks, the re-
mainder being made up of gabbros (13%).
 63

Table 2-2
Representation of the abundance of various types
100 - 100 -
of volcanic rock in terms of the area they occupy
Igneous (from Daly, 1933).
Rocks

Sedimentary
Pacific Appalachian
75 - 75 - Rocks
Cordillera, Belt, Total
iquare miles
fL square miles square miles
L
nl
z
0
2 e
m
0 ixtrusive Rocks
-z
3
n
50- 1.0 2,146.7
t 50-
w
....... 82.1
.-C
0
....... 3.0
Hornblende andesite .. .......
O
m r
L 21.6 21.6
-5
a
v) Pyroxene andesite
s 25 - 25 - (chiefly) ........................ 3,966.0 ....... 3,966.0
255.0 ....... 255.0
Basalt .............................. 3,079.0 130.0 3,209.0
6.5 ....... 6.5
4.6 ....... 4.6
0-
...................... 5.5 5.5
0- ....... 0.3
0.3
a b 0.2 ....... 0.2

Fig. 2-1. - Histograms showing the relative abundance of 1.2 ....... 1.2
igneous and sedimentary rocks : (a) as a volumetric percen- Nephelite-melelite
tage of the Earth’s crust to a depth of 16 km, and (b) as a 2.8 ....... 2.8
percentage of the surface exposure (from Pettijohn, 1949). 2.5 ....... 2.5
8.0 ....... 8.0

Table 2-1 Totals 9,584.0 131.0 9,715.0

Relative abundance o f the various types
of plutonic rock
(from Wedepohl, 1969).
Table 2-3
Computed proportions of sedimentary rocks.
Plutonic rocks Percentage

Granite and quartz monzonite .................... 44

Granodiorite ............. 34
Quartz diorite ........... a
Diorite .............................................................. 1
Gabbro ............ 13
Others .............................................................. 1 *Mead calculated the proportions of average shale, sandstone, and lime-
- stone, which combined would be as nearly like the average igneous rock
as possible. Based on chemical analyses.
100 bClarke (p. 34) assigned all free quartz of the average crystalline rock
to sandstone and one-half of the calcium to the formation of limestone.
CHolmes’s (1913, p. 811 estimates are the proportions now contributed
by the large rivers of the world.
d Wickman used the same procedure as did Mead. Percentage values
were calculated from Wickman’s data.

Daly (1933), based on a study of the Pacific

Cordillera and of the Appalachians, determined
that the andesites, followed by the basalts and 2.3. COMPOSITION OF ROCKS
finally by the rhyolites (table 2-2) are the most
abundant volcanic rocks and represent alone 90 O/O The composition of a rock can be expressed in
of the total. two different ways.
As far as the sedimentary rocks are concerned,
Garrels & MacKenzie (1971) have estimated that
the proportions of clays, sands or sandstones, and 2.3.1. Elemental and Chemical Composition
carbonates are 81 %, 11 % and 8 % respectively.
These values can be compared to those given This is provided by a chemical analysis in the
by Mead (1907), Clarke (1924), Holmes (1913), and laboratory using X-ray diffraction or neutron acti-
Wickman (1954) (cf. Table 2-3). vation, the latter being the most precise and
64

accurate. The results can be expressed either in

terms of percentages of elements present (Table ,Other el%
2-4), or in terms of oxides of these elements, -Sodium 2,lx

.
(Table 2-5), the oxygen being strongly bonded to -Potassium 2.3~
each of the abundant elements.
''Calcium

Iron
2.4 x
Magnesium 4 x
6%

Table 2-4 -Aluminum 8%

Elemental composition of the earth's crust
(igneous and sedimentary rocks) recomputed from
Clark & Washington, 1924.
~~~
-Silicon 28 x

Atomic
Weight, Atom, Volume,
% % %
Radii,
A

0 ........ 46.71 60.5 94.24 1.40

Si ........ 27.69 20.5 0.51 0.36
6.2 0.03 0.56
-Oxygen 46%
1.9 0.44 0.70
1.8 0.37 0.70
Ca ...... 1.9 0.28 0.65
Na ...... 2.5 1.04 0.99
K ........ 2.58 1.4 1.21 0.95
Ti ........ 0.62 0.3 1.88 1.33
H ........ 0.14 3.0 .... ....

Fig. 2-2. - Relative abundance of elements in the earth's crust

(from Press & Siever, 1978, fig. 1-12).
Table 2-5
Chemical composition of the earth's crust 2.3.2. Mineralogical Composition
(percentages by weight)
(from US Geol. Surv. paper 127, 1924). In spite of its usefulness - we shall see later
the application of new tools such as the Natural
Clarke and Gamma Ray Spectroscopy (NGS *), or induced
Washington spectroscopy (GST *) tools for this - the elemen-
tal composition of a rock is not the best expression
of rock composition, either from a sedimentologi-
SiOz ........ 59.07
cal or from a log analysis standpoint. In fact, a rock
A1203........ 15.22
is a mixture of minerals. These are what give it its
Fez03 ...... 3.10
FeO .......... 3.71 petrophysical characteristics, which are generally
MnO ........ 0.1 1 those measured by the logging tools- density,
MgO ........ 3.45 resistivity, sonic travel time, compressibility, etc.
CaO ........ 5.10 These properties therefore depend on :
Na20........ 3.71 - the individual characteristics of each of the
Kz0 .......... 3.1 1 constituent minerals forming the rock,
HZO .......... 1.30 - the relative percentages of each mineral,
Ti0 .......... 1.03 - their distribution and bonding.
P205 ........ 0.30 For this reason, it is preferable to express the
coz .......... 0.35 composition of a rock in mineralogical terms.
More than 2,200 minerals have been identified,
but the vast majority are rare and only found either
as trace minerals or occasionally.
The various rock types are made up of a redu-
An examination of the relative abundances of ced number of minerals, and if one considers the
the elements will reveal that only 8 of the 103 igneous rocks, not more than ten essential mine-
known elements account for 99 of the total mass rals (or major components) are required for each
(Fig. 2-2). rock (Table 2-9).
The chemical compositions of the more abun-
dant rocks making up the Earth's crust are presen-
ted in Tables 2-6 to 2-8. " Mark of Schlumberger
 65

Table 2-6
Chemical composition of the principal igneous rocks (from Daly, 1933).
I. Plutonic Rocks.
~

Plutonic
Plutonic Plutonic Plutonic Plutonic Plutonic Plutonic
Quartz
Granite jranodiorite Diorite Gabbro 4northosite Dunite
Diorite

70.18 65.01 61.59 56.77 48.24 50.40 40.49

Ti02.................................. 0.39 0.57 0.66 0.84 0.97 0.1 5 0.02
14.47 15.94 16.21 16.67 17.88 28.30 0.86
Fez03 ................................ 1.57 1.74 2.54 3.16 3.16 1.06 2.84
FeO .................................. 1.78 2.65 3.77 4.40 5.95 1.12 5.54
MnO ..... ...... 0.12 0.07 0.10 0.1 3 0.13 0.05 0.16
MgO ................................ 0.88 1.91 2.80 4.17 7.51 1.25 46.32
CaO .................................. 1.99 4.42 5.38 6.74 10.99 12.46 0.70
Na20 ................................ 3.48 3.70 3.37 3.39 2.55 3.67 0.10
K20 .................................. 4.1 1 2.75 2.10 2.12 0.89 0.74 0.04
H20 .................................. 0.84 1.04 1.22 1.36 1.45 0.75 2.88
P205 .................................. 0.1 9 0.20 0.26 0.25 0.28 0.05 0.05

L
II.Volcanic Rocks.

.............. 72.80 65.68 59.59 49.06

Ti0 ................ 0.33 0.57 0.77 1.36
.............. 13.49 16.25 17.31 15.70
.............. 1.45 2.38 3.33 5.38
FeO ................ 0.88 1.90 3.13 6.37
MnO .............. 0.08 0.06 0.18 0.31
MgO .............. 0.38 1.41 2.75 6.1 7
CaO .............. 1.20 3.46 5.80 8.95
.............. 3.38 3.97 3.58 3.1 1
K20 ................ 4.46 2.67 2.04 1.52
H20 ................ 1.47 1.50 1.26 1.62
P205................ 0.08 0.15 0.26 0.45

Table 2-10 shows the eighty five most common Table 2-7
minerals which may be principal components, Chemical composition of the principal
secondary constituents or occasional inclusions in sedimentary rocks
the composition of a rock. (from Clarke, Leith & Mead, et al.).
According to Krynine (1948), only twenty mine-
rals are needed to be able to constitute 99 O/o of all
the sedimentary rocks. These minerals are listed in Average Average Average

I
Table 2-1 1, and the mineralogical compositions of shale sandstone limestone
the principal sedimentary rocks are given in Table
2-12. Si20.................. 58.90 78.64 5.20
The important point is that sedimentary rocks A1203 ................ 15.63 4.77 0.81
are usually composed of a mixture of at most four Fe203................ 4.07
0.54
minerals or major contituents, that is, having a FeO .................. 2.48 0.30
content of more than 5 % . The concept of ”end- MgO ................ 2.47 1.17 7.92
members”, or major const it uent s, int rod uc ed by CaO .................. 3.15 5.51 42.74
Krynine (1948) and extended by Pettijohn (1949) to Na20 ................ 1.32 0.45 0.05
K20 .................. 3.28 1.32 0.33
describe the composition of a rock is based on this +
H2O .............. 3.72 1.33 0.56
observation. Ti02.................. 0.66 0.25 0.06
The extended form of the concept proposes PZOS .................. 0.17 0.08 0.04
that the composition of any sedimentary rock in c02 .................. 2.67 5.03 41.70
terms of minerals can be represented by a point Miscellaneous 1.48 0.07 0.05
within a triangle or tetrahedron whose apexes
correspond to the end-members in a pure state
(Fig. 2-3).
100.00 100.00 1 100.00
 66

Table 2-8
Chemical composition of the principal metamorphic rocks.
-

l 1 2
-_
3 4 5 1 6 7 8 9 10 11

SiOz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72.93 61.38 51.95 51 53

I 63.04 63.88 0.76 63.2940,42 92.00 42.63
A1203.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.67 15.24 12,58 10,61 16.45 17.70 1.24 1.86 4.21 1.53
FezOa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Xone 3.31 0.90 2.98 1.32 3.02 i 0.42 0.16 2.75 1.80 31.41
FeO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.08 3.43 8.77 9.93 4.89 1.80 ...... 4.68 4.27 ...... 0.30
MgO.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.62 2.61 8.90 8.74 5 04 3.72 1.01 27.1335.95 ...... Xone
C a O . ,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.91 4.79 7.00 9.97 3 17 2.72 54.67 Trace 0.66 0.04 23.37
XaZO.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.19 3.29 2.79 2.62 2.62 1.78 ...... ......
) 0.16

1'
0.16
K20... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H20+. . . . . .
HZO - . . . . . .
......
......
4.55
0.50
0.11
2.05
2.38
.....
1.38
2.67
0.14
0.91
0.67
0.08
2.14
0.66
0.03
.3.34
0 87
0.23
......
......
...... '4:40 10.51
0.21
1.16
0.96
TiOI, ...... .. 0.54 0.50 1.03 0.60 0.54 0.52 ...... ...... None 0.14 Sone

1
PZO, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.11 0.70 ..... 0.24 Trace 0.58 ...... ...... Trace 0.21 Trace
CO, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.38 0.02
0.26
1.02
0.43
0.57
0.71
............
0.48 1 0.45
43.49
......
......
......
1.44
1.24 0.43
99.80 ~ 99.96 99.56 100.16 100.38 I 100.61 100.35 100.90 99.47 100.68 99.67
Sp. gr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.665 ..... ..... 2.95( 2.7351 2.681:

1. Granite gnciss, Argentina. M. Dittrich, analyst.

2. Diorite gneiss, British Guiana. J. B. Harrison, analyst,
3. Chlorite schist, Lake Superior greenstone. S, Darling, analyst.
4. Hornblende schist, Lake Superior grecnstone, near granite. F. Grout, analyst.
5. Biotitr schist, Lake Superior, from slatc. F. Grout and S. Darling, analysts.
6. Slate, Lake Superior, Knife Lake slate. D. Manuel, analyst.
7. Marble. Georgirt. W. 11. Emerson, analyst. Other mmblcs may he dolornitic.
5. Soapstone, steatite, South Africa. Van Riescn, analyst.
9. Serpentine, Massachusetts. George Steiger, analyst.
10. Quartzite, South Mountain, Pennsylvania. F. A. Genth, analyst.
11. Garnet rock, Clifton, Arizona. George Steiger, analyst.

Table 2-9 Table 2-10

Mineralogical composition of some plutonic rocks The 85 most common minerals in rock
(from Wedepohl, 1969). composition.
I
In v o l u m e % o f
Element Sulphur
group Graphite
Av.
ranitt
ran0 luartz
ioritc ioritc
ioritt abbrc neous I I
xk'" Quartz
- - -- Goethite
Plagioclase .......... 30 46 53 63 56 41 Hematite
Quartz .................. - Limonite
31 21 22 2 11
Alumina (Bauxite)
Potassium felds-
- Magnetite
par ........................ 35 15 6 3 16 Rutile
(including mi-
I
:
croperthite)
Amphibole ..........
Biotite ..................
Orthopyroxene .. -
1
5
13

-
3
12
-
5
12
5
3
-
16
1

2
P o Calcite, Aragonite
Dolomite
Clinopyroxene .... - - - 8 16 2 Carbonate Ankerite, Magnesite
Olivine .................. - - - - 5 0.6 group Siderite
Stontianite

t-- I
Magnetite, ilme-
Trona
nite ...................... 2 2 2 3 4 2 5
Apatite ................ 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.8 0.6 0.5 1
-----
(1) From Clarke & a/., 19. Pyrite
Sulfide Marcassite
group Galene
A
Single end member (corner)

2 Components (edge)
3 Components (face)
4 Components (interior)
D

4 F i g . 2-3. - Representation of rock c o m p o s i t i o n b y means o f a

t e t r a h e d r o n ( f r o m Krumbein, 1954).
 67

Table 2-11
Gypsum The principal minerals found in sedimentary rocks
Anhydrite (from Krynine, 1948).
Sulfate
Epsomite
group
Baryte, Celestine, Kieserite,
Langbeinite, Polyhalite
DETRITAL CHERT I "IRON ORES":
I
QUARTZ MAGNETITE.
Sodic plagioclase iimenite, DFTRIWL LEUCOXEHE
(albite-oligoclase) STABLE GROUP: ZIRCON TOUR-
Chloride Halite Coarse-grained micas:
muscovite
MKINE. rutile
UNSTABLE GROUP:
group Sytvite, Bischofite, Carnallite, Tachydritc biotite
chlorite ~
APATITE, EPlOOTE
GARNET HORNBLENDE
Hematite kyanite, sillimanite. staurolitej

11
Limonite titanile, zoisite
MICAS: frequently occur as ac-8
cessories rather than as ma-
Kaolinite jor constituents
Clay Smectite (Montmorillonite) CHERT and opal ANATASE; aulhigenlc mile
group lllite DOLOMITE "SECONDARY" OUARTZ
GYPSUM andanhydrite. halite
and leucoxene
Chlorite, Glauconite Some hydromicas of the illite-
sericite.chlorite series I
Phosphates and glauconite.
Siderite and some iron ores

Potassium Feldspars : orthoclase,

microline, anorthoclase
Table 2-12
Feldspar
Mineralogical composition of the principal
group sedimentary rocks
(from Clarke, Leith & Mead, et a/.).

Shale Sandston J Carbonate

Quartz 30 70 4
Pyroxene Enstatite, hypersthene, Kaolinite ..,, ,,.,..,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,,.,.. 12 8 1
group diopside, augite Mica .................................... 18
Dolomite ............................ 3 3 36
Pyribole Calcite ................................ 5 7 56
12 8 2
Hornblende, antophyllite,
tremolite, actinolite, 8 1
glaucophane 4
Fe oxides, etc. .................. 5
Miscellaneous .................. 3
Muscovite, biotite, lepidolite, phlogo-
pite, chlorite, pyrophillite

Olivine Olivine, fayalite, forsterite,

group monticellite 2.4. CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS

Calcic garnets = grossularite, andraditc In general terms, the classification of rocks is

No Calcic = almandine, pyrope, based on the one hand on composition in terms of
spessartite essential minerals (e.g. quartz, feldspars, micas,
amphiboles, pyroxenes; calcite, dolomite; clays,
Epidote etc.), and on the other on textural properties such
Epidote, zoisite, allanite as the size of the crystals or particles and their
group
arrangement.
Figs. 2-4 to 2-6, taken from Press & Siever
Nepheline Nepheline (1978). gives a summary of the classification of
group Leucite rocks into three families. Table 2-13 provides the
composition, texture, parent rock, and type of
metamorphism associated with each of the meta-
Zeoline Mordenite, heulandite, analcime, natro morphic rocks.
group lite, laumontite
The sedimentary rocks will be studied in more
detail because of their interest in the search for oil.
~~

Zircon, thorire This method of classification is based on the

concept of end-members.
Sectioning a triangle (or tetrahedron) into lines
Phosphate of equal percentage or equal ratio will define areas
Apatite, monazite
group (or volumes) corresponding to rocks with well-
defined names (Fig. 2-7).
68

Glaucophane
Schists
Granulite
lacies
Amphibolite
Greenschist 'ac'es
facies
Pyroxene
Zeolite hornfels Sanidinite
facies
Temoetalure increase
Pwrly foliated 1 Granulite Hornfels I
Marble Amphibolite
Ouanzite

Tectonic granulation

Mylonlter
Granulated

Fig. 2-6. - Classification of metamorphic rocks. The textural

gradations (bottom of diagram) do not necessarily correlate
with the mineralogical facies controlled by temperature and
pressure (from Press & Siever, 1978, fig. 3-23).

A A

Fig. 2-4. - Classification of igneous rocks (from Press & Siever,

1978, fig. 3-21).
B

C
Arkose Graywacke
/Breccia 4 1 Shale A D A
\ Abundant
Abundant rock fragments, RATES CUT
feldspar, and clay
\ I
Ouanz arenite-mostly quartz Mudstone
r
14 ionglomerate Sandstone Siltstone A (lime1

(sand1 B D (evaporite)

c (shale)

A D A

PERCENTAGE CUT

A
5 Rock Limestone Dolomite Emation Evaporite Chert Organics Phosphate

5
sj
I
Fe-silicate NaCl
Chemical
CaCO, CWW,), -oxide SiO, Carbon Ca,(PO,),
- comw~,llon
carbonate

Hematite Opal Coal

c
- Minerals ~ ~ $ n , t e ) Dolomite
Siderlte g:E
Limonite Anhydrite Chalcedony
Sans Quartz
011
Gas
Apatite

A D A
Fig. 2-5. - Classification of sedimentary rocks (from Press &
Siever, 1978, fig. 3-22).
RATIO-PERCENTAGE CUT

Fig. 2-7. - Division of a tetrahedron (or triangles) into lines of

equal ratio, equal percentage, or a combination of both (from
In the case of detrital rocks of the sandstone Krumbein, 1954).
type, the subdivisions proposed by Pettijohn et a/.
(1972) can be adopted. These are based on the
following end-members (Fig. 2-8) : quartz and
chert, feldspars (potassium and plagioclase) and The mineralogical compositions of the various
rock debris and matrix (grain diameter less than rocks are given in Table 2-14 in terms of percenta-
30 pm, mainly quartz, clay and mica). ges of major components.
 69

Table 2-13 2) Graywackes

Relationship between texture, composition, parent
rock and type of metamorphism. A B C D E F G H I J

Q".Vtl 33 22 37 4 24 27 33 56 9 mace
Feldspar I5 5 12 10 32 19 21 37 43 30
Rock fragments 3 26 15 SO 19 30 7 7 10 13
"Uatrlx" 45 47 32 32 P' 21 33 P' 25 45
Mica and chlontc - - - - 16 - 6 - 4 -
Miscellaneous - - 3 2 8 3 - - 4 ' 1 0 '

111 Pjot reparatcly reported. 38 percent of rock IS "clay and s W . (2) No1 separately reported.
(31 Hornblende and pyraxcnc
A Fcldspathic graywacke IPrecambnanl. Ontario. Canada. average of 3 analyses iPettijohn. 1943.
p 9461
B Lithic graywuackc (Martinsburg Shale). (Ordovician1 Pennsylvania. C S A (McBnde. 1962. p 62)
C Aberyrtwyth Grit ISilurianl. Wales (Okada. 1967. Table I , Analysis 70AI
D Lithic graywsckc IDevonianI. Australia. average of 5 !Crook. 1955. p 1001
E Feldrpithic graywuacke (Dcvanian-MirsiJapplan. Tanner). Ham Mountains. Germany IHelm-
bold. 1952. p 2561
F Graywacke (Kulml, H a r r Germany (Maltiat. 1960)
G Graywackc (Lower Mesozoic!. Porirua district. New Zcaland (Webby, 1959. p 472)
H Fcldspathic graywackc (Jurassic7 Franciscan Formationl. C a l f . U S A , average of 17 analyses
(Talialcrro, 1943, p 135).
I Purin graywacke (Cretaceous), Papua. average o f 4 (Edwards. IPMb, p I641
J Tullaceous Awe grsywscke (Miosencl. Papua. average of 2 (Edwards. 1950a. p 1291

3) Lithic sandstones (subgraywackes)

and protoquartzites (sublitharenites)
A B C D E F G H

Quartz
Feldspar
5:35 1 7;} 654 {3: 718 100
M 9 272

Mica - I - - 02 tr 05 -
Rock fragments 40 35 15 106 4302 22' 3301 46'
"Clay' or matrix 10 2 4 68 69 2 55 5
Silica cement -1 - - 11 9 trace - - -
Calcite ccmcnt - mesent -- 85 130 - 192 20

111 Includes 1 5 0 percent cheri. 121 Includes 2 8 0 percent chert (3) 5-10 percent. author's
obscrvaiion. 141 Includes 5 0 percent chert. (51 Includes 3 0 percent chert. 1 2 0 percent limestone.
2 1 0 perccnl dolomite
A Orwego Sandstone (Ordovician). Pennsylvania. U S.A (Kryntnc and Tuttlc, 19411
B Bradford Sand (Devonianl. Pennsylvania. U S A (Kryntne. 1940. C-I. Table 31
C Dccse Formation (Pcnnrylvanianl. Oklahoma. U S A (Jacobxn. 1959, Table 4. Analysis D-I121
D Salt Wash Member of Morrison Formation (Jurassicl. Colorado Plateau. ti S A Mean of
25 than sections (Grifithr. 1956. p 251
E "Calcareous graywackc" lCretaccous1. Torok. Alaska Average of 3 sampler (Kryninc In Payne
and others. 1952)
F Basal Claiborne Sand (Eocene). Texas. Ci S A (Todd and Folk. 19571
G "Fno" Sandstone IOligoccnc). Secligron ficld. Jim Wells and Kleberg Counties. Texas, U S A
Rocks Fragments Average o f 2 2 samples i N a n r 1954. p I121
H Molaircrandstein (Tertiary). Germany WSM N o 186. Fuchrbauer. 1964. p 2561

Fig. 2-8. - Classification of terrigenous sandstones (from

Pettijohn ef a/.. 1972, fig. 5-3). 4) Orthoquartzite (quartz arenite)
A B C D E F G H I J

SiO, 9887 95 32 9736 9891 8379 9954 9940 97 M 93 I 3

AI,O, 041 2 85 073 062 048 035 0 20 140 3 86
Table 2-14 Fc,O,
FeO
008
0 I1
005
-
063
014 -
OW
-
0063 009
-
001
- -
OM 011
0 54
Mineralogical composition of the principal detrital
rocks
MgO
CaO
Na,O
-
OM

008
OM
trace 3
008
Oo2
001
{E 2
- -
001
<001
0 08
0 03
<005
coos -
0 25
0 19
0 10 - - -
(from Pettijohn et al., 1972). K,O 0151 019 002 trace 0 20

T10,
1: -
054
014
005
-
-
005
-
-
-
-
0 25

0 03
004
0 01
0 02
-
-

0 28
-
-
-
P>O' - 002 - - - "0°C - -
- - -
~

MnO - 001 - -
trace 0 003
1) Arkoses and subarkoses 210, - - _ - - ~
<a01 006 -

co, - - - - 693* - - - -
A B ' C D E F ' G H I J Ign loss - I44 - 027 - - 0 28 - I43
Total 9991 10000 9994 9999 IW13'1W51 IWOS' 99 57 99 51
Quartz 60 57 57 71 60 35 377 57 51 53 I
Microclinc
Plagioclaie
UlC2,S
-1
34

_ -
35> {2;}
- -
25 j3
T
59l {4::
42
2;
1
:F I
:I
69
Ill Including SO, 0 13: 121 Calculated. (31 Includes organbc matter 0006. 141 Includes Cr,O,
Oooo08. BaO and SrO none. N i 0 less than 0001. CuO less than 000027. COO less than O W 0 2
A Mcrnard Quartme IPrecambrian). Marquetic County. Michigan. L S A , R D Hall. analyst
- _ - -
~

Ch\ 5 - 120 9 1 110 (Lath and Van Hisc. 191I , p. 2561

Carbonate - P A - - - 2 - P' P' - B Lorrain Quaruile (Precambrianl. Plummcr Township. Ontario. Canada, M F Connor. analyst
Other 6' 8' 14 4 8 4' - I - 41 (Callins. 1925. p 681
C Sioux Quartme iPreeambnan1. Sioux Falls. S Dakota. U S A (Rothrock. 1944 p 1511
111 Uormative or calculated composition I?! Modal feldspar given by Mackic as 5 1 rnd 60 D Lauhavoun Sandstone iCambnan?. Tnliharju. Fmland. Penlti Ojanpera. analyst (Simoncn and
rcspectl\el! 131 Present in amounts under I pcrcenl 141 Chlorite 151 Iron oxide Ihemamel and Kuavo. 1955. p 79) Quartz 7&75. feldspar 0 1-1 4. rock fragments 0 1-5 6. sdica cement 18-20
kaolin E S l Peter Sandstone (Ordovicmn). Mcndoia. Mmnerota. U S A , A William. analyrl iThiel. 1935.
A SparaemilelPrecambrianlNorwav [Barth 1938 p 601 P 6011
B Torridoman (Precambnanl Scotland iMackic 1905 p 581 F Simpson Sand IOrdovicianl. Cool Creek. Oklahoma. L' S A (Buttram. 1913. p SO!
C Joinian IPrecambrian! Satdkunta Finland !Simonen and Kuovo 1955 Table Z \o 51 G Tuscarora Quartzite ISilunan). Hyndman. Pcnnsylvanm U S A (Fcttke. 1918. p 2631
D Subarkore Potsdam Sandstone ICambnanI New York L S A IWlcsnei 1961 p 91 A rubarkorc H Onskany Sandstone (Devonian1 Berkeley Springs quarry. Berkeley Springs. West Vlrgma.
E Subarkore Lamotte Sandstonc ICambnanI Mirroun U S A IOpkangar 1963 p 8631 U S A , Pennsylvania Glass Sand Corp, Sharp-Schuru C o . analysts Analysis supplied
A subarkore courtesy or Pennsylvania ~ l a r Sand
s corp
F Lo\rer Old Red i D e i o n m i Scotland ih4ackic I905 p 581 I Mansfield Formation (basal Pennsylvanianl. Crawford County. Indiana. U S A . M E Collci.
0 ArkoielPermiani Autergne France IHuckrnhalti 1961 p 9171 R K Lennger. R F Blakely. analysts Computed mmeral compasmon Quartz 95 3. orthoclaw
H PalearkorelTriarsiciConneclicvt L S A 1 K r v n m e 1950 p 851 I 2. kaolin 3 0. ilmcnite 0 3 (Murray and Patton. 1953. p 281
I Red arkoiclTriarsiLiConneciicut L S A IKrvnine 1950 p 851 J Bcrea Sandstone IM~rnrripp~an). Berea. Ohio. U S A . N W Lord. analyst A pratoquarizlte
J Arhore IOligacenei Auvcrgne Fiance IHuiienholu 1963 p 9171 (Curhmg. Lcverett. and Van Horn. 1931. p I101
70

For carbonates, the following end-members are

5) Shales
used : calcite, dolomite, chert (Fig. 2-9), or carbo-

I I
nate (calcareous and dolomitic), quartz, chert and
Average Shale Washed Clay,
(Leith and Mead) Reykir, Iceland
clay (Fig. 2-10), or again, in terms of the compo-
nents (Fig. 2-11).
Quartz.............................................. 32 20
Opal ................................................ .. ..
Feldspar ..... ia ..
Sericite............................................ ia .. INTRACLMTS
Kaolinite, etc. ................................ 10 50
Calcite, dolomite ............... a ..
Chlorite ............................... 6 ..
Limonite, pyrite, hematite .......... 5 30
Titanite, etc ............ 1 ..
1 Organic .......................................... 1 ..

CALCITE
A
LIMESTONE
PELLETS

Fig. 2-11. - Classification of carbonates using Folk's end

members (from Krumbein & Sloss, 1963).

Other methods of classification, relying more on

Pwerllonite texture than on composition, have been proposed
for both detrital and carbonates sequences. These
ilieeous will be studied later.
SILICA

Fig. 2-10. - Classification of carbonates using the carbonate

Fig. 2-9. - Classification of carbonates (from Pettijohn, 1944). v -chert - quartz - clay tetrahedron.

CMON*Tf CMOWATL
A
UM~S~ONE

/ \
Cokorous

\
mIUllonlt*
sadstw

/
SANDSTONE CHERT

/
 71

2.5. ROCK COMPOSITION FROM

WELL LOGS
SGR (GlPI)
0 150.00

There are many different log measurements

which respond to the rock composition. As a
result, an adequate logging suite will make the
determination of rock composition much easier.
Two approaches are possible in using well logs
to determine composition.

2.5.1. Determination of elemental composition

The recently introduced gamma ray spectrome-

try tools (natural and induced gamma ray) allow
the detection and, in favorable cases, measure-
ment of the proportions of the following ele-
ments :
- potassium (K), thorium (Th), and uranium (U)
in the case of natural gamma ray spectrometry,
using the NGS tool (Fig. 2-12a);
+

- carbon (C), oxygen (0),silicon (Si), iron (Fe),

calcium (Ca), sulphur ( S ) , chlorine (CI), hydrogen
(H), and aluminium (Al), in the case of induced
gamma ray spectrometry, either by inelastic neu-
tron-nucleus interaction or by thermal neutron
absorption using the GST tool, or by activation
with the new Aluminium Clay Tool (ACT +) '.
Examination of the above list will reveal that,
with only two exceptions (Mg and Na), these tools
enable the percentages of the most common
elements to be determined. Hence their interest 2900
for the direct determination of the content of
certain elements, and above all for a better analy-
sis of composition in conjunction with the other
tools, in particular hydrogen index and photoelec-
tric cross-section. Neutron-based tools provide a
breakdown either in terms of light elements (H,C,
0 and Si) which have a slowing effect (seen by the
epithermal SNP' tool), or in terms of thermal
neutron absorbers (Gd, B, Li, CI, Fe) seen by the
thermal CNL tool. The litho-density tool (LDT +)
provides a measure of the mean atomic number of
the rock components.

* Mark of Schlumberger.
' Schlumberger's new ACT is a nuclear tool, which enables
determination of the aluminiuz,:: content of the formation. The
formation is irradiated by a Californium (Cf) source which
emits 10' neutrons per second with an average energy of 2.3
MeV. This source is prefered t o an Am-Be (4.5 MeV) source
because the number of interactions between fast neutrons
and silicon is reduced. The aluminium activation is the result
of neutron capture by "AI (natural abundance 100 %), resulting
in "A1 which decays by 3 ! emission w i t h a half life of 2.27
minutes. The decay product is "Si which emits a 1.779 MeV
gamma ray. The induced gamma rays are recorded with the
help of a Nal detector (similar t o the one used in the NGS
tool). The recording speed is 600 ft/h. The tool has t w o Fig. 2-12a. - NGS (Natural Gamma ray Spectroscopy) log
detectors. One above the source records the natural gamma example (in Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference, India,
ray, while one below the source records both natural and 1983).
induced gamma ray. The difference between the t w o (before
and after irradiation) gives the gamma ray yield related t o the
aluminium activation. It is proportional t o the aluminium service, and with the silicon and iron contents determined by
content of the formation. This measurement, combined with the GST tool, enables determination of the clay types and
the thorium and potassium content measured by the NGS content as shown by the theoretical crossplots of figure 2-12b.
72

SiO, Muscovite
(9,)
x Chlorite
60 A Illite
0
o Smectite
A Kaolinite

O O O A
so 0
A m

*. 000
d OYIH
.
U
Muscovite
** 0 .
40 10.

30 X
A

X
X X
x Chlorite
X
X
X 0
20 I I I )
10 20 30 Al,O, 40 (%) 10 20

X FeO
+
FeO t Fe7 0,
X
Fe, 0 X Mwcowite I 45.87 38.69 10.08 -
40 2 45.24 3 6 . 85 10.08 0.11
(O4 3 46.01 35.64 8 . 19 0.13
4 46.77 34.75 10.61 1.58
5 41.37 32.64 6.33 -
X 5 44.4 31.7 10.7 2.3
7 45.97 31.67 9.07 3.09
8 46.30 33.08 10.09 1.20

1
X X
9 49.16 30.81 10.90 1.43
30 -
Cheahite I 27.56 24.47 14. 36
2 25.35 22.06 - 27.33
X
3 25.09 I 8. 94 0 . 08 35.26
20.04 0.02 42.58
17.64 - 46.66
18. 2 3 0 . 17 31.57
16.14 - 41.12
20 13.77 0.17 31.42
24.42 - 16.88
X 18.50 5.10 5.25
25.91 6.09 6.29
X 28.97 7.47 2.84
Smec.t.de I 53.98 15.97 0.12 1.14
21 51.14 19.76 0.04 0.83
10 17.15 0.85 5.97
20.23 0.06 I .44
A
5 I 51.90 18.61 1.59 3 . 76
0 6 59.75 24.41 1.44 3.73
A
0 0 KaoLnLte 1 45.10 39.55 0.03 0.75
A ** 2 46. O f 38.07 0.43 0.33
.* 3 45.72 39.82 0 . 36 0.10
0 4 45.48 38.84 0.42 0 . 19
5 4 6 . 14 39.61 - -
10 20 30 Al,O, 40 (Oh)

Fig. 2-12b. - Crossplots of A1203vs SO,,vs K 2 0 . vs Fe203,explaining how the clay types can be determined (from data from Dear
et a/., 1962; Caillere & Henin, 1963; and Grim, 1968).

2.5.2. Determination of Mineralogical
Composition
As we have seen, rocks are made up of a
mixture of minerals. Consequently, it is the physi-
cal properties of these minerals, and ultimately the
atomic properties of their constituent elements
which influence the log responses.
In fact, the responses are a function of the
characteristics of each mineral present in the rock
and of their relative percentages in the zone of
investigation on the one hand, and on the nature
and percentages of the fluids occupying the pore
spaces on the other.
Table 2-15 presents the log responses of the
principal rock-forming minerals. They have been
determined either experimentally, or in certain
cases, theoretically.
If we accept the fact that rocks rarely contain
more than four different major minerals, it is only
necessary to have a preliminary knowledge of their
types and their characteristic log parameters
(density, neutron hydrogen index, photoelectric
cross-section, and natural gamma activity or
potassium content, for example) to be in a position
to compute their relative percentages from a
combination of LDT, CNL, and GR (or NGS) tools.
Naturally, the rock composition can be more
complex, in which case further independent log
measurements are required, along with a good
knowledge of the types of minerals present. In the
case of porous rocks, it is also necessary to know
the nature of the fluids present in the pores, and
to determine their percentages in the rock (i.e.
porosity) and in the pores (i.e. saturation) to
decide which components of the response are
attributable to each.
The correct determination of the mineralogical
composition of a rock will ensure on the one hand
the correct choice of mineralogical model and log
response parameters, and on the other hand will
provide a solution to a system of equations,
usually linear, which relate the response of each
tool to the parameters and volumetric percentages
of each constituent (mineral or fluid).
The choice of mineralogy model is made partly
by analysis of the logs themselves (using cross-
plots of two, three (2-plots) or even four dimen-
sions using colour; dipmeter analysis; use of
electrofacies, etc.), and partly from auxiliary in-
formation, such as examination of cuttings, core
analysis, and previous knowledge of regional
geology or formations. The latter speeds the
choice of model adapted to each formation. But in
the absence of such data, or alternatively, as a
means of cross-checking, it is possible to quickly
determine the rock type from log data alone, and
hence to arrive a t a choice of the mineralogical
model itself. This is what we shall now attempt to
demonstrate. However, before proceeding with
the problem of recognising rock type and minera-
73
logical composition, it may be appropriate to
review the various stages in the preparation of log
data prior to the interpretation proper.
2.6. PREPARATION OF WELL LOG DATA
As previously discussed, it is necessary to verify
the quality and validity of the log data before
proceeding with an interpretation. The logs may
require re-calibration, corrections for environmen-
tal effects, filtering to remove statistical variations,
and finally depth-matching and creation of a com-
posite log.
2.6.1. Quality and Calibration Control
The various controls of log quality must be
performed a t the wellsite as soon as the logs are
recorded. Only then can appropriate action be
taken in the event of a tool malfunction, either by
repairing the tool itself, or by re-running the log
with another tool of the same type or by running
one which provides comparable information. This
is why the various quality control and calibration
control procedures were reviewed in detail in the
first chapter of this volume and it may be useful a t
this stage to refer back to that section.
2.6.2. Environmental Corrections and Filtering
The corrections implemented by the CSU a t
the wellsite are somewhat simplified and incom-
plete, and it is necessary to redo them a t the
computing centre. This can be achieved either
with correction charts supplied by the service
companies for each logging tool, or by automatic
programs which implement these charts in the
form of algorithms.
There are also procedures for filtering nuclear
measurements, in particular that of the Natural
Gamma Ray Spectroscopy. The filtering provided
a t the computing centre is more effective than that
provided a t the wellsite.
2.6.3. Depth Matching and Composite Log
This stage in the preparation of the data was
discussed previously, and may be reviewed if
necessary.
2.6.4. Definition of Electrofacies
and Electrosequences
This stage in the processing is not essential.
Since the introduction of galvanometers for recor-
ding log data, the recorded curves have come to
Mark of Schlurnberger.
 Table 2-15
Log characteristics of the principal minerals found in sedimentary rocks (Courtesy of Schlumberger).

14
r --ti

B
 1 - 1 I or0 W O
t I ..Ol-91 I I I I ICECZ
, CZO
__
990
__
Ztl
__
I
ec CI
0 zz
I 1 I 1 - 1 1 1
I zt 1
~
so z i
.I OZZ - zt 8
~
c5 cQs< El-21 91-81 ozz CBSI
ATL MAAKETINC3 November I982
76
be regarded as continuous, even though this may
not correctly represent the geological reality. With
the introduction of digital recording, the conti-
nuous appearance of the curves is simulated
rather than real. In effect, the sampling interval is
6”, or a t best 1.2” for tools other than the dipme-
ters tools, HDT *, SHDT and FMS *, which have a
sampling interval of 0.2” and 0.1” respectively. This
processing can be recommended in all cases to
give the most information about the geological
series, which consist of successions of facies and
sequences of varying thicknesses. It becomes
essential if one wishes to correct for tool effects
Mark of Schlurnberger
DENSITY
GAMMA RAY
NEUTRON
Fig. 2-13. - Section of an automatically-zoned composite log.
and lack of vertical resolution (artificial ramps) or
to correct for shoulder bed effects for thin beds.
An electrofacies may be defined as a depth
interval exhibiting more or less constant log res-
ponses, while an electrosequence may be defined
as a depth interval within which one or more
characteristics vary in a continuous fashion -
known as a ramp. Such an interval must have a
thickness which is greater than the vertical resolu-
tion of the devices which respond to this characte-
ristic.
The breakup into electrofacies can be done
visually, either manually or using an interactive
terminal, or automatically using an appropriate
computer program. Figure 2-13 shows an example
of breakup which has been done automatically.
SONIC
DEEP LATEROLOG
m.m)
2 zp 2pom
p

2.7. WELL LOG CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS
Rock types can be divided into two main
classifications for the purposes of log analysis,
which in turn, is concerned with economic poten-
tial :
- rocks without interconnected porosity, and
therefore incapable of constituting a reservoir.
These always exhibit high resistivity;
- rocks with interconnected porosity which
constitute potential reservoirs. They can exhibit
high resistivity due either to low porosity, or to a
high content of non-conducting fluids (hydrocar-
bons, bitumen or fresh water), or they can exhibit
variable conductivity because a proportion of the
pore space is occupied by a conductive fluid
(water with variable concentrations of salts).
In the first case, the unknowns are the type and
volumetric proportions of each mineral component
of the rock, and possibly the pore volume. There is
no saturation to be determined, however, and the
only purpose of the resistivity measurement in this
case is to recognise this type of rock.
In the second case, the type and percentage
(saturation) of each pore fluid must be added to
the list of unknowns. This complicates the inter-
pretation by making the analysis of mineralogical
composition inseparable from the analysis of the
porosity and the type of fluid in the zone of
investigation of the measurements. But the last
two parameters depend on the invasion, and vary
according to the depth of investigation of each
measuring device.
It is useful, therefore, to introduce the response
equations of the resistivity measurements, and to
take account of the texture and sedimentary
structure of the rocks, for example whether the
clays are laminated, dispersed or structural, or
whether there are conductive minerals present.
In view of the problems raised, the precise
determination of the mineralogical composition of
reservoir rocks, whatever their type, will not be
undertaken until the study of reservoir rocks in
Chapter 9.
The preceding remarks suggest the use of well
logs to initiate the analysis of mineralogical com-
position on the basis of a preliminary breakup of
the formations according to resistivity.
2.7.1. Formations of Low
to Medium Resistivity
These must contain conductive rocks, either
because they are porous, and the pores contain
conductive fluids, or because they possess surface
conductivity due to clays with bound water, or,
more rarely, because they contain conductive
minerals (sulfides). For this reason, they are stu-
died in Chapter 9.
77
2.7.2. Formations of High Resistivity
( 2 100n-m)
These can correspond to one of the following
rock types :
- igneous rocks, either plutonic or volcanic,
which have not beeen altered or fractured;
- metamorphic rocks which have not been
fractured or altered;
- sedimentary rock of zero porosity (chemical
rocks of the evaporite class-gypsum, anhydrite,
halite, polyhalite, sylvite) or of very low porosity
(quartzites, compact and well cemented chalks
and dolomites which are not fractured);
- rocks which are porous (reservoirs), but filled
with non-conducting fluids (hydrocarbons, fresh
water, bitumen, asphalt).
The selection of one or other of the above
possibilities will require complementary measure-
ments.
2.7.2.1. Separation of Resistivity Curves
The resistivity curves measured by tools with
different depths of investigation (macrodevices :
deep and shallow laterologs, deep and medium
inductions and microdevices : microlaterolog and
microspherically-focussed logs) show a conti-
nuous separation. This can be attributed to inva-
sion, and hence indicates a porous and permeable
rock. The determination of its mineralogical com-
position will be studied later (Chapter 9).
2.7.2.2. No separation on Resistivity Curves
High resistivity intervals show practically no
separation between the various resistivity curves.
One can reasonably conclude that the rock has no
porosity, or a t least no connected porosity *.
If the radioactivity is low, and the hydrogen
index is between - 2 and 2 P.u., the probability that
this rock is sedimentary, be it of chemical origin or
strongly cemented or re-crystallised by diagenesis,
is very high, especially is the surrounding forma-
tions are of variable resistivity (cf. paragraph 2.9).
If not, it is more likely to be a metamorphic rock
such as marble or quartzite (cf. paragraph 2.11).
Weak radioactivity and a high neutron hydrogen
index ( 235 P.u.) indicate a sedimentary rock of
chemical origin which is rich in water molecules
within the crystals (gypsum, bischofite, tachydrite,
epsomite, kieserite, trona). The techniques for
determining mineralogical composition are descri-
bed later (cf. paragraph 2.9).
Weak radioactivity and a hydrogen index in the
range of 10 to 25 p.u. may indicate a basic volcanic
rock such as andesite or basalt (cf. paragraph 2.8).
’ A separation may not be observed if R,,S:, = R,SL or
if R, = FIT, (water zone). The caliper will usually reveal such
cases by indicating a mud-cake.
78

Cases of variable but significant radioactivity,

and hydrogen index varying with radioactivity
where the beds are intercalated with non-radioac-
tive beds of zero or high values of hydrogen index
most probably correspond to sedimentary evapori- N o . of Range Mean
tes with varying amounts of potassium salts (cf. Glass
determinations of density density
paragraph 2.9). If, on the other hand, the beds are
fairly homogeneous and thick, the indications are
for an igneous rock (plutonic or volcanic), or for a Rhyolite obsidian 15 2.330-2.413 2.370
Trachyte obsidian 3 2.435-2.467 2.450
foliated metamorphic rock such as slate or mica-
Andesite glass .... 3 2.40 -2.573 2.474
schist (cf. paragraph 2.8 or 2.11). Leucite tephrite
glass .................... 2 2.52 -2.58 2.55
Basalt glass .......... 11 2.704-2.851 2.772
2.8. I NTERPR ETATlON
OF UNALTERED IGNEOUS ROCKS

We have already seen that plutonic rocks which increases from acidic rocks to ultrabasic rocks
have not been altered or fractured present no (Table 2-16).
connected porosity, and therefore exhibit high More recent work by Henkel (1976), based on
resistivity. over 30,000 samples from Northern Sweden, links
Volcanic rocks, on the other hand, can have the density with the silica content on the one hand,
high porosity. If it is connected, the resistivity can and with the value of the ratio
be low, and the rock can constitute a reservoir. (Ca + +
Mg)/(K Na) on the other (Figs. 2-14 and
The radioactivity of igneous rocks depends on 2-15).
the content of radioactive minerals such as potas- We have also seen that the silica content
sium feldspars, feldspathoids, micas or trace decreases from acidic rocks to ultrabasic rocks,
minerals such as zircon, monazite, allanite or and that conversely, the content of calcium, iron
xenotime. and magnesium increases from granites or rhyoli-
The speed of sonic waves is usually high, above tes to gabbros or basalts (Table 2-6, Fig. 2-16a,
6000 m/s for plutonic rocks and 5250 m/s for Daly, 1933).
volcanic rocks without connected porosity.
The determination of mineralogical composition
starts with recognition of the type of igneous rock.
SiOz
100
2.8.1. Determination of Type of Igneous Rock

The work of Daly (1933), revised by Daly et at.

(1966), shows that the density of igneous rocks

Table 2-16a - DlORlTlC

Mean densities of plutonic rocks
(from Daly, 1933).
60%
JLTRAMAFIC
Number Mean Range
Rock
of sa mp Ies density of density -

155 2.667 2.51 6-2.809 40%

11 2.716 2.668-2.785
Syenite .............................. 24 2.757 2.630-2.899
Quartz diorite .................. 21 2.806 2.680-2.960
Diorite ................................ 13 2.839 2.721-2.960
Norite ........ 11 2.984 2.720-3.020
Gabbro,
including olivine gabbro 27 2.976 2.850-3.120
Diabase, fresh .................. 40 2.965 2.804-3.110
Peridotite, fresh .............. 3 3.234 3.152-3.276
Dunite .............................. 15 3.277 3.204-3.314
Pyroxenite ........................ 8 3.231 3.10 -3.318
DENSITY
Anorthosite ...................... 12 2.734 2.640-2.920
Fig. 2-14. - Relationship between the density and silica content
From Birch, Jour. Geophys. Res., 65, 1083 (1960). of igneous rocks (from Henkel, 1976).
 79

Likewise, a strong correlation is observed (Fig.

Ca +
1.2 Mg
2-17) when the content of silica (and therefore
K + 1.43Na
100 silicon) is plotted against the K20 content for the
main rocks which exclude feldspathoids, as listed
in Table 2-6. The combination of potassium
content measured by the Natural Gamma Ray
Spectroscopy Tool, and the silicon content from
the GST provides a rapid determination of igneous
10 rock type.
On the other hand, the contents of thorium and
uranium diminish from acidic rocks to ultrabasic
rocks (Table 2-17, Figs. 2-18 and 2-21).
The sonic velocity measurements of Christen-
sen (1965, Fig. 2-19) and Press (1966) in igneous
1
rocks show an increase from acidic to ultrabasic
rocks.

SIO?(%)A Si (%)
70--32,71 Plutonic or intrusive rocks *Granite
Volcanic or enusive rocks acldlc
91 x

. Dacite
Granodiorite

60-26 / Syenite, iTrach'e

x Andesite
/ 11
0.0 1

DENSITY
Fig. 2-15. - Relationship between density and the ratio
(Ca + 1.2 Mg)/(K + 1.43 Na) (from Henkel, 1976).

As was observed in paragraph 2.5.1, the GST

,
Therallte
.Urtite

provides a measurement of silicon, calcium, iron

and oxygen contents. It is possible, therefore, to " Nephelinlte
determine the nature of igneous rocks almost Nephelme basalt

immediately, either directly from percentages of .83 1.66 2.49 3.32 4.15 4.98 K%

elements, or by using the ratio (Si/Ca Fe). The + 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Ks0 (%)

latter varies in practice from 15 for acidic or felsic Fig. 2-17. - Distribution of igneous rocks as a function of their
rocks to 2 for ultrabasic or mafic rocks (Fig. 2-16b). content of silica and potassium.

K 18 -
16 -

14
12
-1
-
10 -
8-
6 -

4 -

2-

0-

SlOl (%) +

Fig. 2-16. - Classification of volcanic rocks as a function of (a) their content of A1~03,Fe203, Na20, K20, MgO. and (b) the ratio
+
Si/(Ca Fe) and their silicon content (from Daly, 1933).
80

Table 2-17
Thorium, uranium and potassium ratios for some igneous rocks
(from Clark et a/., 1966, and Adams 84 Gasparini, 1970).
Igneous Rocks Th. (ppml
Acid Intrusive
Granite 1 9 - 20 3.6 - 4.7 2.75 - 4.26
Rhode Island" 21.5 - 26.6 (25.2) 1.32 - 3.4 (1.49) 3.92 - 4.8 (4.51)
Rhode Islandp' 6.5 - 80 (52) 1.3 - 4.7 (4) 5.06 - 7.4 (5.48)
New Hampshire 50 - 6 2 12 - 16 3.5 - 5
Precambrian 14 - 27 3.2 -4.6 2-6
Average for granitic rocks 15.2 4.35 4.1 1
Syenite'" 1338 2500 2.63
Acid Extrusive
Rhyolite 6-15 2.5 - 5
Trachvte 9 - 25
Basic Intrusive
Gabbro 27 - 3.85 0.84 - 0.9 0.46 - 0.58
Granodiorite 9.3 - 11 2 - 2.5
Colorado(" 9 9 - 125(110.6)
I Diorite 8.5
Basic Extrusive
Basalt
Alkali basalt 4.6 0.99 0.61
Plateau basalt 1.96 0.53 0.61
Alkali Olivine basalt 3.9 1.4 1.4
in Oregono) 5.5 - 15 (6.81) 1.2 - 2.2 (1.73) 1.4 - 3.23 (1.68)
Andesite
in Oregon'"
1.9
5 - 10 (6.96)
0.8
1.4 - 2.6 (1.94) 1 2.4 - 42
!: (2.89)

Dunite
Peridotite
in California(')
0.01
0.05
0.0108
:::;
0.0048
j ::Y
0.019
( 1 ) from U.S.G.S. Geochemical standards, in A d m r 81 Gsoarini, 1970

I 1 I

-
I

10 - .URANIUM CONTENT

-
8 - -
-
6 , 7

f 4 -
2
23 -
2 -

. . I I . I I

-10 0 10 20 30
COMPOSITION OF ROCKS, 113 SiO, + K2O-Fe0-Mg0-Ca0
GABBRO atz. DIORITEGRANODIORITE GRANITE
Fig. 2-19. - Variation in sonic velocity (P-wave) with type of
Fig. 2-18. - Uranium content of igneous rocks (from Larsen ef plutonic rock (from Christensen, 1965).
a/., 1954).

2-23a) provides a means of identifying the nature

The combination of these data, either in the of plutonic rocks and of certain volcanic rocks
form of crossplots (for example density versus when they are associated with dykes or flow
sonic travel time (Fig. 2-20) or thorium versus structures.
uranium (Fig. 2-21), or potassium versus uranium Table 2-18 summarises the log responses of the
(Fig. 2-22) or in the form of electrofacies (Fig. principal igneous rocks.
 lb
I
Pyroxene andeslte
I
1
1 .

2.9 - 4 Gran~te
Granod~or~le

0
+
.
aDlor~te
r pl baslques Tonal~te

3.0 -
Gabbro
v Basalt 0
Gabbrodoler~le 2 3 4
4 Nortte Uranlum content. lppm)
0 Gabbronortte
A Pyroxen~te
3.1 - 0 Per~dotite Fig. 2-22. - Relationship between potassium and thorium ratios
0 Dunlte
c Syenlle in the volcanic rocks of the Lassen Peak region of California
l Allerat~on (from Adarns, 1954).
B Dacite
Andes~te
3.2-
r pl ultrabaslques r Dolerlte
R h ~ O 1 lBasalt
te
(1) From Kerherve
(21 From Sanyal& 2.8.2. Determination of Mineralogical
3.3 - 0 O
(3) From Khatchlklan
Composition of Igneous Rocks
0

I I 1 Having identified the type of igneous rock using

3.4 I I I
w
30 40 50 80 70 80 the methods described above which rely on log
v
At
Pb
data or external information, we are then in a
Fig. 2-20. - Classification of igneous rocks according to density position to choose a mineralogical model which
and sonic travel time. will enable us to calculate the percentage of each

1
mineral present in the rock, and also its porosity
~ p , WEATHERING
EFFECT
Th = 1300 which will be small.
ppm U = 25M) Thus, in the case of a massive, unaltered

-
granite, the following model will be used : Potas-
sium feldspar (F = orthoclase), Quartz (Q), Plagio-
clase (P albite), Mica (M = biotite) and amphi-
bole (A = hornblende). In this case there are five
unknowns (the five percentages), the porosity
being considered negligible (certainly less than
2 % ) . To compute the percentages, it is only
necessary to solve a system of equations which
relates the measurement of each tool with the log
parameters of each mineral and its percentage by
volume.
Five measurements are therefore sufficient in
theory :

+
Th = V F T ~ F VaTha + VpThp + V A T ~ A
?
8

GRANITE
A GRANODIORITE

[/f GABBRO
r DlORlTE
GABBRO

I
ULTRA MAFIC (Dunit., prridotite)
I
?)
t
4 Fig. 2-21. - Classification of igneous rocks according to their
content of thorium and uranium.
82

._. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

................................................................................ ,......... 25 000.

Syenite
i.. ...............
, .;..
. ... ..:.. ..... . <..................i . .... . ..:... ... . . . ) . .. . ....;........ : ,

E
E
-2
0 200

-
2
100

I)
2 2 25 30 35 3Y
Density
C

Fig. 2-23. - (a) Electrofacies of igneous rocks. Projections of

hyperellipsoids in a plane; (b) example of log responses and
interpretation in a granite; (c) schematic density-gamma ray
crossplot of the principal igneous rocks (from Desbrandes,
1982).

However, because of uncertainties in the mea-

surements, in the response equations and in
certain parameters, it is desirable not only to be
over-determined, that is, to have more measure-
ments than there are unknowns, but also to
employ an automatic program for the interpreta-
tion which will provide the most probable solution
which best fits all the available measurements.
Such a program is available commercially from
Schlumberger under the name of GLOBAL *. Its
principles will be explained later (Chapter 9).

b
Mark of Schlumberger

Table 2-18
Log responses of the principal igneous rocks (from Desbrandes, 1982).

Thorium Uranium Potassium Bulk ( 2 ) Sound velocity ( 2 )

Pe(3) Neutron(2)
TYPE ROCKS (Th) (U) (KI denslty Sigma
litholog %
ppm ppm % g/cm3

Granite 11 . 26 3.6 - 6.9 2.7. 4.7 107 - 234 2.56- 2.68 12 2.86 3
Syenite 1300 2 500 2.7 -4.5 25 000 2.6. 2,8 - 3,59 6
83 2 1.1 68 2 . 8 . 2.9 - 3.93 8
2
Diorite
Gabbro 2.7-3.9 0.8-0.9 0.5.0.6 25.32 2.9-3,l 21 4,47 9
Peridotite 0.05 0.01 0.2 3,5 2.3 - 3.3 - 3.66 9

Rhyolite 6 - 15 2.5- 5 2-4 76 - 164 2.3 - 2.5 - - -

9-25 2-7 5.7 143 - 247 2.4-2.5 - - -
1.9 - 2 0.8.2 1 . 7 . 2.9 41 . 70 2 , 4 . 2.6 - - -
Basalt 2-7 1 . 1.7 0 . 6 . 1.7 26.69 2 , 7 . 2,9 - 5.36 12
0.01 0.01 0.02 0.5 3.0 - 3.7 - 3.32 17
 83

2.9. INTERPRETATION Finally, one can employ the electrofacies me-

OF CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY thod in which the electrofacies are represented
ROCKS - EVAPORITES graphically on a linear scale. The method consists
of comparing the electrofacies for each interval of
stable response (facies) with the theoretical ele-
crofacies for each evaporite salt (Fig. 2-29).
With the exception of certain carbonates of
chemical origin, the evaporites are characterised
above all by high resistivities of about equal
magnitude on all the resistivity measurements.
This is a natural consequence of the fact that after
compaction these rocks have no porosity, and do
not, therefore facilitate invasion, and also that
none of the constituent minerals are conductive.
Their radioactivity will depend on the salts
present. Only potassium salts are radioactive, the
activity being a function of the potassium content.
When potassium salts form laminations of varying
thickness and frequency among deposits of non-
potassium salts such as gypsum, halite and anhy-
drite, the overall activity will be variable and will
depend partly on the types of potassium salts
present and partly on their volumetric percentages
(Figs. 2-35, 2-37, 2-42).

2.9.1. Determination of the Type

of Evaporitic Salt

If the thickness of the salt bed is greater than

the vertical resolution of the measuring device,
which is the usual case, it can be easily identified
by its log response.
One can assume that, because of the way in
which these formations originate-chemical pre-
cipitation from a brine-the constituent minerals
are usually pure, and have mineralogical, chemical
and physical characteristics which are well-defi-
ned and constant. It is only to be expected then,
that their log characteristics are also well-defined
and constant. Table 2-15 sets out the characteris-
tics of the more abundant salts and minerals.
It is clear from this table that ambiguities in
identifying an evaporite are practically non-exis-
tent given an adequate logging suite and a bed
thickness greater than the vertical resolutions of
the tools. In such a case, the nature of an evapo-
rite salt is defined by the log value attained by
each measurement. Thus, if At = 67 f 3 p / f t
(from the Borehole Compensated Sonic, BHC '), or
p b = 2.04 f 0.05 g/cm3 and Pe = 4.5 f 0.3 (from
the litho-density tool, LDT), the immediate conclu-
sion is for halite (Fig. 2-24). However, crossplots
combining two or three log measurements are
recommended for a more certain diagnosis. Figs.
Fig. 2-24. - Lithology recognition using lithodensity (LDT). and
2-25 to 2-28 show such plots, with the positions of direct readings from neutron (CNL) and density (FDC) in the
the pure salts marked. case of evaporites (from Felder ef a/., 1979).

The electrofacies can be defined as the set of log

responses which characterise a facies and enable it to be
distinguished from surrounding facies. See Chapter 5 for more
+ Mark of Schlumberger. details.
84

0 10 ?O 30 40 50 60 70 8

Fig. 2-25a. - Recognition of evaporites from crossplots of

potassium content derived from gamma ray (GR) using the
chart of Fig. 2-25b. or from the natural gamma ray spectrome-
try ( N G S ) against sonic travel time, neutron-hydrogen index,
and density.

4 Fig. 2-25b. - Empirical chart relating gamma ray deflection to

the apparent percentage of potassium (from Tixier ef a/., 1967).

Fig. 2-26. - Crossplots of sonic travel time and density against

v neutron-hydrogen index.

-
;t=
\
m'
.
s
<
L
D
13

a150
@

si 2

100

2,s

50

30 3
-20 0 2040 60 80100% -20 0 20 40 60 80 100%
 85

m SY1VINIT.E I
n
2 2.0
HALITE; -
* I
CEMENT
SSULPHUR
- - 1-
TRONA I
I
GYPSUM
2.5 LANGBEINITEigUARn--- - -~- - -~ _ _ -
k&7
+ *-
GRANITE SANDSTONE
CALCITE. LIMESTONE
WLOMITEo POLYHALITE
TANHYDRITE
3.0 GABBRO- 1
BASALT l
a DUNITE

3 . s 2 7 -
-~ , L 1- 1 1 1 -
50 100 150 200 250
Transit time At ( p d f t l

Fig. 2-27. - Crossplot of density against sonic travel time.

Fig. 2-28a. - Crossplots combining three log measurements : (a) photoelectric capture cross-section, b n s i t y and neutron-hydrogen
index; (b) and (c) density, neutron-hydrogen index and sonic travel time. (p,& and (At,.). are derived from Fig. 2-28b.

M =d
At A X 0.01 and N = (IH)ml-JH; = N,
Pb-pmf Pb- pmf 1-4

Fig. 2-28b. - Charts for computing (p,& and (At,.). (from

Clavier et a/., 1976).
86

The graphical representation of an electrofacies

is achieved by plotting the various theoretical
characteristics, one below the other, on a series of
lines, each of which represents one of the measu-
rements with the appropriate scale of sensitivity.
The potential fluctuations due to impurities, statis-
tical variations or borehole effects should also be
indicated. It may happen that, due to calibration
problems or effects of borehole or mud, the
representative points do not correspond exactly to
the theoretical points. Of course, this must be
taken into account, and crossplots should be used
to define them more precisely (Fig. 2-30).
In practice, these effects mean that the lineprin-
ter plot of the readings shows a cluster of points
around the theoretical value (Fig. 2-31). In the
graphical representation of an electrofacies, the
various rocks are no longer represented by points,
but by areas, and the lines joining them by bands.
In the n-dimensional space defined by the n log
measurements, the electrofacies corresponds to a
cluster of points around the theoretical point. It is
therefore a volume - a hyperellipsoid - and not
simply a point (Fig. 2-32).

'
4 Fig. 2-28c. - Chart for determining (Urn& (Courtesy of Schlum-
berger).

1 I MINERAL 1- -ACC'G. m SCMUM

c
2, EWELOPES
I
APPARENT --UP0 IN
'D 0 SYLVlTf/500) lGRl LMEU PRLlG.~UTlOW

.
0-11 A
II - 2 4
21-31 r
31-11
11-10 0
11- 12 0
11-11
> M i6ni
.

I \ \ I

Fig. 2-30. - Actual values derived from crossplots (from Ford et a/., 1974)
 87

Electrofacies of Compacted Limestone Electrofacies of Polvhalite

4 2 I
274 g,cm'
~ C N L 25 p "
s! 432 bainsleIeClm
At ill Ul/It
K 1317 %
z 217 I: Y
t p " ' ' " I " ' ' ' 0 " . nr m
R L 10 IpO 1000 loop0 'yo0 ,, m 2
h
Electrofacies of Compact Dolomite Electrofacies of Langbeinite

b i

Electrofacies of Anhvdrite Electrofacies of Carnallite

I
2 I
2 96 4 2
157 g/ml
2 ~CNL A 0 pu
I05 9 409 barns a l a c t r m
SD At I3 US/It
K x

.
0 1407

I c u
.,oopoo
369
I2 45
8 4 t p l 9 " " I
1p0
' '
loo0
" '0
roopo
' mi/m
404 R I 10
ii m2 m

Electrofacies of Gypsum Electrofacies of Kainite

2 I,
g.cm3
, rp------i;_ " -60

.."
P U

199 barns, election

u s It
0 %
I6 i C Y

68 nr m
103 !! ml'm

d k
Electrofacies of Sylvite
Electrofacies of Halite

4 ; 2 1
201 g,cd
2 3
186 g/m3
pY
0CNL -1 P" ~ C N L -e3i barnrlalcrtr~n
Pe 865 barns/alsctron pa
A1 67 P S I 11 At 74 US/lt

K 0 % K 524 x
I: 754 I " z 554 r Y

1P' 1964 nr/m tPl 72 nsfm

R -104 ~ ~ m 2 / m R rm' (1 m4m

e I
Electrofacies of Tachydrite Electrofacies of Trona

1 2 I
166 4
QCNL
2 3
206
3i
g/ml
Pu
0CNL
p6 164 Pe 01 barns elsrtron
31 92 At 65 US It
K K
" .
0 0 %
7 I 159
I
405 I Y

t p l 9 ' "
10
' 5
,pa
"
I000
"
loop0
'0 " ,
100,000
1 p l I "
Ip
"
1po
"

,000
" 'P
loop0 100,000
nr m
R ! R 1 cl m2m

f m
Electrofacies of Eishofite

Fig. 2-29. - Electrofacies of the principal evaporitic salts.

88

/4
................................
..... :. ........: ..... .. .......... ,
:. .i
I

:. :
...........
1.

$1

i. ,!!8 I,

.........
.*I. 43.00

...........
,.,,
. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .................
,.r. PLII,
8. "I
2 , ) ) . 1 ,
/ * I ;
I
> ,I,
I
1,
. " !
I D

I ,
,.
.

. . . . . . . . . . . ......... ...... ..........

I , .

.-
I .
I 2

- _ - 7

8 .
I :
......... ................... 8 .
, I

. . . . . . . . . ...................
. . . . . . . . . ...................
1 :
l i
I .
1 .
I .

.......... . . . . . . . . . .................... 8 .

..........
......................
,
;,*v ................
I.:,., I .
,(I
,,,
,li..
-2 0,. ,(1 ul, /.no 0 . 3.40

Fig. 2-31. - Crossplots produced on a lineprinter.

1.5

Variations on Pb lor Halite 7 p

f Pr
4 Variations on for G i p u m

GYPSUM

Fig. 2-32. - Representation of electrofacies in a three-dimensional space.


2.9.2. Determination
of the Mineralogical Composition
of a Complex Evaporite Sequence -
Quantitative Interpretation
It often happens that evaporite salts other than
halite, gypsum or anhydrite do not occur in beds of
sufficient thickness or in a pure enough state to
permit them to be recognised from individual log
responses alone. In such cases, the response of
each log depends on the percentage of the
mineral present in the zone investigated by the
particular tool. This zone depends on both the
vertical resolution and the depth of investigation
of the tool.
Two recently-introduced tools, the NGS and
LDT, greatly improve the identification of the
minerals present because they are far less sensi-
tive to variations in hole diameter. Fig. 2-33 shows
an example of the response in an evaporite se-
quence. The NGS, in particular, can differentiate
between potassium evaporites and clays. The
latter, in addition to being less resistive, are
recognised by the presence of thorium and ura-
nium in addition to potassium. The value of Pe
measured by the LDT indicates which evaporite
Shale Svlvite
Fig. 2-33. - Example of NGS and LDT responses in an evaporitic series of halite and sylvite (Courtesy of Schlumberger).
89
salt is present in the formation (values close to 6
or 7 indicate sylvite (Pe = 8.5), which rules out
other salts having Pe's below 4.3). In addition, the
improved vertical resolution of the LDT will show
the number of intercalations of sylvite. Finally, the
mean value of potassium together with values or
peaks of Pe above 4.65 indicates the existence of
very fine laminations of sylvite in a massive halite.
Crossplot techniques, or more sophisticated
interpretation programs are required for determi-
ning the mineralogy of more complex mixtures. In
addition, the number of log measurements should
equal or exceed the number of different salts in
the sequence.
If there are no more than three minerals pre-
sent, the type and percentage of each can be
determined simply from crossplots combining two
tools if these tools respond linearly to the mineral
percentage. In the case of a mixture of two
components, the representative point falls on a
line joining the theoretical points corresponding to
these two salts, and the percentages are derived
from the position of the point along the line.
In the case of a ternary mixture, the point falls
in a triangle whose apexes correspond to the
theoretical points of each of the three pure salts.
Halite
90
Thus, in the example of Figs. 2-34 and 2-35, the
envelope of points defines the three principal
components and the composition of each point.
Thus, point 20 shows a mixture of 41.5 O/O anhydrite
and 58.5 O/O halite; point 11 is a mixture of 47.7 O/O
polyhalite and 52.3 O/O halite; point 13 is 67 O h density and low sonic travel time). This is also
polyhalite and 33 O/O anhydrite, and finally, point 19
is 16.7 O/O polyhalite, 35.4 O/O anhydrite and 47.9 O/O
halite.
Caliper
ID")
-Gama Ray 'Inchs' Lal.lOlop7 aoog
IAPI) lohmr-ml
Fig. 2-34. - Composite log showing log responses in an
evaporite sequence in the North Sea made up of a mixture of
anhydrite, halite and polyhalite. An example of a regressive
sequence (from Serra, 1980).
GAMMA RAY
Fig. 2-35.- Crossplot showing how to determine the mineralo-
gical composition of the sample points 1 to 20 of Fig. 2-34
(ternary mixture) (from Serra, 1980).
Fig. 2-36 shows the log responses in the Prairie
Evaporite Formation. This is composed mainly of
halite, with fine intercalations of sylvite, and
occasionally carnallite (points 14 and 15) and
anhydrite (point 16, with weak radioactivity, high
illustrated by the crossplot of Fig. 2-37 (after
Raymer & Biggs, 1963).
Fig. 2-36.- Composite log showing log responses in the Prairie
Evaporite Formation in Saskatchewan, Canada (from Raymer
et a/., 1963).
Bulk Density
Wcm?
pb
I so + Ainhydlire '--./---
I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Neutron Hydrogen Index
(P.U.1
Fig. 2-37.- Crossplots showing the mineralogical composition
of points 1 to 20 of Fig. 2-35 (ternary mixture).
The crossplot of Fig. 2-38, drawn from Dragoset
(1977), shows the case of a complex sequence in
New Mexico (the Salado Formation). The measu-
rement of the potassium content, made here with
the Dresser-Atlas Spectralog, combined with the
measurement of specific mass, are used to iden-
I tify the various salts present in the interval.
Additional logs are essential in such cases, and the
content of each of the salts present can only be
determined by solving a system of equations.
 91

K v s DEN
1550. -1800

3.1

AN H Y D R l T E

I
1 1 1 1
2 1 1 2
1 1 y KAlNlTE
2.1 -. 1 13112 11 23 1 1
1 3 4 ~ . ~ * * * . 9 5 7 6 4 1 6 1 7 41 111 1
-* 7 7 . 3 5 5 2 1 3 3 1 2 12 2 11
1 1

1 113311 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 1
1 1 1 1 1 SY LVlTE
1 1 1
1

CARNALLITE

1.5

K20 %

Fig. 2-38. - Plot of density as a function of potassium content derived from the Spectralog (Salad0 Formation, N e w Mexico). This
plot can be used t o identify the principal salts, radioactive or not, present in the formation. Measurement of the concentration of
potassium provides an evaluation in situ of potassium salts (from Dragoset, 1977).

The computations can, of course, be performed from the Prairie Evaporite Formation. There is
automatically with a suitable program. Fig. 2-39 reasonable agreement between the two, the diffe-
shows the results of a comparison between a rences being undoubtedly due to the different
computer interpretation and an analysis of cores volumes investigated by the two methods.

Fig. 2-39. - Comparison between the results of a computer-processed interpretation and core measurements. From the Prairie
Evaporite Formation (from Crain et a/., 1966).
92

Fig. 2-40 shows the results of a computation ATWICK N' 1 ATWICK 11.1

combining the neutron and density tools on the 1 P INTERPRETATIOY OF OEOlOGlST'S IIITERPRETATION
MINERAL PROPORTIONS MINERAL PROPORTlONS
one hand, and the density and sonic on the other.
Good agreement is observed, and the conclusion
is a mixture of halite, anhydrite and clay in the
interval.
When there are more than three components,
the only approach is to solve a system of linear
equations. Clearly, the number of tool response
equations available must equal the number of
HAilTF
unknowns or mineralogical components, less one,
the extra equation being the unitary relationship.
Fig. 2-41, which corresponds to the crossplots 1760 a 1160

of Fig. 2-30, shows the results of an interpretation

combining the responses of gamma ray, neutron,
MIXTURE
density and sonic tools. Good agreement is obser-
ved between the results obtained by solving a
system of linear equations and those obtained
from thin section and x-ray fluorescence analysis 1800 m
ll00

on cores.
However, as Hossin (1969) pointed out, this
method is rather crude, because it does not take
into account statistical dispersion of the represen-
tative points. Thus, the fact that a point falls
outside the polyhedron representing the pure 1161 m
1860

components does not necessarily indicate the MIXTURE

presence of an additional mineral, but may be due

only to statistical effects or hole conditions (this is
the case with points 5 and 7 of Fig. 2-35).
This method takes no account of whether
certain minerals are compatible or not, or of
maximum percentages possible. Moreover, the Fig. 2-41. - Interpretation by linear programming combining
results will not be valid if the wrong choice of the gamma ray, density, neutron and sonic tools (see Fig. 2-30)
(from Ford e t a / . , 1974).
constituent minerals is made.

PbAf 100 0 Pb-lw 100

CWBINAWN COMBINAWN

Fig. 2-40. - Example of automatic computations combining several measurements (from Serra, 1980).
 93

Finally, the log characteristics of each mineral
are not always known exactly, or can vary as a
result of calibration errors or borehole or mud
effects (cf. Fig. 2-30). For this reason, several
precautions are necessary with this method. These
are: a prior check of log quality and calibration
accuracy, exact definition of the mineralogical
model and verification of the log characteristics of
each mineral.
A method of interpretation known as GLOBAL,
which defines the uncertainties on each measu-
rement and on each tool response equation, and
which allows the introduction of external geologi-
cal information, has been introduced by Schlum-
berger. Fig. 2-42 is an example of an interpretation
done with this program on a sequence containing
halite, carnallite, bischofite, kieserite and sylvite.
If the evaporite sequence includes carbonate or
detrital deposits, the assumption of zero porosity
is no longer valid. Thereafter the sequence must
be considered a potential reservoir, and treated as
such (refer to Chapter 9).

Fig. 2-42. - Interpretation of an evaporite sequence using the 9.000

GLOBAL program : (a) crossplots; (b) results compared with
core measurements (from Haile & Blunden, 1984).
U:hpb 6.000

3.000

I
1.500 100.0
?A.1775.00
sw Illuo.00

1.750 75.00
6766
7560 7 7 8 8
5 5 5 6 7 6 16 At
I
4l2.000 50.00

I
25.00

ZN

GL

650

Z
E
C
H
S
mT
E
I
N
Irn Z
E
111

le00

b
94

2.10. DETECTION AND EVALUATION

OF ORGANIC ROCKS FROM WELL LOGS

The most frequently encountered organic rocks

are peat, lignite and coal. When they occur in beds
of sufficient thickness (more than 50 cm), they are
easily detected by all the logging tools because of
their very characteristic responses.
They are usually resistive, of low density
(p~,< 1.6 g/cm3), high neutron hydrogen index
(& > 40 P.U.), due in particular to the slowing
capacity of carbon and also to the hydrogen
content of coals, high At (At > 110 ps/ft), very low
capture cross-section (Pe < 0.5 b/e), and usually
low radioactivity due to low content of potassium,
thorium and uranium (Fig. 2-43). However, coal has
the capacity to adsorb dissolved uranium from
flowing water, and in this case the radioactivity
can be high.
In the case of thin beds, the various macrodevi-
ces show a slight deflection towards the specified
values, while the microresistivity devices will indi-
cate the bed thickness and show a moderate to
high resistivity (Fig. 2-44).
When these rocks appear in beds of sufficient
thickness, they can be of some economic interest.
In such cases, it is desirable to have a more exact
estimate of their energy potential by evaluating
the content of both water and ash. It often
happens, in practice, that these rocks include
"impurities" in the form of fine laminations of
sand, silt or clay intercalated during sedimentation
with humic or sapropelic organic matter. The
dipmeter of Fig. 2-45 shows clearly the presence of
thin laminations in the peats.
To achieve correct and exact results, however,
the quantitative interpretation of these rocks re-
quires several modifications.
First of all, the logging suite must be recorded
with tools which have been specially adapted for
coal logging. It must include a t least the density,
sonic velocity and gamma ray measurements (GR
or NGS). The LDT and CNL tools are also recom-
mended. Finally, a dipmeter is necessary for a
better evaluation of bed thicknesses and for
providing dips and fracture detection (Fig. 2-46).
In addition, the sampling interval should be set
to 1.2" (3 cm) to improve the vertical resolution.
Specially adapted interpretation programs are also
needed, such as CORIBAND *, or better still,
GLOBAL.

Fig. 2-43. - Examples of log responses and results from the

LITHO program in a lignite sequence. Mark of Schlurnberger.
 95

THICK
' LlGNlTlC
BED

1 THIN
LlGNlTlC

LEGEND HCoal Sand ushale

b C

GR lo; 1$0 API

Fig. 2-44. - Example of very thin coal seams clearly detected by the dipmeter : (a) composite log; (b) electrofacies of the coal bed
from 1.241-1.243 m ; (c) Electrofacies of the thin bed from 1,238-1.238.5 m.
96

IGEODIP RESULlS 1
DIPS CORRELRTIONS

AS,!,,,YITI N R E S I S T I V I T Y INCREASES
--

Q E DslFI"
CPI-EP

_.._
m-
2

w +
>
CIL,=m I
4. _ _ m- S
CURVES

Fig. 2-45. - Thin laminations in peat clearly detected by the

dipmeter : (a) composite log; (b) dipmeter interpretation using
the GEODIP program; (c) enlarged section (from Schlumber-
ger, Well Evaluation Conference, India. 1983).

I OLODIP RESULTS I

Fig. 2-46. - Fracture detection in a coal bed using the dipmeter.

 97

If need be, the vertical resolution of the BHC

sonic tool can be adjusted to 4.5" by the modifica-
tion to the standard tool shown in Fig. 2-47. This
would be required for logging thin coal seams. A
special program has been devised to compensate
for borehole effects on the two uncompensated
measurements.
The density measurement can be improved
both in terms of accuracy and resolution by using
a near detector calibrated for low densities (the
standard tool has a non-linear response in low
densities, and has a tendancy to saturate a t around
1.4g/cm3 as show in Fig. 2-48). With the CSU,
these modifications are no longer necessary, since
the tool can be subsequently re-calibrated. An
alternative solution would be to subtract
0.14 g/cm3from the measurements of the standard
tool in coal.
The neutron measurement provides an indica-
tion of the degree of coalification. As with the
density, the near detector can be used to obtain a
pseudo-hydrogen index with better vertical resolu-
tion.
Of course any measurements made with a near
detector are not compensated for hole effects,
and will be adversely affected in caved zones.

Fig. 2-47. - Modifications to the BHC sonic tool to increase its b

vertical resolution (Courtesy of Schlumberger).

Fig. 2-48. - Crossplots showing how the density readings

saturate in coal beds.

LlGN ITE

W
# ." 5LO
D
051
51 0 0

0 0
rJ

0
I , I ! I
 03110ld S l N I D d 28ES W hO'OSO1 DL 56'6981 W D H j I 3NDZ
t11Qd
0's O'h O'E 0'2 0.1 0 *,e
0
Oh
n
I"
h
03llOld S l N I O d ZECS W hO'OSO1 01 S 6 ' 6 9 8 1 WOHd I 3NOZ
I HdN
o's6 o'se O'SL O'SS O'SS O'Sfl O'SE O'SZ 0.SI 0'5 0'5;
0
: . . . . . , : .......................... 0 0.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
:D IE is 2 om.
0 O O , ..
. . ' . ., . . . . . . . . . . .
i L
. .F i . . . . . . . . . .
DZ
86
 99

Fig. 2-49. - Density-sonic crossplots for determining the proportions of water, ash and coal (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation
Development, Continental Europe, 1982).

Fig. 2-50. - Example of CORIBAND interpretation results in coals. The red curve corresponds to the standard density recording
(from Schlumberaer, Well Evaluation Development, Continental Europe, 1982).
100
A resistivity measurement is required for stu-
dying the surrounding beds, in particular for
determining the water-bearing zones and the
water saturation.
Moreover, the complete sonic wave train of the
long-spacing sonic tool will assist in the determi-
nation of shear wave travel time (Atshear) and the
rock mechanical properties.
Finally, it is worth mentioning the enormous
possibilities provided by the gamma ray spectros-
copy resulting from neutron bombardment (the
Schlumberger GST tool). The elements detected
and assayed by this tool (C, H, 0, Si, Fe, S) provide
a measure of the coal's calorific value (C), as well
as the types of impurity -sulphur (S), clays (Si),
and the presence of gas (H) or water (0).
The interpretation is based on an analysis of
plots in order to determine the log parameters of
the different materials making up the coal.
With the CORIBAND program, these parame-
ters will be those of coal itself, of ash, without
1350
Fig. 2-51. - Examples of interpretations by GLOBAL and LITHO in peats (Courtesy of Schlumberger).
regard to the different types, and of the fluids
present (Fig. 2-49). The latter can be a mixture of
water and gases such as CH4 or CO2. Fig. 2-50
shows an example of the results obtained.
If sufficient logs are available, the GLOBAL
program is preferred and can be used to include
both clay and quartz in the model. Fig. 2-51 is an
interpretation in very layered geat formations, as
indicated by the dipmeter.
The coalification index is derived from the
neutron index by the following relationship :
where
- qh:is the hydrogen index of water,
- ha:is the hydrohen index of ash,
- h Cis: the hydrogen index of coal,
and the V's : are the percentage volumes.
The coalification index decreases from a value
of 0.6 for lignite to a value of 0.2 for anthracite.
SHAL
COAL
SHAL
c)
COI?L
SHAL
COeL ;

2.1 1 . INTERPRETATION
OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS
As we have already observed, these rocks have
no interconnected porosity other than that arising
latterly from fracturing or alteration. As a result,
the resistivity is usually high, except in the case of
phyllites which are rich in phyllitic minerals such
as mica and chlorite, and because of twinning,
which provides a large specific area and a high
cationic exchange capacity (CEC). The presence of
metallic sulphurs may also lead to high conductivi-
ties.
2.1 1.1. Determination of Metamorphic
Rock Type
If an adequate logging suite is available, it is
usually possible to determine the type of meta-
morphic rock present.
The quartzites usually exhibit moderate radioac-
tivity (40-60 API). Their neutron hydrogen index is
about zero, their density and photoelectric capture
cross-sections close to those of quartz
(pb = 2.66 g/cm3 and Pe = 1.81 b/e respectively),
and the sonic travel time is between 50 and
55 ps/ft. The presence of feldspars, micas or heavy
minerals will "pull" the crossplot points towards
these minerals in proportion to their content, and
this results in a dispersion of the points.
Marbles are characterised by weak radioactivity
(10-30 API), and a neutron hydrogen index of
almost zero. The density and sonic velocity in-
crease, and the capture cross-section decreases
with increasing levels of dolomite in the marble
( p b : 2.72 -i2.85 g/Cm3; At 50 -i 42 pS/ft; Pe :
5.08 -i 3.14). The presence of impurities such as
silicates or sulphur will, of course, slightly modify
these parameters.
Like the quartzites, the granulites show mode-
rate radioactivity (50-55 API), but their density is
higher and varies between 2.73 and 2.93 g/cm3
according to the amount of pyroxene (hyper-
sthene) present. The potassium, thorium and
uranium contents distinguish these rocks accor-
ding to the degree of metamorphism to which they
have been subjected (Table 2-19). The amphiboli-
tes, being rich in thorium, are noticeably more
radioactive (70-80 API). They are also more dense
(2.8 to 3.2g/cm3), and the sonic travel time is
always below 47 ps/ft.
Gneiss has a composition varying between that
of granite and gabbro, depending on the origin.
The log responses are therefore similar. Their
foliated texture affects both the resistivity and the
sonic travel time and acoustic wave attenuation.
The latter is the result of anisotropy, which is itself
a function of the mica content (as shown by
Christensen, 1965), and also of the angle between
the plane of foliation and the axis of the measuring
device. Thus, the travel time and attenuation are
less when this angle is 900, but increases as the
angle approaches zero. This has not been confir-
101
Table 2-19
Uranium, thorium and potassium ratios of some
metamorphic rocks (from Heier & Adams, 1965).
I
Greenschist/low .............. 3.5 26.5 3.4 7.57 0.97 2.70
Amphibolite facies ........
Low granulite facies ......
High granulite facies .... 0.4 0.9 2.9 2.25 7.25 2.90
med, however, by a comparison of the measure-
ments with observations made on cores.
Slates and schists (e.g. micaschists, chlorito-
schists), also have a foliated texture, and should
therefore exhibit the same phenomenon. This may
help to explain the difference observed by Sanyal
et al. on the sonic logs recorded in two neighbou-
ring wells over two identical and perfectly-correla-
ted sequences of schists, micaschists and quart-
zite, when there were no notable differences on
the other logs.
The identification of the various types of schists
should be possible by combining the log data, in
particular the density, photoelectric capture
cross-section, and radioactivity, or better, the
potassium content. Thus, the chloritoschists
should show a low potassium content (less than
1 Oh) and quite a high value of Pe (between 3 and
5), while a micaschist will have a potassium
content close to 4 or 5 O/O, with a value of Pe varying
between 2.5 and 5 depending on the type of mica
present (muscovite or biotite).
The theoretical positions of the principal meta-
morphic rocks are shown in the crossplots of Fig.
2-52.
Table 2-20summarises the log responses of the
principal metamorphic rocks (after Desbrandes,
1 982).
Note: Certain precautions must be taken in
using these tables for identification of metamor-
phic rock type. In reality, the shortage of log data
for these rocks has meant that the mean statistical
response of each tool for each type of rock has not
yet been established with certainty. This is a
consequence of the lack of interest in these rocks
from an oil-producing point of view, and hence
they are rarely cored, and the logging suites are
minimal. It can be hoped that our knowledge of
these rocks will grow as a result of the search for
geothermal energy in this type of formation.
2.1 1.2. Determination of the Mineralogical
Composition of Metamorphic Rocks
Once the type of metamorphic rock has been
identified, the choice of mineralogical model, and
hence of the response equations and parameters
to be used, becomes a simple matter.
102

I I
t I
I
1

1
)

I
I
I
I I . 1
1

I
I

I
1
I
)

I
I
)

1.90'4 RRGE X 2
1

Fig. 2-52. - Crossplots showing the positioning of certain metamorphic rocks (from Sanyal et a/., 1980).
 103

I'LL
1 UHUl
.i,,,".I< .*GUY

'.I,,
(It
t U L L A 1 L I t L b a i l Ih
I h l i 4 v * L 1Il1Pu 1 a .
......................................................................................................
1i.r **05.0* b U l l O t ~Y t IhlLhlbL (Bulb ) )P9u,uu

1
FREQUENCY PLOT
'.1d-.
1
1
I
1
'I I,,-*
1
1
1 QUARTZ MONZONITE
1
AND QUARTZITE

I
I ' 40 /

(metamorphic zone)

'.,".,.......................................,.........*.............................
I

1 I I I 1
.-.--..-...-.--.,
I I I 1 1 1
*(I I> <d >5 03 t.5 I0 73 LIY d5 PU
At ~ SONIC TRANSIT TIME (microsec/ft)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...............
I ) S I I . I I Y L . ~ 1 3 * r I, h L J e L h h b P Y R T U V .I I
.
L, Y I 0 I P t L L L b U X
1 t..............'.................................
l"i* LLI"I.I* 1u I5 2u 25 IU 35 36.

I u*ur
..
w r L L ,.uhbil( i i l i ' , a
.Y.r........
L J b L L L L n t b i t ~ bl
1 =
.....................(...........................................---.................,.........,
/I!' I,) Ihli<"*L 1 IUP" "OI>',.O* u1'110,1 Ut INItRVIL 1RIIIL 1 . 5V90.00

1
1

b.05-r
FREOUENCY PLOT
1MESTONE
I
1
".",I-.
1 DOLOMITE
1 0 . 0 1 153

1
2
MICA SCHIST

2
@- '
REFER TO T E X l
".(I,-. (

".50-.
1
RRGE +2
1
(metamorphic zone)

............................................................................................................
I ~ ~ I I I ~ . L I2 L *3 ~ u 5 u
0 a .I I (. u L r c n 1 J II L R N u P Y R 5 I u Y n I 1 z ..
1111N L U U ~ ~ . 3 I D 15 111 15 30 35 301
104

Table 2-20
Log responses o f the principal metamorphic rocks (from Desbrandes, 1982).

I I
~~~
-
I21 Sound velocity
Thorium lranium Potassium Bulk
Origin Rocks (Th) (U) (K) Y'" 13
Specifique Sigma
PPm API g/cm3
PPm YO P
-
I
~~

Igneous or
volcanic Gneiss -
2.65 2.90 13 - 14 4 - 4.5 -3 I -
1 -
5.9 6.0 6.2 6.4
rocks

- - - - - -
4 7 -
5.0 5,2 -
Mica-Schist
Schist
8 11
-
128 260 2.75 2.85
- -
172 216 2.9 3,1 18 19 - - 4.1 - 3 - -
6.2 6.5 6.4 7.0
- 3.7
25 30
Shales
Phyllites 5-9 -
3 3.5 - -
108 156 2.75 2.8 17 - -
6 10 52 -

I
Quartzites
Sand -white 2-4 1 on9 - -
30 38 2.62 2.70 - 1,8
- 4.2 -2 -
6.0 6,l 6.2 - 6.3

I
-red -
37 41 -
5 10 0,5 - -
196 252 2.62 2.70
-
- 2.3
- 5.5 -2 - -
6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3

Calcitic
marble
- -
10 30 -
2.7 2.8 -7 -
5 5,2 0 -
6,0 6.2 -
Carbonates Dolomitic
-
marble

(1)GR (API) 4 Th (ppm) + 8U

-I-
(ppm) + 16 K (%)
-
10 30 -
2.8 2.9 -
6 - 6.5 0,s 4.7 + 2.5 -
6.9 7.1 -

(2)Compact rocks (CNL)

(3)From J. Tittman

2.12. AUTOMATIC LITHOLOGY hypervolumes, each of which corresponds to a

DETERMINATION -
THE LlTHO PROGRAM
Since each rock is composed of a certain
number of minerals in known proportions, and
whose log parameters are usually well-known, it
can be represented by an electrofacies (excluding
dipmeter data), and hence by a lithofacies. An
electro-lithofacies corresponds to a volume (a
hyper-ellipsoid) in the space of n dimensions
represented by the n log measurements. It can be
defined empirically from actual log responses to
the various rock types. Theoretically, it can be
determined from a knowledge of the mean minera-
logical composition of the rock determined statis-
tically from laboratory core analysis, and from a
knowledge of the log response to each of the
minerals or elements constituting the rock.
The LITHO method, then, consists initially of
esta b Iishing a 'Whofacies library"
2.12.1. Establishment of the Lithofacies
Database
The technique employed for defining the litho-
facies, and therefore for constituting the database,
consists of dividing a n-dimensional space into
major lithology type. Put more simply, it involves
defining on each plot the limits of the area
occupied by this type of lithology. This area
depends on several factors :
- the composition of the rock type in terms of
major minerals (allowing for a certain amount of
variation in content), and in terms of secondary
minerals which could affect tool responses (ra-
dioactivity, capture cross-section, or hydrogen
index). This may even be necessary for trace
minerals such as zircon, pyrite, uranium, boron or
gadolinium;
- the texture, which in turn affects porosity and
its distribution, as well as permeability, and hence
all the effects which depend on them, such as
invasion and tortuosity;
- the internal structure of the rock (homoge-
neity, bedding and vertical sorting);
- the response equations of each tool;
- the uncertainties on the measurements. These
volumes and surfaces must be determined both
practically and theoretically : theoretically from a
knowledge of the mineralogical composition of
each rock and the log responses to these minerals,
and practically by comparing crossplots of log
responses to each rock with laboratory core
analyses.
A discriminant function is defined for each
lithofacies which is maximal a t the centre of the
hypervolume, and zero on its boundaries.
 105

2.1 2.2. Comparison, Selection

and Establishment
of the Lithological Profile

The allocation of a reading level or a bed to a

lithofacies is based on the position of the selected
point in the n-dimensional space relative to the
hypervolumes defining each lithofacies. The pro-
cedure is statistical and is known as the Bayes
Criterion. The principle is to define a probability
distribution of log values for each lithofacies, and
to decide to which population the set of log
readings is closest. Several variants are possible :
- the point falls inside a single hypervolume. In
this case there is no ambiguity, and the selection
of lithofacies is clear;
- the point is shared by two or three hypervo-
lumes. The lithofacies with the highest discrimi-
nant function is selected. In effect, a discriminant
probability is calculated;
- the point is not inside any of the hypervolu-
mes. Several explanations are possible : poor
depth-matching of logs; badly calibrated or faulty
tool (e.g. cycle skips on the sonic); effect of
drilling fluid on one of the tools (e.g. barite on the
LDT or potassium on the NGS); effect of hole
washouts on one or more tools; incomplete litho-
facies database. All that is required in the last case
is to create the appropriate hypervolume.

Fig. 2-54.- Example of a lithological description obtained with

the LlTHO program in carbonate and evaporite sequences. A
comparison with core data in included (from Delfiner et a/., Fig. 2-53. - Example of a lithological description obtained with
1984). v the LlTHO program in a detrital sequence.

DOLO
EVAP
DOLO
LIME
DOLO
LIME

EVAP

LIME
DOLO

EVAP

LIME

PURE ANHYDRITE EVAP

ANHYDRITIC
LIME
M E D I U M POROUS10 2 5 P
TIGHT 0 10 PU
PURE ANHYDRITE EVAP
ANHYDRITIC DOLO

DOLOMITIC 2 5 35 PU LIME

EVAP

DOLO
LIME

EVAP

DOLO
106
Special logic is used to cope with these situa-
tions and with thin beds. On the other hand, the
selection program can be guided by specifying the
principal lithology in a given interval, with a view t o
removing certain lithofacies from the database
and hence avoiding possible confusion. This gui-
dance can be provided by analysis of other logs
(e.g. caliper, SP, resistivity), by local geological
knowledge or by adding information to a geologi-
cal database which can be consulted using artifi-
cial intelligence techniques.
Figs. 2-53 & 2-54 show two examples of results
obtained with the LITHO program developed by
Schlumberger. The usefulness of such an analysis
for obtaining a quick description of the vertical
lithological profile of the well, and ultimately for
choosing the mineralogical model for a quantita-
tive interpretation is clear. Results can also be
used for mapping purposes.
2.13. REFERENCES
ADAMS, J.A.S. (1954). - Uranium and Thorium
contents of volcanic rocks. In: Nuclear Geology.
J. Wiley & Sons, New-York.
ADAMS, J.A.S. & GASPARINI, P. (1970).
-Gamma-ray spectrometry of rocks. Elsevier
Publ. Co., Amsterdam.
ADAMS, J.A.S. & WEAVER, R. (1958). - Thorium to
Uranium ratio as indicator of Sedimentary
Processes: examples of concept of Geochemi-
cal facies. Bull. amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geol.,
42 , 2.
BARTH, T.F.W. (1952). - Theoretical Petrology.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
BAYLY, B.(1976). - Introduction a la petrologie.
Masson, Paris.
BILLINGS, M.P. (1972). - Structural Geology. 3d ed.
Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jer-
sey.
BLAlT, H., MIDDLETON, G. & MURRAY, R. (1980).
- Origin of Sedimentary Rocks. 2d ed. Pren-
tice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
BURKE, J.A., CURTIS, M.R. & COX, J.P. (1967).
-Computer Processing of Log Data enables
better Production in Chaveroo Field. J. Petro-
leum Technol.
CAILLERE, S . & HENIN, S. (1963). - Mineralogie
des argiles. Masson, Paris.
CAROZZI, A.V. (Ed.) (1975). -Sedimentary Rocks.
Benchmark Papers in Geology, 15 , Dowden,
Hutchinson & Ross, Inc., Stroudsburg, Pennsyl-
vania.
CHRISTENSEN, N.I. (1965). - Compressional wave
velocity in metamorphic rocks a t pressure to 10
kbars. J. Geophys. Research. Vol. 70, no. 24.
CLARK, S.P.Jr. (1966). - Handbook of Physical
constants. The Geol. Society of America.
CLARKE, F.W. &WASHINGTON, H.S. (1924). -The
composition of the Earth’s Crust. U. S. Geol.
Survey, Profess. Paper 127.
CLAVIER, C. & RUST, D.H. (1976). - MID-Plot: A
new Lithology Technique. The Log Analyst, 17,
6, p. 16.
COLLINSON J.D. & THOMPSON, D.B. (1982). -
Sedimentary Structures. George Allen & Unwin
Publ. Ltd., London.
DALY, R.A. (1933). - Igneous Rocks and the Depth
of the Earth. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
DALY, R.A., MANGER, G.E., & CLARK, S.P. Jr.
(1966). - Density of rocks. In: Handbook of
Physical Constants.
DEER, W.A., HOWIE, R.A. & ZUSSMAN, J. (1962).
- Rock-forming Minerals. Vol. 3. Sheet Silica-
tes. Longwan, London.
DELFINER, P., PEYRET, O., & SERRA, 0. (1984). -
Automatic determination of lithology from well
logs. 59th ann. Techn. Conf. of SPE of AIME,
Houston, paper SPE 13290.
DICKEY, P.A. (1979). - Petroleum Development
Geology. Petroleum Publishing Co, Tulsa.
DRAGOSET, M.A. (1977). - An Evaporite Analysis
in Southeastern New Mexico. Dresser Atlas
internal Report.
EDMUNDSON, H. & RAYMER, L.L. (1979). -Ra-
dioactive parameters for Common Minerals.
SPWLA, 20th Ann. Log. Symp. Trans., paper 0.
FELDER, B. & BOYELDIEU, C. (1979). - The Litho-
density Log. SPWLA, 6th Europ. Symp. Trans.,
paper 0.
FRIEDMAN, G.M. & SANDERS, J.E. (1978). -Prin-
ciples of Sedimentology. John Wiley & Sons,
New York.
GARRELS, R.M. & MACKENSIE, F.T. (1971). -Evo-
lution of Sedimentary rocks. Norton, W.W. &
Co, New York.
GRIM, R.E. (1968). - Clay Mineralogy. McGraw-
Hill Co., New York.
HAILE, P.M. & BLUNDEN, H.A. (1984). - Zechstein
Magnesium rich Evaporite Deposits of northern
Netherlands and their Volumetric analysis by
GLOBAL. SAID-SPWLA, 9th International Log.
Symp. Trans., Paris, paper 37.
HEIER, K.S. & ADAMS, J.A.S. (1965). - Concen-
tration of radioactive elements in deep cristal
materials. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 29,
p. 53-62.
HENKEL, H. (1976). - Studies of density and
magnetic properties of Rocks from Northern
Sweden. Padeagh 214.
HOBBS, B.E., MEANS, W.D. & WILLIAMS, P.F.
(1976). - An outline of Structural geology. John
Wiley & Sons, New York.
HOBSON, G.D. & TIRATSOO, E.N. (1975). - Intro-
duction to Petroleum Geology. Scientific Press
Ltd, Beaconsfield, England.
HOSSIN, A. (1969). - Interpretation des diagra-
phies en zones carbonatees et evaporitiques.
Bull. A. F. T.P., 193, p. 47-69.
JUNG, J. (1958). - Precis de petrographie. Masson,
Paris.
KELLER, G.V., MURRAY, J.C. & TOWLE, G.H.
(1974). - Geophysical Logs from the Kilauea

Geothermal Research Drill Hole. SPWLA, 15th
Ann. Log. Symp. Trans., paper L.
KERHERVE, J. (1977). - Notes prepared for an
advanced seminar on interpretation of well logs
in volcanic rocks.
KHATCHIKIAN, A. (1982). - Log Evaluation of
Oil-Bearing Igneous Rocks. SPWLA, 23d Ann.
Log. Symp. Trans., paper AA.
KLEIN, G. deVries (1980). - Sandstone Depositional
Models for Exploration for Fossils Fuels. 2d ed.
CEPCO Div., Burgess Publishing Co., Cham-
paign, Illinois.
KRUMBEIN, W.C. (1959). - The tetrahedron as a
facies mapping device. J. Sed. Petrol., 2 4 , 1, p.
3- 19.
KRUMBEIN, W.C. & SLOSS, L.L. (1963). -Strati-
graphy and Sedimentation. 2d ed. W.H. Freeman
& Co, San Francisco.
KRYNINE, P.D. (1948). - The megascopic study and
field classification of sedimentary rocks. J.
Geology, 56 , p. 130-165.
LANDES, K.K. (1951). - Petroleum Geology. John
Wiley & Sons, New York.
LARSEN, E.S. Jr. & PHAIR, G. (1954). - The
distribution of uranium and thorium in igneous
rocks. In: Nuclear Geology. J. Wiley et Sons,
New- York.
LEET, L.Don, JUDSON, S. & KAUFFMAN, M.E.
(1978). - Physical Geology. 5th ed. Prentice-Hall
lnc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
LEITH, C.K. & MEAD, W.J. (1951). - Metamorphic
rocks. Henry Holt et Co, New-York.
LINK, P.K. (1982). - Basic Petroleum Geology. OGCI
Publications, Tulsa.
LOMBARD, A. (1956). - Geologie Sedimentaire.
Les series marines. Masson, Paris.
LOMBARD, A. (1972). - Series sedimentaires.
Genese - Evolution. Masson, Paris.
MATHEWS, R.K. (1974). - Dynamic Stratigraphy.
Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jer-
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MAYER, C. & SIBBIT, A. (1980). - GLOBAL, a new
Approach to Computer-processed Log Interpre-
tation. SPE of AIME, Fall Mtg., Dallas, SPE 9341.
PERRODON, A. (1980). - Geodynamique petroliere.
Genese et repartition des gisements d’hydro-
ca rbures. Masson, Paris.
PElTIJOHN, F.J. (1975). - Sedimentary Rocks. 3d
ed. Harper & Row, Publishers, New York.
PETIJOHN, F.J., POTER, P.E. & SIEVER, R.
(1972). - Sand and Sandstone. Springer, New
York.
POlTER, P.E. & PETTIJOHN, F.J. (1977). - Paleo-
currents and Basin Analysis. 2d ed. Springer,
New York.
PRESS, F. (1966). - Seismic Velocities. In: Hand-
book of Physical Constants.
107
PRESS, F. & SIEVER, R. (1978). - Earth. 2d ed. W.H.
Freeman & Co, San Francisco.
RAGAN, D.M. (1973). - Structural Geology. John
Wiley & Sons, New York.
READING, H.G. (Ed.) (1978). - Sedimentary Envi-
ronm ent s a nd Facies . Black well Scientific Publi-
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REINECK, H.E. & SINGH, I.B. (1975). - Depositional
Sed iment a ry Environment s . Springer, New
York.
RITCH, H.J. (1975). - An open hole logging evalua-
tion in metamorphic rocks. SPWLA, Ann. Log.
Symp. Trans., Paper V.
RUSSELL, W.L. (1951). - Principles of Petroleum
Geology. McGraw-Hill Book Co, New York.
Schlumberger Ltd (1974). - Log Interpretation.
Volume II - Applications.
Schlumberger Technical Services, lnc. (1982). -Es-
sentials of NGS Interpretation.
SANYAL, S.K., WELLS, L.E. & BICKHAM, R.E.
(1980). - Geothermal Well Log Interpretation.
State of the Art. Final Report. Los Alamos
Scientific Laboratory, LA-8211-MS.
SCHOLE, P.A. & SPEARING, D. (Ed.) (1982). -
Sa nd sto ne Depositiona I Environ ment s . A mer.
Assoc. Petroleum Geol., Mem. 31.
SELLEY, R.C. (1978). - Ancient Sedimentary Envi-
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SELLEY, R.C. (1976). - An Introduction to Sedimen-
tology. Academic Press, London.
SHAND, S.J. (1951). - Eruptive rocks. 4th Ed. John
Wiley & Sons, lnc., New York.
SMITHSON, S.B. (1971). - Density of metamorphic
rocks. Geophysics, 36, 4.
PIRSSON, L.V. (1949). - Principles of Geochemis-
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Rock Minerals. 3d ed. John Wiley & Sons, lnc.,
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TURNER, F.J. & VERHOOGEN, J.(1951). - Igneous
and Metamorphic Petrology. McGraw-Hill Book
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WEDEPOHL, K.H (1969). - Handbook of Geoche-
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WEST, & LAUGHLIN, A.W. (1976). - Spectral
Gamma Logging in crystalline basement rocks.
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WHITFIELD, J.M., ROGERS, J.J.W. & ADAMS,
J.A.S. (1959). - The relationship between the
Petrology and the Thorium and Uranium
contents of some granitic rocks. Geochim. et
Cosmochim. Acta, 17.
WILSON, J.L. (1975). - Carbonate Facies in Geolo-
gic History. Springer, New York.
 Chapter 3
INFORMATION ON TEXTURE
(Rock description)
3.1. REVIEW OF PETROGRAPHIC CONCEPTS
Before explaining how t o extract textural infor-
mation from wireline logs it is important t o review
some concepts which will help in the understan-
ding of the links between well logging data and
textural parameters.
3.1.1. Definition
The texture covers the geometrical aspects of
the constituent components of rocks : grains or
particles and crystals, i.e. their size, shape, appea-
rance, their arrangements and sorting; also the
grain-grain, grain-matrix or grain-cement boun-
dings.
Texture plays a very important part in sedimen-
tary rocks, because the petrophysical properties
of a rock, hence its porosity and permeability,
depend essentially on texture.
According t o the origin of the rocks, Krumbein
& Sloss (1963) distinguish :
- fragmental texture, more specific t o detrital
rocks;
- crystalline texture, more specific t o chemical
or eruptive rocks.
3.1.2. Components of texture
Regardless of the type of texture, sedimentary
rocks are marked by the textural characteristics of
three components :
- grains, or particles, and crystals;
- matrix, that corresponds t o the finest mate-
rials filling interstices, or holes, between the
grains;
- cement, binding the grains and the matrix.
These components may have different minera-
logical compositions. Figure 3-1 shows the consti-
tuent minerals of the different textural compo-
nents, depending on the type of detrital rocks.
These components are not necessarily present
all together in the same rock. For example in
medium-grained and very well-sorted sand there
will be neither matrix nor cement. A consolidated,
medium-grained, well-sorted sandstone has no
matrix, but contains a cement that can be sili-
ceous, calcitic or dolomitic, sideritic, or halitic ...
The grains and matrix are generally associated,
because they are most often deposited together
(sand grains in an argillaceous matrix, or pebbles
in a sandy matrix). As for cement, it is always
post-depositional, being the result of chemical
precipitation in the pore space.
As shown by Krumbein & Sloss (1963), the
study of texture must be subdivided into three
categories depending on the nature of sedimen-
tary rocks :
- purely chemical rocks, such as halite, gypsum,
anhydrite ... The texture of these rocks is characte-
rized only by the crystalline system, the size and
imbrication of crystals;
- partly chemical or biochemical and partly
detrital rocks, such as carbonates, for which the
three textural components play, in turn or simulta-
neously, a very important part;
- detrital rocks, for which the three components
play a very important part.
Detrital rocks will be discussed first.
3.2. TEXTURE OF DETRITAL ROCKS
According t o Krumbein & Sloss (1963), the final
texture of a sediment is influenced by six funda-
mental properties :
- grain size and its variation that will control the
sorting;
- shape (or sphericity) of grains (Fig. 3-2);
- roundness;
- surface texture;
- grain orientation or fabric;
- mineralogical composition. This is not, pro-
 ROCK
COMPONENTS TEXTURE

Fig. 3-1. - Textural components of rock.

perly speaking, a textural parameter, but depends 3.2.1. Influence of Grain Properties on Reservoir
upon : Characteristics
. density, hence the rate of sedimentation of
each component; Porosity and permeability are the main petro-
. possibility of dissolution (solubility) or of physical characteristics of a reservoir.
alteration, consequently the ulterior formation of Beard & Weyl (1973) showed that the primary
cement; porosity and permeability of a detrital sediment,
. wettability of rock. which has just been deposited, depend on five
These different properties affect reservoir cha- variables : size, sorting, shape, roundness, orienta-
racteristics. Their influences will be studied in tion and arrangement of grains.
detail in the next sections.
3.2.1.l.Influence of grain size
Porosity is theoretically independent of grain
size. An arrangement of spheres with uniform size,
which present the same organization, will have the
same porosity, regardless of size. This ideal situa-
tion, which corresponds to a maximum sorting
rarely occurs in nature. It can sometimes be
observed in washed or winnowed sands, and more
frequently in oolitic sands. Figure 3-3 from Dodge
etal. (1971), seems to confirm that, above a certain
level of porosity reflecting the best sorting and the
absence of cement, the porosity is independant of
grain size.
In fact, Lee (1919), Von Engelhardt (1960) (Fig.
3-4) discussing ancient sedimentary rocks, and
Rogers & Head (1961) (Fig. 3-5), and Pryor (1973),
on the subject of contemporary sands, show that
porosity decreases slightly, when grain size in-
01 03 05 07 09 creases. This evolution is probably due to a
ROUNDNESS number of factors which have only an indirect
Fig. 3-2. - Sphericity and roundness of particles (from Krum- connection to grain size. Finer sands have a
bein & Sloss, 1963, fig. 4-10). tendency to be more angular and are likely to be
 111

20 -
a
21
2
-
30 - >-
I0
-
k
4 -

1
m 5 -
' 1
b-'
>-
4
w
s
a
-
-
. .
cIn 20 - W

a
0
.. .. a
r

2 - .'
I
I
I0 20 30 40

MEAN GRAIN SIZE, @unit#

Fig. 3-6. - Relationship between permeability and mean grain
size for all the samples coming from sandstones of Paluxy
Formation, Texas (from Dodge e t a / . , 1971).

. o
a
I 20 u) 40
MEAN GRAIN SIZE. Bunits
Contrarily, as demonstrated by Dodge er a/.,
Fig. 3-3. - Relationship between porosity and mean grain size
for all samples coming from sandstones of Paluxy Formation,
(1971) (Fig. 3-6), in a well-calibrated sand permea-
Texas (from Dodge et a/., 1971). bility increases when the size of the grain increa-
ses. This is easily understood because the size of
pores and the canals (throats) which connect the
pores to one another are governed by grain size :
the smaller the grains, the smaller the pores and
the section of the canals will be. Thus, capillary
attraction will be stronger and permeability will be
less (Fig. 3-6).

3.2.1.2. Influence of sorting

MEDIAN DIAMETER,
Fig. 3-4. - Relationship between porosity and mean diameter
of grains in Bentheimer sandstones (from von Engelhardt,
1960).
As investigated by Rogers & Head (1961) poro-
sity and permeability increase when sorting in-
creases (Fig. 3-7). In fact, in a poorly-sorted sand,
the small grains (matrix) are set in interstices left
by the coarser grains. Thus, the matrix invades the
large pores and fills up the big canals.
The combined influence of grain size and sor-
ting on porosity and permeability has been studied
by Beard & Weyl (1973). It is illustrated by Fig. 3-8.

POROSITY, %
Fig. 3-5. - Relationship between porosity and mean diameter
of sand grains for several different sorting coefficients. A :
SO = 2.086; B : SO = 1.625; C : SO = 1.279; D : SO = 1.128; E :
So = 1.061 (from Rogers & Head, 1961).
29 33 37 41 45 I
POROSITY, 9.
Fig. 3-7. - Relationship between porosity and sorting coeffi-
organized according to a less dense arrangement. cient of sands for different grain sizes. A : median diameter
Thus, they present a higher porosity than sands m d = 0.106 mm; B : m d = 0.151 mm; C : m d = 0.213 mm; D :
with coarser grains. m d = 0.335 m m (from Rogers & Head, 1961).
112

10 20 40 RIVER
3,O I

MORAINE 15”-30°
MORAINE ~ BEACH 1
20’. 250 regularFlow periodicflow 1 5 ~
I
~ ~ ~

max 40° steepslope gentleslope

o5
I

V. POOR
PLAN
?l=a-z
8-so’
00 0
FINE
o4
V. FINE
GRAIN SIZE

I
o3
I

Fig. 3-9. - Schematic representation of the pebble orientation

in different environments (from Rukhin, 1958).

102

10

1 Fig. 3-10. - Grain orientation and directions of maximum

permeability in channel and bar sand bodies, upper and lower
respectively (from Pryor, 1973, in Selley, 1976, fig. 15).

10 20 30 40 4f’
Fig. 3-8. - Relationship between porosity and permeability for
different grain size and sorting (from Beard & Weyl. 1973).

3.2.1.3. Influence of shape and roundness

of grains
It seems that shape and roundness affect inter-
granular porosity. Fraser (1935) came to the
conclusion that sediments composed of spherical
grains have lower porosity than those formed by
’.
grains with less sphericity He attributed this to
the fact that in the first type the grains tend to
settle according to a denser arrangement than in
the second type. Less spherical grains can pack
together in a way that creates wider volumes b)
between them.
The influence of shape and roundness on Fig. 3-11. - Orientation of flakes. a) : flakes deposited under
permeability is not still well known, but we observe gravity action; b) : flakes deposited under combined action of
gravity and current (from Potter & Pettijohn, 1971, fig. 3-2).
that permeability follows the fluctuations of poro-
sity in connection with variations in shape and
roundness.
quantification of the orientation of small sized
grains (sand, silt ...) is much more difficult. Howe-
3.2.1.4. Influence of the orientation of grains ver, for non-spherical grains it is generally obser-
ved that the orientation of grains is the same as
The orientation of particles is defined by refe- the orientation of their axis of maximum elonga-
rence to a horizontal plane and to the direction of
tion and is parallel to the direction of current. On
current.
the whole, the orientation of non-phyllitic (non-
The orientation of pebbles is generally well-
shaly) grains has no influence on porosity. On the
defined, because their size makes observation
contrary, it has a very strong influence on permea-
relatively easy (Fig. 3-9). The measurement and
bility or more precisely on anisotropy or the
direction of highest permeability. Thus, in channel
’ Grains with natural shapes are considered. A packing of
sands, the direction of maximum permeability is
bricks - no sphericity - would generate a rock without any
porosity. parallel to the axis of the elongation of sand
 113

bodies. In a littoral bar sands, maximum permeabi-

lity is perpendicular t o the axis of elongation of
sand bodies, but is parallel to the dominant
direction of currents (Fig. 3-10). The orientation of
phyllitic particles (shales) will be the same as the
orientation of their large sides that are parallel to
the plane of stratification (Fig. 3-1 1).

3.2.1.5. Influence of packing

According t o Graton 8 4 Fraser (1935), simple
geometrical packing of equal-sized spheres are
made in six different manners (Fig. 3-12). They
proved that porosity varies according to packing
from 47.64 Oh for the most (( open )) arrangement to

,n,, , I
25.95 % for the most compact or (( closed )).
Allen (1984) made a complete review of several

1
types of 'packing (ordered, random or haphazard)

1 ,I, , I , , I ,
1001
I I I I 1 I

-1
of particles of different shapes /spheres, prolate

1
and oblate spheroids). He concluded that (( regular
particles ... may form packing of all three kinds,
Orth[rhombici+
whereas natural particles, which are irregular, can .
I Rhombohedra1 Cubic

El,./, ,

of33
,, Tetragonal
nc = 6 0 = 47.64% nc = 8 0 = 39.54 nc = 12 0 = 25.95

83 Case 1

cubic
Case 2

haxagonal
Case 3

rhombohedra1
Q

0.1
20 30
Porosity, percent
40 50

Fig. 3-13. - Porosity vs permeability for some ideal geometric

packings of 500 pm-diameter spheres
nc = 8 039.54

83 Q F 2 b
nc = 10 0 = 30.19 nc = 12 0 = 25.95%
(courtesy of R. Nurmi).

only form packings of random or haphazard

Case 4 Case 5 Case 6
kinds. )) In fact, regular particles can exist in
nature. They correspond to oolites. He also
orthorhombic tetragonal triclinic concluded that porosity is decreased by a (( wide-
ning of the range of particles sizes present in
nc = total number of contacts per grain mixture D, but is increased (( by an increase of
porosity
particule angularity and surface roundness, and by
90 00
60 60 the inclusion of strongly anisometric particles N.
It seems obvious that permeability must follow
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
a comparable evolution, because the section of
pores and capillaries in compact arrangement is
90 0" 60 -3.
smaller than in others. Figure 3-13 shows the
theoretical variations in permeability for ideal
Case 4 Case 5 Case 6 geometric packings of 500 pm-diameter spheres.
nci = 1 nci = 2 nci = 4
Naturally, the most (( open 1) arrangements do
not, in fact, ever occur in ancient formations; very
soon under the influence of compaction the grains
are organized according to the most (( closed ))
arrangement. The influence of compaction will be
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
studied in chapter 8 as it also affects the form of
nci : number of lower contacts grains.
nci = 1 nci = 2 per grain nci = 3

3.2.1.6. Influence of the mineralogical

composition of grains
Case 4 Case 5 Case 6
Grains composed of heavy and denser minerals
Fig. 3-12.- The six possible geometric arrangements of equal will be deposited with the minerals of the same
size spheres (from Graton & Fraser, 1935). weight, i.e. with less density, but with bigger size.
114
Fig. 3-14. - The three types and distributions of dispersed authigenic clay minerals in pore space (from Neasham, 1977).
This situation will lead to a decreasing of sorting,
therefore of porosity and permeability.
Grains composed of unstable or chemically
immature minerals (pyroxene, amphibole, mica,
feldspar, ...) will influence porosity of the sedi-
ments in which they occur. Their ulterior alteration
will cause the formation of authigenic clay mine-
rals (kaolinite, montmorillonite, illite, chlorite, ...)
which will surround the grains or invade the pore
space, thus, causing major reductions in porosity
and permeability (Fig. 3-14). But the type and
distribution of authigenic clay minerals must also
be considered because they affect the permeabi-
lity in a different way (Fig. 3-15). Their influence
has been studied by Neasham (1977).
Discrete-particule or pore- filling clay minerals
 115

the existence and distribution of permeability

looonT-t--ret
barriers.

' o
Particles composed of soluble minerals (calcite,
dolomite ,...) lead to the creation of a secondary
porosity by their ulterior dissolution and the elimi-
I Discrete Particle
nation of the solution by hydrodynamism. They can
also obliterate porosity and consequently permea-
100: bility by solution and formation of cement by
-- b precipitation of new crystals in the pore space. The
- diagenetic influences will be analysed later in
- 0 -
E Pore Lining Chapter 7.
4
s: 10;
.--.- - -
- 1

n -
m -
0) 3.2.2. Influence of other Textural Components
E -
0" 1.0- on Reservoir Characteristics
I - -
-
3 1 The other textural components, matrix and
- Pore Bridging

b-lt
cement also have an important influence on the
0.1 petrophysical characteristics of detrital reservoirs.
When the percentage of matrix and/or cement
. increases, the porosity and permeability diminish,
since the fine particles, that make up the matrix,
and the cement tend to occupy the pore space
between the coarser elements.
The matrix is really an important component
only in conglomerates, whereas in sands it is
Fig. 3-15. - Influences on porosity and permeability of the
distribution type of authigenic clay minerals. Data from present only in very poorly sorted sand bodies.
Neasham's study of 14 sandstones (from Neasham, 1977). Cement is developed after deposition either by
chemical interaction between unstable grains and
formation water, or by circulation in the pore
space of solutions under hydrodynamic forces.
These different influences are synthesized in
(for example kaolinite (( books N) are characterized Table 3-1.
by uneven distribution in the pore space. Crystals
can reach large size (more than 10 pm). As crystals
grow, pore space and permeability decrease,
although there is always a small amount of
microporosity between individual plates.
Pore-lining clay minerals, essentially illite, chlo-
rite and montmorillonite, coat the pore walls with
a thin layer of flakes that are parallel or perpendi-
cular to the pore wall (Fig. 3-14b), but the growth
does not reach far into the pore space. A large / - ff
amount of microporosity can be present between / L 7

\7 7
flakes, although these pores are less than pm in / // N
diameter. This type of authigenic clay greatly
reduces permeability and also influences many of / \ \
(effect of compaction)
the rock's electrical properties because it can
considerably increases the surface area. MATRIX percentage / \ \
Pore-bridging cIa ys, fund a ment a Ily iIIite fibers CEMENT percentage /' \ \
(Fig. 3-14c), are connected across the pore space.
This type causes major reductions in permeability,
since bridging is most easily attained across the
throats, and also it reduces the size of the pores.
Porosity is less affected because microporosity is 3.3. TEXTURE OF CARBONATE ROCKS
preserved between the very fine fibers.
From the previous remarks, it seems obvious
that the knowledge of the type of distribution The texture of carbonate rocks depends on the
(laminated, structural or dispersed), and of the relative percentage of three components (parti-
nature of the clay minerals is of the utmost cles, matrix and cement), and on the type of
importance to predict the permeability range and distribution of pores (Fig. 3-16).
116

BASIC POROSITY TYPES

I FABRIC SELECT%] r NOT FABRIC SELECTIVE

INTERPARTICLE BP

FRACTURE FR
INTRAPARTICLE WP

CHANNEL" CU

rJ
INTERCRYSTAL BC

MOLDlC MO
VUG" VUG

FENESTRAL FE

CAVERN " cv
SHELTER SH

GROWTH- *Cavrrn appliat lo man s m d or larl)rr porat ot

FRAYEWORK GF Cnannal or vug thopat

I FABRIC SELECTIVE OR NOT I

I MODIFYING TERMS
SIZE" MODIFIERS
CLASSES mm'

SOLUTION I ENLARGED I
small
CEYENTATION C REDUCED r
lorpr lms
INTERNAL SEDIYENT i FILLED f YESOPORE ms ,moll

I TIME 1
I/l&
OF FORMATION

PRIMARY P
pt -depositional PP
dtpositionol Pd
SECONDARY S
I 9 I 'Ywunes r e l n la m r a q a PI* diameter of a I
sm
st

Genetic modifws ore cunbinrd as follows ABUNDANCE MODIFIERS

percent porosity (15%)

EXANPLES: -
rolutlon tnlorqed
cement .rrduced primary
sediment-filled ff9 ratio and percent (I 21 (15%)

Fig. 3-16. - Porosity types in carbonates (from Choquette & Pray, 1970, fig. 2)

These different parameters are used to classify
the carbonate rocks (Fig. 3-17 and Table 3-2).
It is obvious that porosity and permeability
depend on texture as illustrated by Fig. 3-18 which
shows their dependence on the texture of the
carbonate rocks.
But, in these rocks we have to distinguish the
original characteristics, i.e. those existing a t the
time of deposition, from present characteristics. In
fact, the original texture may have been deeply
modified as a result of diagenetic phenomena that
are often precocious and more important in these
formations than in detrital series. These modifica-
tions in texture consequently bring about a change
in the reservoir characteristics themselves.
This is why these characteristics arise more
from diagenetic phenomena that from texture, and
why the study of porosity is so essential.
 117

Lithoclasts S.S. (= extraclasts)

grains of non carbonate materials; ex : quartz
Detrital grains, chert, anhydrite, phosphates,...
grains lntraclasts
fragments of reworked carbonate rocks which
originated within the depositional basin.
Skeletal fragments
(= bioclasts)

Peloids
(pellets; coprolites = foecal pellets)
Particles
or Composite grains ( = grapestone)
Peloids bonded by micrite
grains Lumps
or (WOLF, algal lumps
1960) Peloids coated by algal laminae.
Allochems

Ooliths
Nucleus (of quartz or skeletal grain) with
accretion of calcite (or silica or hematite)
with concentric or radial structure, are
grown in suspension in an agitating medium
Coated (high energy environment)
I Pisoliths,
grains Pisoliths form in caverns (cave pearls) or in
caliche crusts beneath weathered zones
(vadose pisoliths)

Algal encrusted grains ( = oncoliths)

oncoliths are formed by primitive blue-green
algae (schizophycae or Cyanophycae)
growing on a grain and attracting carbonate
mud t o their sticky surface.

Micrite : carbonate mud (maxi, crystal size :

10 PI
- may be encountered in small quantities within
Matrix a grain-supported carbonate
- may be so abundant that it forms a carbonate
mudrock termed :
micrite or calcilutite
Orthochemi Clays :
microsparite (crystal size between
(FOLK, 195: Calcite (10 km and 80 km)
Sparite (crystal size 80 km)
Cement
(growth of dolomicrosparite
crystals Dolomite

within dolosparite
a pore space
Anhydrite

-
Silica

Pores

Fig. 3-17. - The textural components of carbonates.

118

Table 3-2
The Dunham‘s classification of carbonate rocks
based on depositional texture
(from Dunham, 1962).

Boundstone -Original components bound together in life, i.e. biogcnic reefs

Mudstone
<lo% grains
Mud supported
Wackeatone } Containmud

I
>lO%grains Original con.
stituenta not
Packstone bound together
Grain supported during life
Grainstone
<lo% micrite
Crystalline carbonate - Primary dcpoiitional fabric destroyed by rccryrullization

Wackestone and Mudstone

0.01
4 Fig. 3-18. - Relationship between porosity and permeability for
0 10 20 30 the five Dunham limestone classification (from Nurmi &
Porosity, percent Frisinger, 1983).

Table 3-3
Different types of porosity in carbonate rocks.
Time Type Illustration Origin

Redepositional

i
Interparticle
or Sofia
Intergraaular and
Dcpo$itiod PWhnS
Skltcr
Framework
Growth-framework accretion

Inrercryrtalliue Replacement

hinured Organic or
Fencstnl(’) phyucd
(= Bird’s eye) &sruptlon
Imp&

Moldic

~ h n ( Ie) ~
Soluhon
Post depositional* vug. ( 3 )

Cavern ( I )

Fracture Physical or
orgaruc
Breccia dsruption

Boring Orgmc
&srupuon
Burrow
W
Shrinkage Dehydranon
 119

Table 3-4 3.4. H O W TO OBTAIN INFORMATION

Comparison between porosity in sandstones and O N TEXTURE FROM WELL LOGGING
limestones
(from Choquette & Pray, 1970).
The influence of textural components on log
parameters is summarized in Table 3-5.
Aspect Sandstone Carbonare
Thus, it clearly appears that some log measu-
Amount ofpri- Commonly 25- Commonly 4&70% rements contain within themselves textural infor-
mary porosity 40%
in sediments mation. But it is not always simple t o determine
Amount of Commonly Commonly none or only smell
the origin of influence because several textural
ultimateporos- half or more of fraction of initial porosity; 5- parameters may have similar effects. However, if
ity in rocks initial porosity ; I5 % common in reservoir
15-30% com- facies we reexamine the problem, according to type of
mon rock, it is sometimes possible t o perceive the
Type($ of pri- Almost exclu- Interparticle commonly pre- privileged influence of certain parameters. This is
mary porosity sively inter- dominates, but intraparticle what we are going t o analyse now.
particle and other types are important

Typds) of ulti- Almost exclu- Widely varied because of post-

mate porosity sively primary depositional modifications 3.4.1. Poorly-Consolidated Clastic Formation
interparticle
(Sand-Shale)
Sires of pores Diameter and Diameter and throat sizes com-
throat sizes monly show little relation to
closely related sedimentary particle size or In this type of rock, texture is fundamentally
to sedimentary sorting
particle size linked t o the properties of grains, whereas the
and sorting matrix and cement, in particular, are the minor
Shape of pores Strong depen- Greatly varied, ranges from components. In this special case the purpose of
dence o n par-strongly dependent “positive” log study will be t o obtain, if possible, information
tick shape-a or “negative” of particles to
“negative” of form completely independent on the size of grains, their sorting, arrangement,
particles of shapes of depositional or
diagenetic components and orientation.
Uniformity of Commonly Variable, ranging from fairly
sire. shape. and fairly uniform uniform to extremely hetero- 3.4.1.1. Grain Size
distribution within homo- geneous, even within body
geneoua body made up of single rock type
There is no general universal relation between
Influence of Minor; usually Major; can create. obliterate, the grain size and a log measurement. Neverthe-
diagenesis minor reduc- or completely modify porosity;
tion of primary cementation and solution im- less, in a number of cases we often observe,
porosity by portant regionally, a very clear correction between the log
compaction
and cementation and the size of grains.
Influence of Generally not Of major importance in reser-
Different authors (Sarma et a/., 1963; Alger,
fracturing of major im- voir properties if present 1966) showed the existence of a correlation bet-
portance in ween resistivity, or the factor of formation, and the
reservoir prop-
erties size of grains (Fig. 3-19).
Visual evalua- Semiquantita- Variable; semiquantitative vis-
tion of porosity tive visual esti- ual estimates range from easy
and perme- mates com- to virtually impossible; instru-
Remark
ability monly rela. ment measurements of pQros- In the example of this figure for the same value
tively easy ity, permeability and capillary
pressure commonly needed of R, the formation factor increases when the size
of grains increases. This seems to contradict the
Adequacy of Core plugs of Core plugs commonly inade-
core analysis I-in. diameter quate; even whole cores(-Xn. commonly accepted relation. This situation is
for reservoir commonly ade- diameter) may be inadequate undoubtedly due to the fact that in fresh water
evaluation quate for “ma- for large pores
trix” porosity formations the importance of surface’s conduc-
Permeability- Relatively con- Greatly varied; commonly in-
tance increases when the size of grains reduces.
porosity inter- sistent; com- dependent of particle size and Other authors have observed relations between
relations monly depen- sorting a well logging parameter and grain size.
dentpn particle
size and sorting In the examples of Fig. 3-20 it is obvious that a
correlation exists between gamma-ray and grain
size measured on core samples. Gamma-ray in-
creases when grain size decreases, because ra-
dioactivity is linked with the finest grains. These
fine grains consist of clay minerals. Further analy-
sis shows that these minerals are fundamentally of
Table 3-3 illustrates the different types of detrital (or allogenic) origin and are of structural or
porosity, and links them with original phenomenon laminated type. Indeed, it is hardly conceivable
and with time of pore formation. Table 3-4, from that authigenic clays occupying the pore space
Choquette & Pray (1970), illustrates the differences would show such evolution, because in this case
between porosity in carbonate rocks and that in the percentage in the rock does not significantly
detrital rocks. evolve with granulometry.
120

Table 3-5
Relationship between textural parameters and well log responses
(from Serra, 1984).

/ TEXTURAL PARAYElERS
RESERVOIR CHARACTERISTICS
DEPENDING ON TEXTURAL
PARAMETERS
WELL LOGGING PARAMETERS
AFFECTED
RELEVAW
LOGGING
TOOLS
I
\ e POROSITY 0
SIZE

I
LL,Lb,SFL,IL
TOTAL POROSITY Ot Ib,ML,MLL.MSFL
R,pb,lH,At,Z.tpl.P.
ROUNDNESS FDC.LDT,CNL (w
PARTICLES SHAPE SPHERICITY PRIMARY POROSITY ' 0,
SNP),BHC,TDT,
OR EPT,GST
GRAINS EFFECTIVE POROSITY 0,

SORTING
PACKING LL,Lb,SFL,IL,
ORIENTATION D TORTUOSITY OR m R,F,At.$I
Ib.ML,MLL,MSFL,
CEMENTATION FACTOR BHC,EPT

I
k
SIZE OF PORES AND THROATS
PERCENTAGE WHICH CONTROL
TEXTURE MATRIX
NATURE PERMEABILITY k LL.Lb,SFL,IL
Ib,ML,MLL,MSFL
HORIZONTAL kH SP

VERTICAL kV SP "e shape SP

e WETTABILITY

PERCENTAGE
e ANISOTROPY eA LL.Lb,SFL,IL,,
CEMENT Ib,MLL,MSFL
NATURE

L
a
\
0
0:

Fig. 3-19. - Relationship between formation factor, resistivity and grain size (from Sarrna & Rao, 1963)

The (( bell )) or (( funnel )) shapes of spontaneous
potential, gamma-ray, or resistivity curves (Fig.
3-21) introduced by SHELL geologists around 1956,
are another application of this relation between a
curve and a textural parameter.
In these cases if we cannot precisely define the
absolute grain size without preliminary calibration,
we are nevertheless always able to determine a
relative size. These shapes (Fig. 3-22), in fact,
explain the normal graded-bedding ((( fining up-
ward ))) or reverse graded-bedding ((( coarsening
upward n). In other words we can conclude that
distribution of the shales is essentially of structural
and/or laminated type.
 121

RESISTIVITV CURVES
INTERPRETITlOl

Fig. 3-20. - Correlation between natural radioactivity and grain Fig. 3-22. - Example of structural and partly laminated shales
size (from Serra & Sulpice, 1975). as they can b e recognized on dipmeter resistivity curves. This
figure is an enlargement of one sequence of Fig. 3-27 (bet-
ween 34.5 and 37 ft).

ABRUPT GRADUAL

-
C Y I M M R SHAPE
SMOOTH
bed
BELL SHAPE= fining upward sequence

FUNNEL SHAPE = coarsening upward sequence I EGG SHAPE = @

rH SERRATED

Fig. 3-21. - Relationship between SP curve shape and grain size or shaliness (adapted from SHELL'S documents).

We can also convert these curves into shale The relation between radioactivity and granu-
percentage and into permeability if a preliminary lometry is not always proved. It may happen that
calibration was done with the help of core measu- the silty levels are more radioactive than shales
rements (Fig. 3-23). (Fig. 3-24). In this case it is necessary to have
122

!'
,,. ,.
Number of sampler 1401 Frq.
, '
Pmakli
........................................
,
I. , > I , , , , > 8.
(ma
I,
I. 1.7 1.1 I* I?

Grain size ',.,,

a
......... ......... ...................
(0sca1e) 3 -16qO' Frequensyi Plat
'.. \ Shaliness
'..\
'..\ 100%
.i
4 -100
kq.. ......... ......... ...................
\ ....,..
\
/"*
....
/
\
5 -10 \, .... ......... ...................
('rommre' -1 '\
\
...........
'.. I
: Th,. = 2.4
0 0 0 : .
0 00
. . . .! . . .
8 WIO
RWDTI Number of sampler 1401 Preq

Fig. 3-23. - Schematic relationships between dipmeter resisti-

ssp
.5000.
..................................................
vity on one hand, and grain size, shaliness and permeability on
the other hand. These relationships are applicable t o the case
illustrated by Fig. 3-27.

7m

1 4
K

Fig. 3-25. - Examples of crossplots of SSP vs thorium (a), and

potassium (b) contents. They define the Thrh and Kshfor shales.
The thorium and potassium contents of u clean w sands sug-
15m
gest the presence of radioactive minerals such as feldspars,
micas and zircon. They show the existence of silts more
radioactive than shales.

7m
0
I
4 ohms miim
radlaacbv,y 01
the SAak

Fig. 3-24. - Example of silts being more radioactive than shales.

The grain size evolution can still be detected on resistivity, SP
and neutron curves (from Serra & Sulpice, 1975).

several log recordings, enabling the determination

of grain size. The (( crossplot)) combining two
logs, such as gamma ray and spontaneous poten-
tial (Fig. 3-25) help in this analysis, particularly if
the technique of (( Z-plots )) is used. This technique
presents the plotting of the value of a third,
parameter such as GR (gamma ray) Th or K
(amount of thorium or potassium obtained from a
spectrometry of natural gamma radiation), p b , &,
or SP (Fig. 3-26b), a t the intersection point of the
two other values on the cross-plot.
If the thickness of each granulometric sequence
is very small the logging macrodevices cannot
detect these grain size evolutions.

Fig. 3-26a. - Composite-log in sandstones rich in heavy thorium

and uranium bearing radioactive minerals . Observe around
200 ft the increase in GR, thorium, uranium and pb, and the
more or less constant value of neutron and sonic at the same t
time. bit size
 0. Pb

Pb Pb
(a,-') (Wm') THIK N O 1 COMPUTED IF K LfSS THAN 0.1
INTERVAL 2900 100 NUMBER OF POINTS = 441 NO DROP WELL il INTERVAL = 290 0 - 700 NUMBER OF POINTS 308 NO
ORlG VALUE = 4 000.2 PLOT V A L U E i 0 0 0 0
~

ZPLOT I( ORlG VALUE 0 yla 2 PLOT VALUEIO 000 ZPLOT 1 W K

' '
i

RHOB RHOB
2 1 4 2 6 111034616845503428168 8 8 9 2 ' 8 1 2 ' 4 2 3 3 8 8 1 4 I > I\
3426332n21 9 ' 8 6 8 2
~ 1 ' 2 3 2 J J g 8
~rn.... t*.*.r*t,rt.*t~.*....**.**+~*.***.*.**.....~.*. 2 o a . . t . . * r . * r * r . * * . . + , * ~ * . . . + , * . * * . . * , * ~ . . . * * * . * * * . . * .

t 4
r 2
, 3

~O":*"''.',r+*rt.*1~t.t.r.~.tr.+tr..+.*r+*++..+t*.rr.4500 3 0 0 * r . . . + + * . + r ~ . ~ t * ~ t ~ t t r * ~ t + . * t r t + . . r t * . r . + . . + . , + * . r + 4 5 0 0
-5"" L, 00 15.00 2 5 ~ 0 35.00 PHIN -500 5 00 75no 25 no 3 5 0 0 WIN
SLOPE MOVX
0165 23832 SLOPE = ~ 0159 M O l X = 24 062
lNCPT 2 1409MOVV . 2 2643 IIICPT = 2 7392 M O Y Y = 2 2779
DlSP 99801 CORR 5064
~ lI"iCN, IPU; 11" !PC ;

Fig. 3-26b. - Crossplots of pb vs 6,with frequency (a), thorium content (b), potassium content (c), and thorium-potassium ratio (d),
on the same interval than Fig. 3-26a. and their interpretation.
124
DIPS CORRELATIONS
RESISTIVITY
* 80
CURVES
Fig. 3-27.- Example of grain size evolutions very well detected
on dipmeter resistivity curves, even in thin sequences (1 to 2
feet thick). These evolutions are confirmed by the core
description reproduced alongside.
It is better, then, to use the resistivity curves of
dipmeter tools HDT or SHDT *. Their high resolu-
tion allows to detect sequences of a few centime-
tres (Fig. 3-27).
If a poorly-consolidated detrital reservoir
contains hydrocarbons, we can observe the exis-
tence of a good correlation between grain size and
irreducible water-saturation (Fig. 3-28). The latter
depends, in fact, on permeability that depends, in
turn, on grain size (Fig. 3-29).
Lastly, the invasion diameter, as it can be
deduced from a microlog, may constitute a good
EFFECT OF GRAIN SIZE
100
90
70
5 60
a!
50
z
E
z
a
v)
40
E 30
Y
c
20
10
0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 2030 50
EFFECTIVE POROSITY ( X I
Fig. 3-28.- Relationship between irreducible water saturation,
porosity and grain size.
indicator of grain size. The example of Fig. 3-30
shows an evolution of microlog resistivity curves
which can be correlated with changes in grain size
(normal graded-bedding in this case), - the poro-
sity being the same in this interval - , these
changes affecting the diameter of invasion.
3.4.1.2. Sorting
One can approach this parameter with a study
of porosity evolution. In fact in sandy formation, at
a given depth, we can reasonably assume that
arrangement and packing are the same for all
grain sizes, the porosity generally decreasing
when sorting decreases.
Fig. 3-31 gives an example of the change in
sorting. Levels 9 and 10 present an average
porosity close to 35%. Taking into account their
depth (7000 feet) this high porosity is certainly due
to a good sorting. The low radioactivity of these
levels combined with a strong deflection of spon-
taneous potential seems to indicate the presence
of radioactive minerals other than shales. Granu-
lometry of these levels must be fine to very fine.
Level 1 1 shows a lower porosity (25%) with less
radioactivity and an identical spontaneous poten-
tial. This drop in porosity, seems, therefore to
indicate a poorly sorted sand (coarse to fine
grained).
Again, the best way to analyse this phenome-
non is to make a crossplot (type Z-plot), combining
the hydrogen-neutron index and the density with
 125

5000

2500

-
-'0
E

-.-c
1000

zA
Y
E
500
L
m
0
d

250

100
100 200 400
l o g Grain Size ( p )

Fig. 3-29. - a) : Relationship between permeability and grain size (from von Engelhardt, 1960). b) : Relationship between
permeability, mean grain size and the phi standard deviation (from Krumbein & Monk, 1942).

radioactivity, spontaneous potential values, or the
amount of thorium or potassium. On such a
crossplot (Fig. 3-32), from the point defining the
maximum porosity for a given interval (correspon-
ding to the best sorting), a drop in porosity along
the sand line (not less than l!iO/o), represents
decrease in the level of sorting.
Remark
This porosity drop could correspond to a ce-
mentation by precipitation of silica. Even if this
hypothesis cannot be totally rejected, it is however
unlikely if we consider the existing high porosity.
3.4.1.3. Grain orientation
A preferential orientation of grains must theore-
tically be indicated by an anisotropy in resistivity
reflecting an anisotropy in the permeability from
which it is derived. But, the contrast between
vertical and horizontal resistivities being small
(around 1.5), it seems tenuous to attribute any
variation in the two horizontal axes to anisotropy
because other explanations can be responsible of
this variation (pad contact, mud thickness...).
It does not seem possible a t the present time to
approach this phenomenon quantitatively. Howe-
ver, we can approach it by means of relative
deflections or, more specifically, by directions of
currents determined from dip measurements and
from (( red )) or (( blue )) patterns on arrow plots.
3.4.1.4. Arrangement or Packing
This parameter is not accessible, because we
can reasonably admit that after a burying of
several hundred metres, packing of sediment is
such that arrangement of grains becomes more
compact (or closed).
The study of porosity within a short interval, or
even more understandably a t any given point,
cannot reveal information on packing. All porosity
variations can be explained, in a plausible manner,
by a change in sorting or by diagenetic effects.
126

Bulk density Transit time

Calipc

L" IlVOltS

Fig. 3-30. - Observe microlog resistivity curves. Their evolution reflects changes in the diameter of invasion, possibly in relation with
grain size decrease. Observe also the number of sequences which can be detected in this massive sand reservoir thanks to the
microlog.

On the other hand the evolution of porosity with
depth on a long interval will explain the modifica-
tion of packing under the effect of compaction,
and/or of diagenesis. This aspect will be analysed
with the study of compaction.
3.4.1.5. Grain shape
If the sandy formation is chemically immature
and, therefore rich in feldspars, mica etc ..., shown
by recordings of density and by natural gamma ray
radiation (relatively high amounts of potassium),
we can deduce the existence of a textural immatu-
rity and consequently of angular grains. On the
other hand, if the sand appears to be very clean,
with a very low radioactivity and high porosity, we
can suppose the existence of a chemically and
texturally mature sand, hence probably well-was-
hed or winnowed and well-sorted sand with round
spherical grains.
From Sen (1980, 1981), the grain shape has a
strong influence when the electromagnetic field is
applied perpendicularly to the flakes (micas). Thus,
sands rich in mica flakes should show a higher
 127

NEUTRON

Fig. 3-31.. Observe the change in porosity from levels 9 and 10 and 11. It corresponds t o a change in sorting. The t w o lower sands
are fine, clean, well sorted, slightly radioactive; the upper sand is coarser and badly sorted (from Serra & Sulpice, 1975).

dielectric constant than the one expected from the

measured values for quartz and mica. The analysis
of the data recorded by the EPT tool should enable
determination of the orientation of mica flakes and
consequently give an indication of the existence of
horizontal or vertical permeability barriers in a
micaceous sand.

3.4.2. Detrital Consolidated Formations

(Sandstones)

The cement proportion in this case is more

important. Porosity is lower, so it is not therefore
always easy to draw certain obvious conclusions
concerning the grains. However, for the same
content of cement, a decrease in porosity must be
attributed to a diminution of sorting.
The type of cement can be determined from the
mineralogical composition of the rock, obtained
from log analysis. In the case of ambiguity (calcitic
or dolomitic cement ?), we have t o remember that
because cementation is always a postdepositional Dispersed: moves point par
phenomenon, the volume of cement added t o the
porosity value cannot exceed the maximum poro-
sity value that existed at the beginning of the
cementation process.

Fig. 3-32. - Sorting decrease, grain size evolution and type of

shale distribution can be predicted from crossplot analysis. m a
SAND ON
128

Thus, if we compute from crossplots a percen- il DIPS I RESISTIVITY 1 CORE DESCRIPTION

tage of calcite cement which is higher than usual,
either a hypothesis of dolomitic cement must be
accepted, or, if the existence of calcitic cement is 1 I I
confirmed from other data (Pe from lithodensity
tool LDT, cutiing analysis), the presence of detrital
limestone particles (bioclasts, oolites ...), associa-
ted with grains of quartz or feldspars must be
considered.

3.4.3.Conglomerates

When the pebbles are larger than the electro-

des they can be detected by dipmeter tools or by
the formation microscanner tool (FMS '). The
pebbles are generally more resistive than the
surrounding matrix in which they are embedded.
Consequently, each pebble is distinguished by a
peak of resistivity whose shape varies with the
size, the proportion and the arrangement of the
pebbles. This gives a heterogeneous aspect to the
curves with a practically total absence of correla-
tions between them (Fig. 3-33).When the pebbles
touch each other ((( grain supported conglome-
rate n), the peaks are very close; where the
pebbles are isolated in a sandy or shaly-sandy
matrix ((( mud supported conglomerate n), the
peaks are isolated (Fig. 3-34).The other open-hole
logs may indicate a detritic formation dominated
by quartz and often feldspars and micas, or by
pebbles originating from igneous rocks. The NGS
tool may be very useful to determine the type of
radioactive minerals.
With the FMS image one can even determine
the average size of the pebbles and sometimes Fig. 3-33. - Example of grain-supported conglomerate
their orientation (Fig. 3-35)if they have a diameter
greater than the diameter of the buttons (5 mm).

3.4.4.Carbonate Formations 1 j 'Ips ~

RESISTIVITY CURVES
PADS ~ CORE DESCRIPTION

We know that in this type of formation the

precocious diagenetic effects have a tendency to
completely modify the initial texture. Therefore, in
this particular case, it will, exceptionally, be possi-
ble to obtain information on texture.
The dipmeter resistivity curves after correlation
with cores, may indicate some types of texture.
Fig. 3-36 shows that calcirudites or boundstones,
calcarenites or grainstones and calcilutites or
mudstones can be recognized from the shape of
resistivity curves.
As shown by Fig. 3-37 an excellent agreement
between the core description given in terms of
constituent percentages and one resistivity curve Fig. 3-34. - Example of mud-supported conglomerate. Observe
is obvious. It allows a very detailed description of isolated peaks on resistivity curves.
the formation (Fig. 3-38) in terms of mudstone,
wackestone, packstone, grainstone and even
boundstone. It is of considerable interest for the
palaeogeographic reconstruction of a reefal envi-
ronment, especially if natural gamma ray spectro-
' The tool will be presented in the next chapter metry (NGS tool) data, the photoelectric index
 129

Fig. 3-35.- Example of pebbles as they can be recognized on

FMS images (courtesy of Schlumberger).

-
IEP RESISTIVITY
lft CURVES TEXTURAL
INTERPRETATION
-

82

Fig. 3-37. - Comparison of textural interpretation of HDT

micro-resistivity curves with core description (from Schlum-
A berger, Well Evaluation Conference, India, 1983).

84

86

Fig. 3-36.- Example of GEODIP response in a reefal environ-

ment. Note that the aspect of the dipmeter resistivity curves
(HDT tool) enables separation of boundstone or calcirudite,
grainstone or calcarenite, and mudstone or calcilutite follo-
wing terms used by Dunham (1962).or Grabau (1903).

Fig. 3-38.- Very detailed interpretation of dipmeter curves in

a carbonate formation of India (from Schlumberger, Well
Evaluation Conference, India, 1983). W-wackestone P: packstone
130

Table 3-6
Relationship between dipmeter signatures and
lithofacies in carbonates
(from Theys et a/., 1983).

MEOlUM MEDIUM
TO LOW

S 0 METIMES OOLITIC OR n t o c u s T i c SHOALS

DIP AZIMUTH INDICATES THE

.".,.""..
1,1-,1a c SCATTER ,
MAIN CURRENT DlRECTlON
CROCL DCnn*Y,-
GREEN UNI UMlN
MARL:

STRUC
DRAPF
RED UNI '
,..__
1nscc, .,
HIGH LOW SCATTER CALCIRUDITE. WACKFSTONE
IREEF TALUS1 OR BOUNSTONE (REEF1
OR ANWYDRITIC NODULES
ISUPRATIDAL F U T S I
I". ps to1 "Cqnltionl
or biofurbafion

(Pe), and the density measurement (LDT tool) are

available. The uranium content measured by the
NGS tool will reflect reducing (uranium present),
or oxidizing (uranium absent) conditions, which in
turn may help to locate the back- or the fore-reef.
The Pe will indicate the importance of dolomitiza-
tion.
By comparison with core analysis an empirical
relationship has been established between (a)
curve and dip parameters, and (b) facies in carbo- Fig. 3-39. - Examples of vugs as they appear on FMS images
nates. It is reproduced in Table 3-6. (courtesy of Schlumberger).
A high porosity accompanied by shallow inva-
sion, if it is continuous along a certain interval, can
explain the presence of chalk. Of course, the other
open-hole logs must indicate a limestone compo-
sition.
The existence of vugs is sometimes easier to
determine. With the help of the formation micros-
canner tool (FMS), the vugs can be even seen (Fig.
3-39).They correspond to conductive peaks on the
resistivity curves, or to dark irregular spots on the
images. The other open-hole logs will confirm the
carbonate nature of the rock.
The vugs are connected to secondary porosity
due to the dissolution of calcite or dolomite
crystals by water circulation. We know that, in this
case, the sonic tool does not ((see )) this secon-
dary porosity '.
Consequently, a comparison of
porosity determined from the combination of
density and neutron tools (tools that (( see )) the
total porosity connected or not), with porosity 0 1'0 20
deduced from sonic tool will indicate this vuggy 30 h - D
Fig. 3-40. - Detection of secondary porosity by comparison of
secondary porosity (Fig. 3-40). This secondary porosities computed from sonic tool, with those deduced of
the neutron-density combination.

In fact, the first arrival corresponds to the one, the
trajectory of which, has missed most of the vugs. At best, the
secondary porosity index (SPI) represents a minimal value of
the secondary porosity. It would be more correct to refer to an
index of heterogeneity of pore distribution, which, of course
is dependent on the presence of secondary porosity. A regular
distribution of small vugs would generate a nil secondary
porosity index which would mean that the sonic tool would
see the total porosity.
porosity index (SPI) is computed and reproduced
alongside the left track in computational result
display (Fig. 3-41).For this purpose we can also
use the M-N-plot, or the MID-plot techniques (Fig.
3-42).
Similarly to the sonic travel time, the resistivity
is also affected by the distribution of the pores in
 131

/ U f S l S W DATA I DEPTH /GAMMA M Y CALIPER( FORMATION D E N S m I COMPENSATED-WEUlWN I SONIC 1

w-""" " ' ' ' ' 1 , Y

Fig. 3-41. - Composite-display of open-hole logs and computation results with secondary porosity index reproduced alongside (from
Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference, Emirats/Qatar, 1981).

the rocks. The resistivity does not (( see )) the Brie et a/., (1985) developed a method of analy-
isolated or not connected pores (Fig. 3-43). Neither sis of acoustic and electric measurements, based
is it influenced by the size of the pores, but only by on Kuster-Toksoz model for acoustic velocities,
the network of the capillaries which connect them. and the Maxwell-Garnett model for resistivity, that
132

P
,*
P b VSAt PLOT
GYP LITHO-POROSITY PLOT (1) . . . . . . . . . . . . (,3)
.

lB
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...

.. . . . . . . . . . . .
.........................................

..
. . . . . . . . a. I .... I
I I, ..
, I, , I . . .

........................... .................
I , , *
. I I

1 0 : ..........cJ.... .............................. ................

SELECTED
: LITHOLOGY TRIANGLES ; .................
..................
0 2 DOL Ca Co3 - - j
- -
'

DOL Ca C q SIL I
so;. . ......................... . . . . . . . . 310,.... ...........................................
40 sa Lo 70 m w 40 0 60 0 I0 0 100 0 I10 0 110 0

$* +
2 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..?N 1, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0N
. . . . . GYP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .( 4 )
. . . . V. .S. .A. .t .PLOT

2 30

................

n
Q 170
. . . . . ................

Y vo ...............

, , ~ ~ . " ~ . .~ . .~. ., . ., . ~. . ~. . .' . . . . . . . ... ...............

- 05 05 I5 25 35 45 40 0 LO 0 (0 0 100 0 I20 0 1400
0N (LIME)
A t p SECIFT

Fig. 3-42. - Several crossplots allowing to detect secondary

porosity (from Clavier et a/., 1976).

I l t ma) a
 133

-
Primary Medium lEPTt
Iml

Distributed
Porosity

i00
9,
Included Spherical Pores

Electrically
Insulated or
Connected

Fig. 3-43. - Schematic representation of the effect of vugs

(supposed to be more or less spherical or oomoldic) on the ioo
electric properties (from Brie et a/., 1985).

determines the amount of spherical (oomoldic)

porosity in carbonate rocks. In addition, they
proposed a way of evaluating the cementation
factor level by level from the sonic indication of
spherical porosity (Fig. 3-44). This value can be
used to obtain a more accurate value of the water
saturation in such reservoirs. They also mentioned
that the accuracy of the model could be increased
by combining it with other texture sensitive
measurements such as dielectric permittivity.
From recent works it seems that dielectric
measurements made by the electromagnetic pro- '00
pagation tool (EPT tool), combined with data
extracted from microresistivity devices, can help
to determine the microgeometry of a carbonate
rock.
Kenyon (1984), Kenyon & Baker (1984) demons-
trated the need to introduce a (( bimodal model )) -
taking into account the microgeometry of the rock Fig. 3-44. - Example of results of spherical porosity computa-
(shape of pores and grains) to explain the EPT tool tion (from Brie et a/., 1985).
response. They advocate an interpretation method
of the measurement and extract an evolution of
the microgeometry and of the cementation factor In conclusion, one can emphasize the impor-
with depth in carbonate series. tance of the knowledge of the texture for permea-
Rasmus & Kenyon (1985) developed a technique bility estimation and for a more accurate satura-
for estimating separately the amounts of intergra- tion computation, especially in carbonate reser-
nular and oomoldic water. They used the results to voirs. This knowledge will also help in the quantita-
predict the presence of oil and its flow rate in tive interpretation by favouring the m factor
carbonates. choice.
134
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RASMUS, J.C., & KENYON, W.E. (1985). - An
improved petrophysical evaluation of oomoldic
Lansing-Kansas City Formation utilizing conduc-
tivity and dielectric log measurements. SPWLA,
26th Ann. Log. Symp. Trans., paper V.
REINECK, H.E., & SINGH, I.B. (1975, 1980). -Depo-
sitional Sedimentary Environments. 1st and 2nd
ed . Springer, New York.
ROGERS, W.F., & HEAD, W.B. (1961). - Relations-
hips between porosity, median size, and sorting
coefficients of synthetic sands. J. Sediment.
Petrol., 31, p. 467-470.
RUKHIN, L.B. (1958). - Grundzuge des Lithologie.
Akademie- Verlag, Berlin.
RUSSELL, W.L. (1951). - Principles of Petroleum
Geology. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
SARMA, V.V.J., & RAO, V.B. (1963). - Variation of
Electrical Resistivity of River Sands, Calcite and
Quartz Powders with Water Content., Geophy-
sics, April.
Schlumberger (1979). - Well Evaluation Confe-
rence. Algeria.
Schiumberger Middle East S.A. (1981). - Well
Evaluation Conference. United Arab Emirates/
Qatar.
Schlumberger Technical Services, lnc. (1 982). -Es-
sentials of Natural Gamma ray Spectrometry
Interpretation.
135
Schlumberger Technical Services, lnc. (1983).
-Well Evaluation Conference. India.
SELLEY, R.C. (1970, 1978, 1985). - Ancient Sedi-
mentary Environments. lst, 2nd and 3rd ed.
Chapman & Hall, London.
SELLEY, R.C. (1976). - An Introduction to Sedimen-
tology. Academic Press, London.
SEN, P.N. (1980). - Dielectric and conductivity
response of sedimentary rocks. SPE of AIME,
paper 9379.
SEN, P.N. (1981). - Relation of certain geometrical
features to the dielectric anomaly of rocks.
Geophysics, 46. p. 1714-1720.
SERRA, 0. (1972). - Diagraphies & Stratigraphie.
In : Mem. 6.R. G.M., 77,p. 775-832.
SERRA, 0. (1973). - Interpretation Geologique des
diagraphies en Series Carbonatees. Bull. Centre
Rech. Pau - SNPA, 7. I, p. 265-284.
SERRA, 0. (1974). - Interpretation geologique des
Series deltai’ques a partir des diagraphies diffe-
rees. Rev. A.F.T.P., 227, Oct., p. 9-17.
SERRA, O., & A B B O T , H. (1980). - The Contribu-
tion of Logging data t o Sedimentology and
Stratigraphy. 55th Ann. Fall Techn. conf. SPE of
AIME, paper SPE 9270, and in SPE J., Feb. 1982.
SERRA, O., & SULPICE, L. (1975). - Sedimentologi-
cal Analysis of shale-sand series from well logs.
SPWLA, 16th Ann. Log. Symp. Trans., paper W.
SERRA, O., & SULPICE, L. (1975). - Apports des
diagraphies differees aux etudes sedimentologi-
ques des series argilo-sableuses traversees en
sondage. 9th Cong. Intern. Sediment., Nice,
theme 3, p. 86-95.
THEYS, P., LUTHI, S., & SERRA, 0. (1983). - Use of
dipmeter in Carbonates for detailed sedimento-
logy and reservoir engineering studies.
VATAN, A. (1954). - Petrographie sedimentaire. Ed.
Technip, Paris.
VISHER, G.S. (1965). - Use of vertical profile in
environmental reconstruction. Bull. Amer. As-
SOC. Petroleum Geol., 49, p. 41-61.

INFORMATION ON SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURE
4.1. REVIEW OF GENERAL CONCEPTS
4.1.1. Definition
According t o Pettijohn & Potter (1964) (( the
structure is an inherent property of a rock and a
guide to its origin. Whereas the texture deals with
the grain to grain relations in a rock, structure has
to do with discontinuities and major inhomogenei-
ties. The structure is concerned with the organiza-
tion of the deposit - the way in which it is put
together - . Hence structures are the larger featu-
res that, in general, are best studied in the outcrop
rather than in the hand specimen or thin section )).
a BRINKPOINT
b 4.1.2. Importance of Sedimentary Structures
ZONE OF
VELOCIW
Fig. 4-1. - (a) Terms used in ripple description. L - ripple length.
H - ripple height. I T - horizontal projection of stoss side. I2
-horizontal projection of lee side. (b) Dynamic mechanism for
ripple formation
(adapted from Reineck & Singh, 1975).
Chapter 4
(Rock description)
They explain the local variations of the composi-
tion or texture.
A sedimentary structure refers t o megascopic
morphological features. These features have been
studied for some time, as they are often visible to
the naked eye. They include the thickness and the
shape of beds, their internal organization, the
nature of their surfaces, joints, concretions, clea-
vages, and fossil content.
Prima ry sed im ent a ry structures a re generated
by either current velocity, impeding the action of
the gravity, and its evolution, (scour and erosional
marks, ripple marks (Fig. 4-1 t o 4-3), cross-bed-
ding, wavy-bedding, graded bedding (Fig. 4-4) ,...),
or biogenic activity (tracks, trails, burrows, roo-
tlets,...), or action of climatic or physical agents
(mud cracks, pits, load casts, dikes, convolute
SUMMITPOINT bedding, slump structures).
(( Some structures are texture dependent. Rip-
ples marks and cross-bedding for example, cha-
racterize only those sediments which have a grain
size in the sand range )) (Pettijohn e t a/., 1964).
The primary sedimentary structures are particu-
larly important because they will reflect the hydro-
dynamic conditions at the time of deposition (e.g.
energy, type of current,...). They constitute an
important element of the facies of a sedimentary
unit (Fig. 4-5) and will lead to a better definition of
the depositional environment (Table 4-2).
As mentioned by Selley (1970), structures (( un-
like lithology and fossils are undoubtedly genera-
ted in place and can never have been brought in
from outside )).
Consequently, it is essential t o detect them by
analysing open-hole logs and specifically dipmeter
and Formation Microscanner tool data.
' Mark of Schlumberger.
138

-0 0.1

___
fa) Ripples
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
EQUIVALENT DIAMETER (mm)

Flow direction>-

.._ --- .-. _.

0.9

LOWER
FLOW
REGIME
1.0

K
c
Icl Dunes (Megaripplesl
3

9 (dl Plane (flat) bed

l i
K
UPPER
FLOW Fig.
fel Antidunes REGIME

If) Chutes and pools

Fig. 4-2. - Relationship between current energy and bed forms

(from Allen, 1968, and Blatt et a/., 1980).

Fig. 4-3. - Different types of ripple marks. (a) Straight-crested

small-current ripples. The cross-bedded units are planar. (b)
Asymmetrical wavy ripples and resulting wave ripple cross-
bedding. (c) Undulatory small ripples. The cross-bedded units
are weakly festoon-shaped. In the front view lower units are
strongly trough-shaped. d) Migrating lingoid small ripples.
Cross-bedded units are strongly festoon-shaped. e) Lunate
megaripples. Cross-bedded units present trough spoon-sha-
ped scours. (from Reineck & Singh, 1975).

Fig. 4-4. - Varieties of graded bedding (from Kuenen. 1953). b

 139

Table 4-1
Genetic classification of ripples
(from Reineck et a/., 1971).
a) Current ripples (transverse)
Name Nature of crest Size parameters Ripple Index LH. Symmetry Internal structure
Small-current Straight L = 4-60 cm >5 Asymmetrical Form-concordant
ripples Undulatory (11, 131 (11, 13) Form-discordant
Lingoid H = upto 6 cm Mostly 8-15 Climbing
Rhomboid (11. 13)
Megacurrent Straight L = 0.6-30 m Mostly > 15 Asymmetrical Form-concordant
rimIes* UndUlatON (9. 13) Form-discordant

I Lunate
I H = 0.06-1.5 m

-r
Lingoid ’ (9, 13)

Giant-current
ripplesb
Straight
Undulatory
Bifurcatina
L = 30-1000 m
(rarely 20-30 m)
H = 1.5-15 m
Mostly > 30
Upto about
100 12. 9)
I Asymmetrical
and
svmmetrical
Known only as
form-discordant
(2. 9)

Antidunes Straight L = 0.01-6 m Almost Form-concordant (8)

(7, 10) symmetrical Form-discordant (9)
H = 0.01-0.45 m

’ An active megaripple field can be covered by small ripples.

An active giant ripple field can be covered by megaripples.

bl Wave ripples
Name Nature of crest Size parameters Ripple index LH. Symmetry Internal structure
Symmetrical Straight. partly L = 0.9-200 cm 4-13 Symmetrical Form-concordant
wave ripples bifurcating (4, 5, 11, 15) Mostly 6-7 Form-discordant
H = 0.3-22.5 cm 14, ii) Climbing
(4,111
Asymmetrical Straight, partly L = 1.5-105 cm 5-16 Asymmetrical Form-concordant
wave ripples bifurcating H = 0.3-19.5 cm Mostly 6-8 R.S.I. = Form-discordant
(4. 11) (4,11) 1.1-3.8 Climbing
(11)

cl Isolated (incomplete) ripples. (Formed on the foreign substratum b y sediment paucity)

Name Nature of crest Size parameters Symmetry Internal structure

Isolated small- Like small- Like small-current Asymmetrical Form-concordant
current ripples current ripples ripples, but lesser Form-discordant
in height
Isolated mega- Straight (6, 7 ) Like megacurrent Asymmetrical Form-concordant
current ripples CUNed (6) ripples, but lesser Form-discordant
Sichel-shaped (10) in height (6, 10)
Isolated giant- Like current Similar to giant- Asymmetrical Form-discordant
current ripples ripples current ripples Symmetrical
1163)
Isolated wave Straight Like wave ripples, Symmetrical Form-Concordant
ripples Curved but lesser in height Asymmetrical Form-discordant

Name I Nature of crest I Sizo paramators I Symmetry I Internal structure

Longitudinalcurrent/ 1 I

I i
Straioht. unbranched I L = 2 . 6 ~ 5cm Svmmetrical 1 Form-discordant
wave ripples crests parallel to the (16’1
(direction of wave current direction: asymmetrical
propagation at also known to
right angles to occur in mud
current direction) and (lo’
14)
Transverse current/ Mostly rounded Asymmetrical Form-concordant
wave small ripples crests, transverse Form-discordant
(wave direction to current
parallel to current direction 13)
direction)

el Wind ripples
Name Nature of crest Size parametors Ripple index LH. Symmetry Internal structure
Wind sand Straight, partly L = 2.5-25 cm 10-70 Asymmetrical Laminated sand ;
ripples bifurcating H = 0.3-1.0 cm and more rarely few foreset
(1, 12) (1, 12) laminae. Concentra-
tion of coarse sand
near the crest.
Wind granule Straight, L = 2.5 cm-20 m 12-20 Asymmetrical Foreset laminae in
ripples cuspate, H = 2.5-60 m (12) opposing directions.
barchan-like (1, 12) On the crest enrich-
ment of granules.
Legend: Longitudinal = ripple crest parallel to current direction, transverse = ripple crest et right angles to current
direction. L = Ripple lenght; H = Ripple height.
(1) = BAGNOLD (1954b). (2) = COLEMAN (1969). (3) = HARMS(19691, (4) = INMAN(1957), (5) = INMAN (1958), (61 =
NEWTONand WERNER (1969), (7) = NOROINN(1964), (8) = PANIN and PANIN (1967). 19) = REINECK 11963 a). 110) =
REINECK and SINGH (unpublished), (11) = REINECKand WUNDERLICH (1968 a), (12) = SHARP(1963), (13) = SIMONSet al.
(1965). (14) = VAN STRUTEN(1951). (15) = WERNER (1963), (16) = WUNDERLICH (19691.
140

a OFFSHORE NEARSHORE b
Wave Activity Build-up ul Surf I Swash

0rblt.l Veloclty - g
E
sea Suriace

Sea floor -
Structural Zone rlppk (outer rough) planar rough planar
Channel Floor Erosion

Fig. 4-5. - (a) Relationship between present day environment and structures (in : Blatt e t a / . , 1980). (b) Interpretation by Allen, 1963,
of a British Old Red Sandstone cyclothem in terms of flow regimes in a meandering channel model.

Table 4-2 ved on the surface of a preceeding bed such

Occurrence of ripples erosion or impressions;
in various depositional environments . syngenetic or primary or syndepositional,
(from Reineck & Singh, 1975). (contemporaneous with deposits). These structu-
res contain information on physical, chemical or
Yoga- Small- Wave Climbing Rhorn- Anti- biological conditions, existing in a depositional
current current rlppler rlpple bo- dunw environment during sedimentation. They are sub-
rlppler rlpplea I6rnlnatlon hodrel
rlpplea divided into inorganic and organic structures,
depending on their origin; inorganic structures are
River ++ ++ 0 a result of physical agents; organic structures are
Lake - 0 +
Lake beach - + ++
Lagoon - 0 +
Intertidal flat + ++ ++
Tidal channel
Table 4-3
and inlet ++ ++ - Classification o f sedimentary structures
Backshore (from Pettijohn & Potter, 1964).
and
foreshore + + ++ BEDDING EXTERNAL FORM

Upper 1. Beds equal or subequal in thickness: beds laterally uniform in thickness: beds
shoreface + + + -I .....
""I"

2 Beds unequal in thickness oeds laterally uniform in IhlCKneSs. oeds continuous

Lower 3 Beos rrnequal n th ckness beas lateral y varlab e n th cKneSS oeds COntm~Ous
shoreface - 0 + 4 Beds unequal .n thiccness beds ateraliy var able In th ckness oeas discontindous

Transition
zone - 0 +
- BEDDING INTERNAL ORGANIZATION AND STRUCTURE
Muddy shelf - 0
Sandy shelf + + 0 1.
2.
Massive Istructurelessl
Laminated (horizontally-laminated; crosslaminatedl
Continental 3. Graded
slope and rise - 0 - 4. Imbricated and other oriented internal fabrics
5. Growth structures istromatolites, etc.1
Deep sea - - -
Sandy
deep sea - + ?
Turbidite 0 + - BEDDING PLANE MARKINGS AND IRREGULARITIES
Seamounts - + 0 1. On base of bed
1 (a1 Load structures (load casts)
Ibl Current structures (scour marks and tool marks)
' Climbing ripple lamination of only wave ripple origin (cl Organic markings iichnofossilsl
2. Within the bed
++ abundant + common 0 rare - absent ial Paning lineation
fbl Organic markings
3. On top of the bed
(a1 Ripple marks
i b l Erosional marks (rill marks: current crescents1
Icl Pits and small impressions (bubble and rain prints)
(dl Mud cracks, mud-crack casts, icecrystal casts, salt-crystal casts
( e l Organic markings (ichnofossilsl
4.1.3. Classification of Sedimentary Structures

BEDDING DEFORMED BY PENECONTEMWRANEOUS PROCESSES

The classification of structures can be based on
the time of their formation. They are defined as :
. predepositional, (formed before the deposi-
tion of a bed). They correspond to features obser-
1. Founder and load structures (ball-and-pillow structures. load casts)
2. Convolute bedding
3. Slump structures (folds, faults, and brecciasl
4. Injection structures (sandstone dikes, etcl
5. Organic structures (burrows, "churned" beds, etcl

formed in connection with an animal or plant
organic activity (burrow; impressions; root traces);
. epigenetic or secondary or postdepositional,
(formed after sedimentation). These are often of
chemical origin and their occurrence reflects
diagenetic phenomena; or of physical origin resul-
ting from tectonic deform a t ion.
A second classification can also be suggested
which is based on the agents or processes, which
have created the sedimentary structures :
. physical such as action of gravity, influences
of current or stress (ripple marks, tool marks,
convolute bedding, slumping, mud cracks,...),
. chemical such as dissolution, concretions;
. biological such as burrows, tracks, trails, foot
impressions, root traces, ...
A third classification of sedimentary structures
based on their location can be suggested :
. external structures, that cover the size and the
shape of beds, thus the nature of their boundaries
and the shapes of the lower and upper bedding
planes;
. internal structures, relative t o internal organi-
zation of the bed : i.e. massive, laminated, graded
bedding, growth structures (stromatolitic limesto-
nes,...).
Table 4-4
Relationship between sedimentary features
and well logging parameters
(from Serra, 1984).
STRUCTUPAL CUTURES LOG TO USE FOR D m m N G
THE PHENOMENON
ISEDIMEWTARVAND TECTONIC1
141
The classifications proposed by Krumbein &
Sloss ( 1 963), by Selley (1 976), essentially combine
the time period and the agent, whereas the
classification of Pettijohn & Potter (1964), and
Blatt et al., (1979) are based more on the location
of features (Table 4-3). We have retained the
classification of Table 4-4, derived from Pettijohn
84 Potter, because it adapts more closely to log
analysis and illustration. The relationship of featu-
res with well logging parameters, especially dip-
meters, is mentioned.
4.2. SEDIMENTARY FEATURES EXTRACTED
FROM LOGS
It is quite obvious that open-hole logs can
reflect sedimentary features (texture and struc-
ture) such as thickness, sometimes heterogeneity,
or sequences (lithology or grain size evolution). In
general, however, for most of the open hole
logging tools, the vertical resolution is not suffi-
cient t o detect thin events or sequences, and give
a detailed picture of the formations crossed by a
well. r.
By comparison, high resolution dipmeters (HDT
and SHOT tools) have the advantage that they are
capable of detecting very thin events which can be
related t o sedimentary features (textural and
structural).
Due t o their very small electrodes (1 cm thick)
and a very short sampling interval (every 2.5 or
5 m m instead of 15 c m or exceptionally 4 cm for
other tools), they have the best vertical resolution,
among the open-hole tools. They measure the
apparent thickness of events (more than 1 cm
thick), and detect very thin events or laminations
(less than 1 c m thick) as long as they are conduc-
tive in a resistive environment (Fig. 4-6);
. Dipmeter tools record four or eight curves in
the direction of four pads 90 degrees apart, giving
better coverage of the borehole wall and, conse-
quently, a better idea on the lateral variations;
horizontal
fracture
wnductlvify
I to a + dlo
pnd 1
bunon 1
HDT PAD ELECTRODE SHDT PAD ELECTRODES
Fig. 4-6. - Detection of very fine conductive events by HDT or
SHDT curves.
142
Pads
Fig. 4-8. - Examples showing the details detected by the dipm
. Curves allow for dips to be computed, which
are indicative of current energy and direction, and,
consequently, of the type of bedding.
To be convinced of the detail attained by these
tools, it is sufficient to compare the dipmeter
resistivity curves at 1/40, or 1/20 scales (Figs. 4-7
and 4-19) with the other open-hole logs. One is
surprised by the density of the finely-detailed
curve events which sometimes can be easily
correlated with other similar events on the other
curves. Every detected contrast of resistivity ex-
plains a change in one characteristic or another of
the rock such as mineralogical change (e.g. layers
of shale in a sand), or textural change (e.g.
granulometry, sorting, porosity or tortuosity fac-
tor), or possible fluid change.
A close study of dipmeter curves shows that
many curve features are identifiable from curve to
curve. These features have varying thickness (from
less than one inch to several feet), amplitude, and
shape. Each feature may be considered to be the
signature of a geological event in the depositional
sequence of the formation or its evolution by
diagenesis. The inflection points of these curve
features correspond to the upper and lower limits
of geological events or to the bed boundaries.
Moreover, the dip of the bedding is not necessarily
constant, and may sometimes vary rapidly. All this
information is needed for recognition of sedimen-
tary features. This is why Schlumberger developed
programs to obtain this information.
Pads @
1 2 3 4
Buttons
1 ia 2 2a 3 3a 4 4a
sr tools. (a) : HDT curves; (b) : SHDT curves.
For the HDT tool the program is known as
GEODIP'. It uses a method of correlation by
pattern recognition. This method is best adapted
to automatically detect these curve features, to
recognize them from curve to curve, and to derive
dips a t the boundaries of each individual feature.
The GEODIP program mimics the process of
correlation by eye, looking for the most prominent
features, and then working up and down the
curves to confirm the initial tentative picks. The
GEODIP program examines a curve, and then
applies the methods of pattern recognition to
identify features on it which may be matched to
features of the other curves.
But the different curve features are often similar
and easy to confuse. The human correlator avoids
this ambiguity by constant eye movements to
confirm or reject hypothetical correlations. In so
doing, he implicity, often unconsciously, applies
some logic rules which are integrated into his
perception process. The GEODIP program uses
equivalents of such rules. Safeguards are also
integrated, as far as they have been recognized. In
particular, the method is constructed around a
basic law which is justified by geological condi-
tions of deposition, the rule of noncrossing corre-
lations (Vincent et a/., 1979).
For the SHDT tool, an event-association pro-
gram is used. It is known as LOCDIP * (Localdip).
Mark of Schlumberger.

1 27 BUTTONS
I .21N DIA
~ 50 %OVERLAP
-
SIDE BY SIDE
SHDT BUTTON
[ /COVERAGE~~To~
2 P A D S IN
8" HOLES
Fig. 4-9. - Formation Microscanner tool pad configuration
(courtesy of Schlumberger).
Derivatives of all eight curves are produced, and
the maxima of the derivatives of each curve are
used to compute the displacement between cur-
ves and the dips.
In the corresponding arrow-plot displays the
correlation lines found by the programs are drawn
across the dip resistivity curves. This allows quality
control of the correlation and consequently of the
dip measurement.
In these kinds of processing a constant link can
be established between the dip and the event
which generated its computation. One can reason
on both curve features and dips.
More recently (1985) Schlumberger has intro-
duced a new tool which is a kind of microelectrical
scanner, the Formation Microscanner tool. The
size of the electrodes (5rnm), their number (27 per
pad), and their arrangement (Fig. 4-9), provide a
continuous electrical survey of the borehole wall
accross two bands 7 cm wide, corresponding t o
the paths of two adjacent pads 90 degrees apart.
The recorded conductivity curves, after depth
matching, speed correction and equalization, can
be converted into images in which the gray density
depends on conductivity (Fig. 4-10). The images
are comparable to black and white core photo-
graphs. They show a lot of very interesting featu-
res related to texture and sedimentary structure as
it will be illustrated later.
Mark of Schlurnb'erger
143
Fig. 4-10 . - Example of curves and images obtained with the
Formation Microscanner tool (courtesy of Schlumberger)
mm
8 4 z 1 112 114 1/8 1/161/32 1/64 1/128 1/256 Scale
I N I l l / '
11 12 9
Scale
Fig. 4-11 - Relationship between grain size and composition of
the detrital fraction in clastic silicate rocks (from Blatt et a/.,
1980).
It can be stated that the dipmeters and the
Formation Microscanner tool principally give in-
formation on the texture and the sedimentary
structure of the rock and only through this infor-
mation can the dip be obtained.
Three types of information can be extracted
from analysis of dipmeter and Formation Micro-
Scanner data :
- information deduced from dip computation
-coming from correlation of events detected on
each curve -, and dip evolution with depth (sedi-
mentary features, folds, faults, unconformities);
- information deduced from conductivity curve
analysis. For instance, a resistive change reflects
variations in :
. mineralogy (percentage of clay minerals,
micas and heavy minerals, cement);
144

texture (presence of vugs, nodules, or crystals BEDS

of sulfides, size of particles, size of vugs and
throats,); and other textural parameters such as : a
- grain size, which partly controls the Very thick bed
mineralogy (silt- and clay-size mineral content,
Fig. 4-1l), the diameter of the pore throats, and loo
the shape of the grains; and on which depends
the permeability which, in turn, controls the Thick bed
depth of invasion and the irreducible water
saturation ;
- sorting, which is also dependent on grain LAMINAE
size (sorting decreases when grain size decrea- Medlum bed
ses), and which controls the porosity and the
tortuosity ( r n factor);
- packing (arrangement of the grains), z
Y
Thick lrminr
which affects porosity, tortuosity and permeabi- Y
lity; Thin bed
. structure (homogeneity, heterogeneity. gra-
ded bedding, lenticular bedding, flaser bedding, Thln lrmlnr
cross-bedding,...); fractures;
. percentage of fluids which depends on the I
I.
Verythlnbod
I
1
Very thln lrmlnr
previous parameters or on a fluid change;
- information deduced from the evolution of b
thickness of beds with depth.

i
Dlvialon
-
(of croaa Irminrtlor
4.3.INFORMATION Dlvlrion
ON STRUCTURE EXTRACTED (of plane Iamlnrtlon)
FROM DIPMETERS
AND FORMATION MICROSCANNER

4.3.1.Bed Shape

One must stress that a single bed, or sedimen- Cementrtlon band

tation unit, is u that thickness of sediment which Bind (of concmtlona)
was deposited under essentially constant physical
conditions r (Otto, 1938), separated from other
under- and over-lying beds by physically and
visually more or less well-defined bedding planes,
u ... made evident because of the unlike texture or
composition n (Pettijohn & Potter, 1964). Fig. 4-12. - (a) Terminology for thickness of beds and laminae
The parameters defining the shape of a bed (modified after Ingram, 1954, and Campbell, 1967; in Reineck
81 Singh, 1975). (b) Terms for description of beds with internal
are : structures (from Matt et a/., 1980).
. thickness;
. bedding planes; I North
. lateral dimensions.
4.3.1.l. Bed thickness Horizontal Dlane 1 / h

Bed thickness can vary from a few millimetres A P --%-

t o several metres (Campbell, 1967).A bed can be
massive or internally finely stratified, formed by a
succession of finer units (laminations). A lamina-
tion results from minor fluctuations in the physical
conditions, which prevailed in the depositional
environment. They are particularly expressed by
changes in grain size (sand to silt) and sometimes
in composition (quartz to clay mineral). The thick-
ness of a lamination is measured in millimetres
and generally does not exceed several centirnetres ~~ ~ ~

(Fig. 4-12). Fig. 4-13. - Computation of the real thickness of a bed.

 145

200

100

60
-E,
-
VI
40

33 20
Y
10
s 6

1
10 20 40 60 80 90 95 98
CUMULATIVE PERCENT

Fig. 4-14. - Approach to lognormality of thickness of turbidite

sandstone beds (from Scott, 1966).

In general, bed thickness is easily detectable

with most logs, especially with dipmeters and the
Formation Microscanner tool. These tools permit
the determination of not only the apparent thick-

++
ness of beds exceeding 1 cm, but also their true Fig. 4-16. - Very fine beds detected by HDT, showing wavy
thickness (for isopach maps) because the dip of bedding

1"
--
RESISTIVITY

-
--
1" CALIPER? 2(1'
CALIPER I
M"
DIPS I CORRELATIONS

RESISTIVITY
CORRELATIONS

en* W' 1 2 3 4 1

Fig. 4-17. - Enlargement of Fig. 4-16 showing details of beds

and dip variations.

the upper and lower boundaries of the beds, their

azimuth, and the dip and azimuth of the hole
deviation are known (Fig. 4-13). These tools also

4 Fig. 4-15. - Variations of bed thickness as illustrated by a

GEODIP display.

Mark of Schlumberger
1 46

allow computation of the most accurate and

PARALLEL NONPARALLEL
precise bed thickness because the tool speed
variations are corrected. The other open-hole logs
should be depth-matched and thickness corrected --
bv reference to the dipmeter data. Even, parallel Dlrcontlnuour,even. Even, nonparallel Dirontinuous, even,
Knowledge of the thickness of beds is impor- parallel nonparallel

tant because it is sometimes related to the granu-

lometry or to the depositional mode. For example,
in sandy turbidites and volcanic ashes the thick-
wavy, parallel DIVl)nWnUoUe. wavy, Wavy, nonparallel Dlscontlnuoua, wevx
ness of the beds and the size of the grains are nonparallel

El
related and decrease in the direction of flow
(Scheidegger & Potter, 1971). This is therefore a
means to distinguish proximal from distal depo- C U N ~ nonparallel
~,
sits. In another way Scott (1966), after Schwarza- C U N . ~ .paral~el Dlrcontlnuoua,
cuwu4, parallel
Dlscontlnuwa,
C U N O ~ . nonparallel
cher (1953), points out that the thickness of indivi-
dual beds pertaining to the same kind of deposit Fig. 4-18. - Diagram showing different shapes that can be
are distributed following a straight line on a acquired by beds and laminae, and the corresponding descrip-
probability - logarithmic grid (Fig. 4-14). tive terms (from Campbell, 1967)
According to Pettijohn (1975) the existence of
laminations in marine environments is either the
indication of very fast deposits, below the zone of HOLl AZIMUTH
wave action, or of reduction conditions a t the sea DRlF FREQUENCY PADS
PLOT
floor explaining the absence of the benthonic I
fauna and related bioturbation.
The analysis of the vertical evolution of bed
thicknesses within the same lithology can indicate
a change in rhythm of sedimentation. These
changes can be used as time-markers. Fig. 4-15
illustrates the thickness variations of beds just as
they appear on a dipmeter, and Fig. 4-17, (an
enlargement of part of Fig. 4-16), gives a clear
picture of what can be achieved with this tool.

4.3.1.2. Bedding planes

As Campbell (1967) has correctly analysed, the

surface of a bed represents a surface of non-
deposition, or corresponds either to a rapid
change in the condition of sedimentation (varia-
tion in the energy of environment) or to a surface
of erosion. Usually the upper surface of a bed
constitutes the lower surface of the following
upper layer. A bedding plane has no thickness, but
has a lateral extension that is equivalent to those
layers, which they limit. Hence the characterization
of beds depends on the recognition of their
surfaces. The geometry of a layer depends on the
relative disposition of its two boundaries. Fig. 4-19. - Example of even, parallel, continuous surface
Campbell, (1967). defined the different shapes boundaries. Observe the very good consistency of dips.
of layers, according to the nature of their surfaces
as shown in Fig. 4-18.
Fig. 4-19 illustrates the layers with even or different azimuth magnitudes suggesting non
planar, parallel, and continuous surfaces, whereas parallel boundaries. Examples of wavy non-planar
Fig. 4-20 shows discontinuous events (that appear surfaces are given by Fig. 4-22. In the GEODIP
only on 1, 2, or 3 pads). presentation they correspond to the computation
Surfaces, which may be flat, but non-parallel, a t of four planes by combination of the resistivity
the scale of the borehole are shown in Fig. 4-21. curves three by three (1 -2-3, 2-3-4, 3-4-1, 4-1 -2).
They will probably remain non parallel at the scale Fig. 4-15 and 4-16 show other such examples. In
of the layers. The upper and lower boundaries of the LOCDIP or SYNDIP programs presentation
each bed can show different dips and sometimes they are emphasized by a wavy symbol.
 147

a b

.1
........
7 .....

--..._.

---1
I I !
r - 1

-3

....

.............
................
...............
........
.............. .........

............
..
r_

--
.......................
...........

....

Fig. 4-20. - Examples of discontinuous, wavy beds; (a) on GEODIP display; (b) on LOCDIP display

a
: HOLE
DRIFT
DIPS
I CORRELATIONS

I-------.
DIPS CO R R E LATlONS N RESISTIVITY

I I ll
1OY C U M A M
DOUYDAIV

Fig. 4-22. - Examples of non planar boundary. (a) : in GEODIP

presentation; (b) : in LOCDIP presentation.

4 F i g . 4-21, - Example of even, non parallel, continuous bounda-

ries.
148

-
DIPS CORRELATIONS
RESISTIVII" N I RESISTIVITY I
CALIPER 2
-- 20
CPiLlPES 1
--20 -

4'1
0
' 10'

HALE

l'i
AND

O
ALE H
ONS

ITRt

ik:

Fig. 4-23. - Several examples of bed boundaries can be

observed on Formation Microscanner images
(courtesy of Schlumberger).
-
ONE

Fig. 4-24. - Example of flaser, wavy and lenticular bedding.

Fig. 4-16 and 4-24 illustrate a sedimentation

cycle corresponding to an alternation of sand and
clay beds (flaser, wavy and lenticular bedding)
with wavy surfaces, detected by variations in the
dip magnitude and azimuth. These kinds of featu-
res are better seen on Formation Microscanner
images (Fig. 4-25). They correspond to dark cres-
cent-like or lenticular features appearing in sands-
tones.
Fig. 4-23 illustrates several types of bed boun-
daries as they can be observed on a Formation
Microscanner image. One can imagine the interest
t o recognize these features for facies definition
and reconstruction of the environment.
Fig. 4-25. - Example of flaser. wavy and lenticular bedding as,
seen on a Formation Microscanner image
(courtesy of Schlumberger).
4.3.13.Lateral dimension of beds
The dipmeter tools respond t o resistivity varia-
tions near the well bore and, therefore, the depth
of investigation of a dipmeter is limited and does
not allow to determine the precise lateral exten-
sion of any penetrated bed. However, it is possible
to obtain some idea if the following factors are
taken into consideration.
. Thickness
The thicker the bed with parallel boundaries, the
higher will be the probability of a larger lateral
extension (Fig. 4-15).
. The bedding planes
If these planes are planar and parallel, the
probability of a larger extension will be higher
(Figs. 4-19 and 4-26); contrarily, if both lower and
upper boundaries are planar but a t an angle it can
lead to thinning, and to a thickening in the oppo-
site direction. If the dip of two surfaces is known,
it is possible to define the direction of thinning and
the distance to the pinching out point. Even if the
direction of thickening is known, the shape of the
Frequency of the beds
If numbers of beds, (even thin ones), with a
good dip azimuth and magnitude consistency,
follow each other over a certain interval, an impor-
tant lateral extension of those beds can be inferred
(Figs. 4-19 and 4-26).
4.3.2. Nature of Bed Boundaries
The transition from one layer t o another can
either be abrupt or gradual. In the first case the
boundary is well defined and agrees with the
bedding planes. The boundary is conformable if it
corresponds t o a short break in sedimentation
DIPS CORRELATIONS
I RESISTIVITY
7

bed cannot be determined (Fig. 4-21).

+
CURVES
DIPS CORAELATIONS
I
RESlSTlVlTV
0 O l O C

-
, 55
'
0

'
I

Fig. 4-26. - Example of numerous beds with good consistency Fig. 4-27. - Example of gradational transition corresponding to
of dips suggesting a quite important lateral extension. sequences.
150
Fig. 4-28. - Example of gradational transition as seen on a
Formation Microscanner image (courtesy of Schlumberger).
without modification of the depositional sequence
or without erosion, and the beds remain parallel
(Fig. 4-24). The boundary will be unconformable if
it corresponds to a break in sedimentation, follo-
wed by a change in the sequence of deposition
underlined either by an erosional or by a lateritized
surface (if continental), and possibly by a change
in dip (Fig. 4-21, level b). In this last example we
can clearly observe : the erosion of the underlying
sand bed on the resistivity curves of pads 3 and 4;
the dip 320 N 1200 of the lower boundary, compa-
red to the average regional dip 200 N 1800; the
filling-up of the erosional topography by a very
consolidated and cemented rock (observe the
thickest bed overlying the thinest one on pad 3),
the upper surface of which has a dip of 100 N 1800
with a draping effect. Another example of erosion
with filling-up of the palaeotopography of erosion
is given in Fig. 4-36 (above 495 m).
In the case of a gradational transition the
boundary is not clearly defined and. thus not
visible. It then agrees with a sequence, which is
either granulometric (normal or reverse), or mine-
ralogic, or both (sand to shale, Fig. 4-27). Such
'OLE CALIPERS
....
___..._....
DIPS PADS
RESISTIVIIY
6 @ @ @
Fig. 4-29. - Example of pseudo-ramps due to low apparent
angle between hole deviation and bed dips.
transition is clearly seen on a Formation Micro-
Scanner image by a vertical decrease, or increase,
of gray density (Fig. 4-28) which is easier to detect
a t a compressed scale.
However, in the case of dipmeter data, this
must not be mistaken with that related to a low
apparent angle between the hole deviation (here
30) and dip of beds, 300 to 400 which produces the
pseudo-ramps on the opposite pads (Fig. 4-29).
4.3.3. Internal Organization of Beds
Several types of internal organization can be
recognized.
4.3.3.1. Massive bedding
A bed can be homogeneous, (i.e. without any
resistivity variation due to textural changes or
sedimentary features). This corresponds to a
constant condition of sedimentation, without ap-
parent stratification either due to the absence of
current ripples, or to an intensive bioturbation, or
 151

@lE CALIPERS
nln__......
..
. .. .. 4.3.3.2. Laminated bedding

ZE, RESISTIVITY DIPS PIDS A bed can be finely layered and therefore with
4" *40. IO. 10- w o W' 2 I s 2 stratifications either parallel, oblique or cross-
bedded. Fig. 4-32 shows an example of stratifica-
tion in an aeolian sand (large scale cross-bedding
in the Rotliegendes from the North Sea). It is
possible to recognize each sequence of deposition
and to follow the variation in wind direction. Fig.
4-32b shows the result of a dip computation by the
CLUSTER program for the same interval. Compa-
ring Figs. 4-32a and 4-32b, one can see the great

dolt
JRlFT p
DIPS CORRE L A T I O M S

Fig. 4-30. - Example of homogeneous beds.

I I

Fig. 4-31. - Example of change of curve appearence due t o

change of the EMEX current. According t o the choice of the
EMEX, the curves are saturated in low or high resistivities.

even to a massive sudden sedimentation which

has completely destroyed all traces of stratifica-
tion (Fig. 4-30).

Remark
A homogeneous bed must not be confused with
an interval without curve activity due to poor
choice of EMEX' current. In this case the resisti-
vity curve is saturated in the very high or the very
low resistivity region (compare the logs in Fig. 4-31
recorded on same interval, but with two different
EMEX).

' The EMEX current is the current emitted by the whole

sonde. It focusses the current emitted by the button electro-
des. It is generally chosen to have the best contrast either in
low or in high resistivity environments. In the SHDT tool it can
be automatically adjusted. Fig. 4-32a. - Example of GEODIP response in an aeolian sand.
152

amount of additional information provided by the

GEODIP program. Fig. 4-33 illustrates the kind of
image obtained with the Formation Microscanner
tool in such an environment and its comparison
with core photograph. The foresets are very clearly
b--CALILER1
--dl I I

s
seen in this last case.

4.3.3.3.Ripples and cross-bedding

These features are better recognized with the
aid of the Formation Microscanner tool images as
illustrated by Figs. 4-34 and 4-35.
But, oblique (cross-bedded) stratifications of a
fluvial sand can also be detected with dipmeters
as shown in Fig. 4-36.In this specific case the dip
of each stratum cannot be conclusively determi-
ned but the dip corresponding to each boundary of
a set (McKee & Weir, 1953) can be defined (Fig.
4-37).
4 Fig. 4-32b. - Example of CLUSTER results on the same interval
than Fig. 4-32a.
Fig. 4-33. - Formation Microscanner image in aeolian sands
and comparison with core photograph
7 (courtesy of Schlumberger).
 153

HOLE
DRIFT 1~1 DIPS 1 CORRELATIONS

2 CALIPER2
N I RESISTIVITY
4----2Q' W E L

4..- -20
3
I PADS

Fig. 4-34. - a) Example of herringbone. b) Example of cross-

bedding well seen on a Formation Microscanner image and
comparison with peel. As can be observed, even cross-strata
are detectable (courtesy of Schlumberger).

Fig. 4-35. - Example of tangential cross-bedding very well :ig. 4-36. - Example of cross-bedding in fluvial sand detected
observed on a Formation Microscanner image )n GEODIP display by variations of dip magnitude and
(courtesy of Schlumberger). azimuth.
154

1 I I

Set
Set

Set Coset
(Wedge-
shaped)

:ig. 4-37. - Terminology for cross-bedding. In (a) and (b) the

:ross-strata have tangential t o angular contact with the lower
set boundary. In (a) the sets are tabular, but in (b) they are
wedge-shaped. In (c) both cross-strata and sets are trough
shaped (Terminology after McKee & Weir, 1953).
Fig. 4-38. - A series of fining upward sequences. At the bottom
o f each sequence is an oil-bearing coarse-grained sandstone,
about one foot thick. Note that the raw dipmeter resistivities
4.3.3.4. Graded bedding decrease upward in a normally graded bed as the permeable
zones are oil-bearing.
There are two types of vertical evolution of
grain size in a bed : namely normal (fining upward)
or reversed (coarsening upward) graded beddings.
Normal graded bedding is generally underlined by
an abrupt contact a t the base (Fig. 4-27) and can
be defined on the resistivity curves of a dipmeter.
In this example the coarse sands of the base of the
sequence are less resistive than the silts or shales
of the top. This can be related, on the one hand to
the fluid content (saline water), on the other hand
to tortuosity variations ( m factor), to permeability
changes (less fluid mobility, different invasion
depths), or possibly to porosity evolution. This last
factor increases with the sorting, which in turn
decreases as grain size decreases. The contrary
can naturally exist when the sand contains a
resistive fluid : gas, oil, fresh water (Fig. 4-38). The
graded bedding can be reversed : the grain size
increases upward ((( coarsening upward ))). Fig.
4-27 gives several examples of reversed sequen-
ces interbedded between normal sequences.
On Formation Microscanner images graded
bedding is generally better detected using a
compressed scale rather than the traditional 1/5
scale (Fig. 4-39).

Fig. 4-39. - Example of graded bedding very well observed on

Formation Microscanner images (courtesy of Schlumberger). b
 cn
cn

Fig. 4-40. - pb vs qh crossplots with SP, K and Th on Z, showing clearlv the grain size evolution (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference. India, 1983).
156

WELL LOGS AND GEODIP

DEPTH FACIOLOG RESULTS
SYNTHETIC CURVES PRESENTATION

4 LIMESTONE, RRGILLRCEOUS

2 L I M E S T O N E , P O R . , CHERT
CHERT+
4 LIMESTONE, RRGILLRCEOUS
1 SHRLE

4 LIMESTONE,RRGILLRCEOUS

1 SHRLE
I000 4 LINESTONE,RRCILLACEOUS
1 SHRLE
4 LIMESTONE,RRGILLACEOUS
1 SHRLE
4 ~~aE~TONEIRRCILLACEOUS
5 LINESTONE. VERY T I G H T
4 LIMESTONEIRRGILLACEOUS
1 SHRLE
4 LIMESTONEI RRGILLRCEOUS
1 SHRLE
4 LIMESTONEIRRCILLRCEOUS

1 SHRLE

3 S R N O S T O N E . POROUS

1050

4 LIMESTONE,RRGILLRCEOUS

4 LIMESTONE, RRGILLRCEOUS

1 SHRLE

5 LIMESTONEIVERY TIGHT
1 SHRLE
4 LINESTONEIRRGILLRCFOUS
1 SHRLE
4 LIMESTONE. RRGILLRCEOUS
1 SHRLE

4 LIMESTONE,RRGILLRCEOUS

1900

SILT-
1 SHRLE

4 LIMESTONEIRRGILLRCEOUS

1 SHALE

4 LIMESTONE. RRGILLRCEOUS

1 SHRLE
1950

4 LIMESTONE. RRGILLRCEOUS

1 SHALE

4 LIMESTONE. RRGILLRCEOUS
1 SHRLE

4 LIMESTONE. RRGILLRCEOUS

1 SHRLE
4 LIMESTONE, RRGILLRCEOUS

1 SHRLE

Fig. 4-41. - Composite-log including GEODIP results (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference. Egypt, 1984).
 157

Graded bedding can be also recognised on p b vs RESISTIVITY CORE DESCRIPTION

qh crossplots using 2-plot techniques as illustrated
by Fig. 4-40 .
CURVES

To accurately define the evolution of a se-

quence it is necessary to depth match the dipme- 1 1 3 4 1

ter with other logs (e.g. gamma-ray, density,

neutron, resistivity ,...) and with the lithological
column. For this purpose a 1/200 scale composite
display of either GEODIP or LOCDIP results toge-
ther with other log data or the result of a proces-
sing giving lithology (Fig. 4-41) is necessary.

4.3.3.5.Imbricated bedding
(heterogeneous beds)
A simple look a t the dipmeter resistivity curves
may sometimes reveal very heterogeneous beds.
Numerous events are observed on each curve but
they are either not correlatable or the correlations
found by the program are erroneous. This situation
generally corresponds with one of the following
cases :

Conglomeratic intervals
When pebbles are larger (longest section wider
than 1 cm for SHDT, or 5 m m for Formation
Microscanner tool) than the electrodes, they are
detected as generally more resistive events than
the surrounding matrix. The shape of the event
varies with the size of the pebbles or their propor-
tion in the rock. This gives a heterogeneous aspect
to the curves with practically total absence of
correlations between them (Fig. 4-42). When the
pebbles touch each other (Ngrain supported D) the
peaks are very close; where the pebbles are
isolated in a sandy or shaly-sandy matrix ((( mud Fig. 4-42. -
Example of a general fining
- upward
. sequence
starting with a grain-supported conglomerate.
supported n) the peaks are isolated (Fig. 4-42 and
4-43). The other open-hole logs may indicate a
detritic formation predominated by quartz and
often feldspars and micas, or by pebbles origina- CORE DESCRIPTION
ted from igneous rocks. The natural gamma-ray
spectrometry ( N G S ) may be very useful to deter-
mine the type of radioactive minerals.

Heterogeneous shales with inclusions (i.e chert,

pebbles, anhydrite or carbonate nodules, lignitic
fragments,...)
These inclusions in a more conductive matrix
are generally very resistive and appear consequen-
tly as a series of resistive peaks (Fig. 4-Ma). The
other logs (gamma-ray, neutron, density) together,
indicate the shaly nature of the matrix. Such
inclusions may indicate a specific depositional
environment (continental, aerial clay dessica-
tion,...).
Fig. 4-43. - Example of a mud-supported conglomerate.

Very finely laminated shale

Since the lamination is too thin to be detected 4 4 b , lower section). The events are also rarely
by each electrode, the amplitudes of deflection are correlatable. This situation corresponds to lamina-
weak compared to the previous case and the tions, veins or streaks of silt or sand, lignite
resistivity curves appears to be (( noisy )) (Fig. fragments, having a thin thickness, and very short
158

WELL WELL WELL a t Tool Axis

A B C
To Bedding Plane
Pad2 .

Vector

1 )

'-5.
1 /'
I ,

vL_1/ Displacement S2

Apparent Angle fi

?> ANGLE a AT PAD 1, ANGLE p AT PAD 2

Fig. 4-44. - Examples of heterogeneous shales easily recogni- Fig. 4-46. - Dip computation method by association of two
zed and correlated from well to well. (a) : shales with nodules vectors (courtesy of Schlumberger).
of anhydrite; (b) : shales with very thin veins or streaks of silt
or sand.

IESISTIVITI
EL1pERA ,
RESISTIVITY
CURVES I
catcihtite
MUDSTONE

I
cakarenite
GRAINSTONE

Fig. 4-45. - Shales with very fine discontinuous layers of silt as

they can be seen on a Formation Microscanner image
(courtesy of Schlumberger).
cak..,dite
BOUNDSTONE

Fig. 4-47. - Example of GEODIP response in a reefal environ-

ment. Note that the aspect of the curves allows differentiation
between boundstone or calcirudite, grainstone or calcarenite,
and mudstone or calcilutite following the terms used by
Dunham (1962) or Grabau (1903).
 159

lateral extension. The Formation Microscanner Phosphatic nodules

tool gives a clearer picture of this kind of shale
Resistive dots seen on Formation Microscanner
(Fig. 4-45). On such images, even when the streaks
image above a break on conductivity curves can
are discontinuous, a general apparent slope can be
correspond t o phosphatic nodules if these dots are
deduced on each pad and associated to compute
associated with uranium peaks observed on a NGS
a dip (Fig. 4-46).
log.

Reef formation Sulfide crystals

The resistivity curves show a heterogeneous Very conductive spikes seen on the Formation
aspect, due to the texture and the specific internal M ~ ~ dots on~images)can~
(black s
structure typical of these formations (i.e. coral correspond t o sulfide crystals (pyrite or galena) if
fragments, or very resistive calcitized shells in they are associated with an increase of density or
micritic matrix, presence of conductive vugs, ... pe index ( ~ i4-49),
~ ,
(Fig. 4-47). The other logs provide lithological
information to differenciate this from the previous
cases : mineralogy essentially being composed of
calciteaor dolomite. In reefs the resistivity curves
are much more indicative of the rock texture than
its sedimentary structure (see chapter 3).
The Formation Microscanner image clearly in-
dicates the vuggy textural type : dark spots with
irregular shapes (Fig. 4-48).

Fig. 4-49. - Example of pyrite crystals seen on a Formation

Microscanner image (courtesy of Schlumberger).

Anhydritic nodules
Very resistive peaks on few resistivity curves, or
irregular white spots on Formation Microscanner
images, can correspond to anhydrite nodules if a t
the same depth the other open-hole logs indicate
limestones or dolomites with local increase of Q b
(Fig. 4-50).

4 Fig. 4-48. - Example of Formation Microscanner images in a

vuggy limestone (courtesy of Schlumberger).
160
Fig. 4-50. - Example of nodules of anhydrite clearly observed on a Formation Microscanner image (courtesy of Schlumberger).
4.3.3.6. Organic activity
Sometimes, the Formation Microscanner ima-
ges can clearly show features which correspond to
organic activity. For example, in Fig. 4-51 one can
recognise a section of an oyster shell with its
concavity upward. Presence of such oysters is
confirmed by the core photograph. In Fig. 4-52 a
burrow is detectable. It corresponds to the black
vertical feature penetrating the whity substratum.
The core photograph on the same interval
confirms its existence.
Fig. 4-51. - Example of oyster shell detected on a Formation
Microscanner image confirmed by core photograph
(courtesy of Schlumberger).
4.3.3.7. Deformations
Features such as slumps, convolutes, fractures,
and stylolites can easily be recognised on Forma-
tion Microscanner images as illustrated by Figs.
4-53 to 4-55. This recognition will be of considera-
ble interest in determining the depositional envi-
ronment more accurately, as well as the effects of
diagenesis.
Fig. 4-52. - Example of burrow detected on a Formatlon
Microscanner image confirmed by core photograph
(courtesy of Schlumberger).
 161

Fig. 4-53. - Examples of slumps very well seen on Formation Microscanner images (courtesy of Schlumberger)

Fig. 4-55. - Example of stylolites very well observed on a

Formation Microscanner image (courtesy of Schlumberger).

4 Fig. 4-54. - Example of fractures detected on a Formation

Microscanner image. One can separate between open or
healed fractures (courtesy of Schlumberger).
162

4.3.4. Groups of Beds ("Bedset") cross bedding with flasers

I- 19
McKee & Weir (1953) have defined a group of
beds as a succession of layers or laminae, essen-
tially conformable, separated from adjacent sedi-
mentary units by a surface of erosion or by a break
in deposition, or a sudden change of charateris-
tics. bifurcated wavy
The group of beds is called simple if it consists
of two or more superimposed beds, having the
same general characteristics (mineralogy, texture,
internal structure) and surrounded by other beds with thick lenses
of a different nature.
A sequence of beds is called composite if it
consists of a group of layers, having different with thick lenses
composition, texture, and internal structure (Fig.
4-56).
Groups of composite beds made of an alterna-
tion of parallel sand and shale layers, are shown in Fig. 4-57. - Schematic classification of flaser and lenticular
Figs. 4-19 and 4-26. bedding. Black = mud, white = sand (from Reineck & Singh,
The case of a group of composite beds having 1975).
a (( wavy bedding )) is illustrated in Figs. 4-16 and
4-24.
On this last figure are represented nearly all the
intermediary cases between the (( flaser bedding ))
and the (( lenticular bedding D, according to Rei-
neck & Singh's classification, 1975, (Figs. 4-57 and
4-58).
Similar features are more easily observed on a
Formation Microscanner image (Fig. 4-59).

bedding
beds bed sets

Fig. 4-56. - Schematic illustration of bedding terminology :

lamina, bed, simple bed set, composite bed set, and bedding
type (from Reineck & Singh, 1975).

Fig. 4-58. - Photographs of (a) : flaser bedding, and (b) :

lenticular bedding, on a section normal t o the ripple crests
(from Reineck & Singh, 1975).

Fig. 4-59. - Examples of flaser and lenticular bedding very well
seen on a Formation Microscanner image
(courtesy of Schlumberger).
4.3.5. Sequences, Rhythms and Cycles
The great importance of sedimentological pa-
rameters for the reconstitution of a depositional
environment is well established and a complete
chapter is dedicated to this subject (see Chapter
6). The recognition of sequences, rhythms, or
cycles in fact uses all available logs and most
often passes through a preliminary period invol-
ving facies analysis. However, it may happen that
the sequences, rhythms, or cycles are so thin that
only the dipmeter or Formation Microscanner tool
is able to detect them due to their high vertical
resolution. Such granulometric and lithologic se-
quences are shown (Fig. 4-27) and two other
examples of such cases in (( flysch )) series and in
carbonate turbidites are illustrated (Figs. 4-60 and
4-61).
4.3.6. Precise Definition of Structural Dip
Thanks to the possibility of analysing the geolo-
gical origin of the dip, intervals which show dips
with constant magnitude and azimuth in a low
energy environment can be selected. They corres-
pond to the groups of beds, whose bedding planes
163
IESlSTlVlTY AZIMUT RESISTIVITY
DIPS FREQUENCY CURVES
PLOT
I PADS
Fig. 4-60. - Example of thin sequences in a flysch series as
seen by GEODIP (from Payre & Serra, 1979).
have not undergone any biogenic, sliding or slum-
ping alteration. It can reasonably be assumed that
these beds were deposited on nearly horizontal
surfaces and that their present dips are the result
of tectonic stresses (Figs. 4-19 and 4-26).
Once structural dip has been identified it is
important that the amount of structural dip be
removed before analysing the dip patterns.
4.3.7. Palaeocurrent Patterns
and Direction of Transport
Dips computed by GEODIP or LOCDIP pro-
grams are associated with well-defined events on
the curves and thus in the formation. Consequen-
tly, the origin of these events can be determined
by the simultaneous examination of the resistivity
curves. Dips related to current features can be
selected and their evolution with depth analysed.
164

4' - -20' N

-
RESISTIVITY INCREASES
--
CALIPER 1
HOLE DRIFT 4" 20" *

m
CALIPER 2
CURVES
RESISTIVITY
3
30 40 50 60 70 80

I cemented Breccia

2555 .
i
I nparallel

parailer
c

para1lel
2560 ,o I I-
inpara.1.k
0
pa!al le I
nagsiv,e I
Jnparalk
parallel
I I.-
massivc
--I I
unpar;al
para1

' mass

Fig. 4-61. - Example of thin sequences in a carbonate turbidite, as seen by GEODIP (from Payre & Serra, 1979).

The study of sedimentary structures can thus be
completed by the definition of the direction of
transport. Prior to the reconstruction of the origi-
nal conditions it is necessary to subtract the
structural dip or the dip evolutions related to
differential compaction. Thereafter it is possible to
determine whether the direction of the current is
uni-, bi-, or poly-modal and identify the amplitude
of the dip variation. These results will then help to
specify the dynamic regime prevailing in the
depositional basin (energy of current, change of
direction with time,...), and obtain a better idea of
the depositional environment (Table 4-5).
The dip grouping ((( colour pattern N) technique
introduced by Gilreath e t a / . (1964) can be used for
this purpose (Fig. 4-62) if it is applied on the
sedimentary unit. A succession of dips with the
same azimuth, but magnitude increasing upwards
within the same sedimentary unit defines a group
called (( blue pattern D. This pattern characterizes a
sequence of foresets related to current ridges that
are associated with an accretion or a progradation
(Fig. 4-63). These foresets are sometimes very well
observed on Formation Microscanner images and
consequently the direction of transport current
can easily be defined (Fig. 4-64). If the dips
 165

a
Table 4-5
Listing of current bedding characteristics in terms
of dip spread and dip sequences versus depth and
current bedding orientation related to palaeoslope
and sand body geometry for several depositional
environments.

DEFWlWNAL CURRENT BEDDING CURRENT BEDDING

ENWROWYENT CHARACTERISTICS ORIENTATION

WlDED STREAM ALLUVIUM FESTOON (TROUGH)TYPE UNIMODALLARGE SCATTER

LARGE DIP SPREAD
!&RALLY DOWN
PALEOSLOPE
DIRECTIONOF SAND
ELONGATION

dEANDERING STREAM POINT FESTOON fTROUGHl TYPE UNIMODALSEVERE SCATTEF

URS
(cL%hLLY DOWN b
PALEOSLOPE
. DIRECTIONOF MEANDER SEl
6 SAND BODY ALIGNMENT

EOLIAN DUNES TABULAR HIGH ANGLE IWI , UNIMODALUTLE SCATTER

EXTREMELY COkSiSTENT . NO RELATIONTO PALEOSLOf
DECREASlNGAhGd ATBAS . NORMAL TO SAND
ELONGATION

DELTA DISTRIBUTARY FESTOON TABULAR . UNIMODALMODERATE

CHANNELS HIGHER ANGLE AT BASE SCATTER
MODERATE SPREAD . IN SEAWARD DIRECTION
. DIRECTIONOF SAND
ELONGATION

OlSTRlBUTARY MOUTH BARS TABULAR MODERATE ANGLE UNIMODAL RADIATING

(> 100) SEAWARD DIRECTIONBUT
HIGHER ANGLE AT TOP INFLUENCEDBY LONGSHORE
MODERATE SPREAD CURRENTS
DIRECTIONOF SAND
ELONGATION(LOBATE)

ESTUARINE6TIDALCHANNEL: TABULAR .OW AhGLE 11001 SIMODAL (180') SCATTERED

HIGHER ANG.E AT BASE NORMALTOCOASTLINE
FJllERATTOP DIRECTIONOF SAND
ELONGATION

EACHES 6 BARS TABULAR Jh.MODAL POSS#BLYSIMODP

LOW ANGLE ON SEAWARD USUALLY DOWh PALEOSLOPI
SIDE (< 100) BUT POSSIBLY REVERSED
HIGH ANGLE ON LAGOONAL NORMALTOSAND
SIDE(>200) ELONGATION

MARINESHELFSANDS TABULAR POLYMODAL-RANDOM

VERY LOW ANGLE
TROUGHOUT
1 TURBlnlTES TABULAR OR ABSENl UNIMODAL
DOWNPALEOSLOPE
DIRECTIONOF SAND
ELONGATION

TYPICAL DIP POSSIBLE INTERPRETATION

PATTERNS
STRUCTURAL STRATIGRAPHIC
....................................
~

.Channel or Trough Fill

Fault Drag Sedimentary Drop Over
Fold Flank iCOncentric1 Pre-exbstlng Structure
.................................... IReef,Bat I

1 Structural Dip tn
Tilted block .Tabular Cross Bedding

1....................................
Fold flank lrymmetrlcl

1
.TrouahCiorr Bedding
unc&fermity IWeathermgl
FauII Drag Prograding Sand Bar
Fold IcOnCentrbcJ Far R e d Talus
t .............................. .Absent or Distorted
Layering iOrganis Bui1d.w
Fault Zone Recrystallized Texture,
Fractured Interval Slumping. Disganstic
................................... Deformation4
m M a r r ~ v eTexture. no
- Layering or very
diplwhite penom'l
.................................... Coarse-grained
L
Structural .Medium t o Poor Layering
Dlpr
...................... -.
structurai .Lowenergy Deportls, Fig. 4-63. - (a) Megaripple bedding. Inclined foreset laminae of
Good Layering
two units of megaripple bedding are clearly visible (from
L .................................... Reineck & Singh, 1975). (b) Megaripple bedding showing
well-developed backflow ripple bedding at the base of foreset
laminae of megaripple bedding (from Boersma et a/., 1968, in
Fig. 4-62. - Coloured dip patterns and the geological events Reineck & Singh, 1975). (c) Example of blue and red patterns
commonly associated with them (from Gilreath et a/., 1964). in foreset beds.
166

DIPS RESISTIVITY CURVES

PADS

Fig. 4-64. - Example of foreset beds seen on a Formation

Microscanner image, from which the direction of transport
can b e infered (courtesy of Schlumberger).

w
Fig. 4-66. - Example of red pattern above a sand bed (barrier
bar)
a

Fig. 4-65. - Three modes of channel fill. (a) Channel filled by

horizontally layered sediments. (b) Channel filled by layers
conforming roughly to the channel shape, and, near the top,
laminae become horizontal. (c) Channel filled asymmetricaly
by steeply inclined layers (based on McKee, 1957).

decrease in magnitude upwards (Fig. 4-62) a (( red

pattern )) group is defined. This group signals
either the filling of a trough (Fig. 4-65b, 4-65c); the
convex part of a foreset (Fig. 4-63); a draping over
a previous deposit, which forms a topographic
relief; barrier bar (Fig. 4-66); reef (Fig. 4-67), or a
draping over a diapir salt or shale domes (Fig. OEVOHAN DOCCUTE REEF. ALBERTA. CANAOA

4-68). In such cases the red patterns will be

observed over a thicker interval. Fig. 4-67. - Example of red patterns above a reef
 167

On the dipmeter log of the sand dune (Fig.

4-32), each boundary of foreset lamination is more
or less inclined as generally observed on outcrop.
The direction of wind f o i each deposit can also be
defined. See also the Formation Microscanner
image of Fig. 4-33.
A fluvial deposit is illustrated in Fig. 4-69. The
interpretation of an isolated blue pattern (at 6452)
suggests a direction of transport to the North; the
interpretation of another isolated red pattern
seems to indicate a fill-up of troughs in the
channel with the axis seemingly in a N-S direction;
and the groups of blue and red patterns (above
AMP 6450) seem to correspond to the development of
NORM
0 front bars or chute bars. The axis of the channel
that also seems to be in N-S direction is situated
more easterly. At the base of the sand the nume-
rous cross-bedding, and a t the top an increase in
16000
sedimentary dip magnitudes in connection with a
decrease of current energy and of grain size can
also be established. The top of the interval com-
prises flood plain deposits. This example resem-
bles that shown by Fig. 4-61. It can be also
compared to the point bar system (Fig. 4-70) that
shows dip and grain size measurements as seen in
outcrop.
I7000

4.4. COMPUTERIZED ANALYSIS

Fig. 4-68. - Example of red pattern above a diapiric shale (from OF DIPMETERS.
Gilreath, 1968). THE SYNDIP PROGRAM

4.4.1, History
3 Vsh 100

INTERPRETATION
As demonstrated in the previous chapter and in
the first part of this one, the interest of the
Over bank dipmeter data to extract information on the tex-
ture and the sedimentary structure of rocks is
6450 obvious. This information is very important for a
better and more accurate definition of the electro-
facies, consequently of the facies and the sedi-
6470
mentary environnements, and cannot be ignored.
But this information -is qualitative by nature :
character of the dipmeter resistivity curves, type of
Over bank the bed boundaries, dip evolution with depth, ...
6490
Consequently, its utilization for the automatic
determination of electrofacies is only possible if
the data, extracted from the dipmeters and their
6510 processing by GEODIP or LOCDIP programs, are
quantified. On the other hand, to be used those
data must be assigned to the electrobed or
electrosequence, or averaged in a given window
and sampled with the same rate as the open-hole
logs. As known, fast channel dipmeter data are
sampled each 5 m m for HDT tool, or 2.5mm for
Prodelta shales SHDT or Formation Microscanner tools instead of
each half-foot (15 cm) or exceptionally each 1.2
inch for open-hole tools.
To achieve these goals, dipmeter resistivity
curves and dip computation results were initially
described by a series of parameters :
Fig. 4-69a. - A composite-log showing two fluvial sands - the variability or activity of the curves (VAR),
superposed. which reflects the homogeneity (very low va-
168

PESISTIVIT~ DIPS 1 CORRELATIONS 1 1 v)

W
0
CALIPER 2 RESISTIVITY OBSERVATIONS INTERPRETATION
DRIFT ..._..._....
AZIMUTH a
v)
I- CALIPER 1
FREQUENCY PADS $
PLOT v)
k= _____
z- -
0 10 20
6435

Ill
a
overbank

t
flood plain unit 4
I deposits
644e
I
I
I Upper point bar unit 3

1
forerets beds (chute bar)

t
1

I
I
646:

1$
trough cross-bedd
-
I b & r 90' apart.
lower point

I
bar unit 2
trough cross-bedd

-1 q

I
I
646:

b 81r 90' apart.

I T-l
I
I j
I
unit 1
641f Scour pool

1 dlr. tr : = E- SE

I trough cross-bedd
channel lag.
channel floor
-

sand shale rp : red pattern

-
Unit 4

reslrtlvlty bp : blue pattern

scad: scattered dlp
level w : wavy
S. az : same azimuth

Fig. 4-69b. - The GEODIP arrow plot corresponding to the upper sequence.

riance), or the heterogeneity (high variance) of the
formation,
- the frequency of events (peaks or troughs)
per curve (FRE) over a given interval (6 in) as
recognized by the GEODIP program,
- the average event thickness per curve (ALT)
( Ps, parameter of pattern vector computed during
the GEODIP processing),
- the balance of positive to negative excursions
of the resistivity curves or, in other words, the ratio
of the average thickness of the peaks over the
average thickness of the troughs in the interval
(BAL). If these peaks and troughs correspond to
sand and shale beds, this parameter is used to
compute a sand-shale ratio (Fig. 4-71),
- the density of correlations found by the
GEODIP program (DEN), the frequency of events
(FRE) can be high and the density of correlation
(DEN) can be low if these events are not similar
and consequently not easily correlated (case of
conglomerates, or recifal boundstones),
- the sharpness of the curve events (averaging
from the four resistivity curves) (SHA),
- the average resistivity of the interval (SRES).

Fig. 4-70. - Vertical variation in grain size, true dip angle and
dip direction in the deposit of a single flood (from Steinmetz,
1967, in Reineck & Singh, 1975).
Shale Sand
c +
CORRELATIONS
T useable in the definition of electrofacies similar to
P
I (( synthetic logs )) was given to these computed
fig. 4-71. - Example of sand-shale ratio easily computed from
the dipmeter data (parameter BAL).
These parameters were computed for each 6-in.
interval corresponding to 30 samples. They repre-
sented an attempt to convert the information
included in the curve shape to a quantitative form
169
Fig. 4-72. - Some HDT-derived curves and GEODIP display
alongside (from Serra & Abbott, 1982).
a log. It is for that reason that the name of
curves.
Fig. 4-72 shows some of the HDT-derived
curves, or synthetic logs, compared to the GEODIP
display on the same interval.
Since some of the HDT-derived logs can reflect
same phenomena (i.e. FRE, DEN, ALT, VAR), and
consequently can be highly correlated (Fig. 4-73),
a certain amount of redundancy is present. To
avoid that, the HDT-derived logs were processed
using Principle Component Analysis (PCA) (to be
defined in the next chapter). It turns out that
generally the first principal component in the
derived log space may be an indicator of homoge-
neity. Fig. 4-74 shows the first principal component
in a series of beds with the corresponding GEODIP
response. Comparison of the two shows that
positive excursions of the new curve indicates
heterogeneity (laminations, poor grain sorting,
etc.) and the negative side indicates homogeneity
(well-sorted sands, etc.). This curve can then be
used in the processing as a textural and structural
indicator, instead of FRE, DEN, VAR, ...
Some of these synthetic logs exhibit a high
degree of correlation with open-hole logs such as
gamma ray (Fig. 4-75), or spontaneous potential
(Fig. 4-76).
 170

~r~*:.,.,....,:....,,...:.,**..,,,:....,. ..............
3 :
g :
....................... a i.....................................
=.*m
.. ..............
......................
2 , . I I
2 . I , , ,
I I ,

.......... ..*..*........................

0 . 0 Z.0" .....
~."";...................:.......*.:.,.,....,.*:...,*....:
FRE. Frequency u elements per I t , per HDT c u m
4.00 ..a*
"'''
*.a,
. ...............
I.,.
,"I4
I,."

: :
Independent variables :
:
...... ....
. I

& :

...................... ...
* I>
= :
$7
7%

...
I..
1.1
811
I,,

.
111
*
.
I,
I",

...............................
I , !

9..
.I
I4

I4
...............................
.
i, j
8 :

................. .............. ............ ..........................................

I , , ,

- 2

."&, ~, : , , ,,
s : .
4 . . , , a ,,.,I

,
.
, I , , , I
I, I.
I . I .

............. ................. ..............

0.00 2.0" 4.w ..on
........................................................
0.0" ,.SO
, I

11."1
I t .I

II.0" 24.00 lo."*

DEN. Density 01 qeodip results ALT. Avarwa *kment thkkn*as (HDl')"'

Fig. 4-73. - Correlations between different synthetic logs derived from dipmeter data.

4.4.2. The SYNDIP Program The frequency of inflexion points, correlated or

not, on a single dipmeter resistivity curve is first
SYNDIP is a program developed by Schlumber- computed as an indicator of curve activity. The
ger (Delhomme & Serra, 1984), t o replace the sharpness of this synthetic log is ensured by the
previous procedure. It generates dipmeter-derived fact that no window is used to compute frequency;
(or synthetic) logs from HDT or SHDT raw data rather, it is based on the thickness between
and computation results. The so-called synthetic consecutive inflexion points (ATBR).
logs are based on the features and likeness of the A bed, or a lamina, can be defined as the depth
microresistivity curves, and on the evolution ver- interval between two consecutive correlations
sus depth of dips and planarity. SYNDIP can be found by GEODIP or LOCDIP programs. Correla-
focused, according t o different criteria (dip quality tion lines link upper or lower inflexion points of
and planarity, size of curve events ...). similar events on several dipmeter curves. Layer
In normal use, SYNDIP synthetic logs are output thicknesses are thus computed between consecu-
with a half-foot sampling rate; this rate was tive correlation links (ATCL). When correlation
chosen in order t o be consistent with the sampling links are closer than the output sampling interval,
rate of most open-hole logs. However, for detailed an average thickness is simply computed, but the
studies, another rate (e.g. 1.2", that is the usual resolution is maintained.
sampling rate for EPT tool measurements) can be
selected. * Mark of Schlurnberger

HETEROGENEOUS
HOMOGENEOUS
Fig. 4-74. - First principal component derived from PCA on the
six HDT-derived logs (from Serra & Abbott, 1980).
An idea of the bed internal organization is
obtained by combining curve activity with density
of correlations. High activity with no correlations
will reflect a coarse heterogeneous bed organisa-
tion (conglomerates, flaser bedding, reefs, vuggy
limestones ...). Low or no activity with no correla-
tions will reflect either a homogeneous bed or a
very finely heterogeneous bed. High activity with
high density of correlations will correspond to
thinly laminated formations.
As for bed boundaries, a non-planarity flag is
output when the GEODIP or LOCDIP planarity
coefficient is below a certain threshold. This indi-
cates non planar and possibly erosive surface.
The parallelism between consecutive bed boun-
daries can be appreciated by comparing the
corresponding dipping planes; the angle between
a layer's top and bottom is computed and a
non-parallelism flag is output if the angle is higher
than a certain value (e.g. 100). Dip dispersion is
also computed in a given sliding window (typically
3 m or loft wide); it is an angular standard
deviation computed on the unit hemisphere.
Intervals with low dip dispersion, thin beds,
small angles between bed tops and bottoms, and
with a lithology that corresponds to low energy
deposits (shaly-silty or shaly-marly laminations)
are those intervals where the structural dip can be
picked.
171
The nature of contacts and transitions is also
identified. The high vertical resolution of the
dipmeter and its sampling rate allow separation of
abrupt changes from gradational ones. This last
type corresponds to conductivity ramps, which
generally reflect grain size or lithology evolution
(sequences). SYNDIP ramp analysis outputs small
and large-scale ramps.
Lastly, in SYNDIP, dipmeter data are corrected
for EMEX (i.e. for the value of the total current sent
out into the formation), rescaled and averaged in
conductivity over the output sampling interval
since levels appear in parallel.
4.4.3. Description of a SYNDIP Display
An example of the SYNDIP graphic output is
given in Fig. 4-77.
The first track reproduces on a logarithmic scale
3 calibrated resistivity curves of dipmeter : the
minimum and maximum values recorded by the 4
or 8 buttons in thin lines, and the average value
computed from these 4 or 8 resistivity measure-
ments as heavy lines. This presentation enables
detection of homogeneous or heterogeneous
beds.
The second track displays the internal organiza-
tion of the beds : small dots represent the homo-
geneous or massive beds, bubble-like shading
correspond to heterogeneous beds, and dark gray
with horizontal lines the laminated beds. The
limiting curve is the frequency of inflexion points,
an indicator of the total curve activity (l/ATBR),
and the frequency of correlations (l/ATCL).
On the side, in three columns, are flags indica-
ting detection of non planar surfaces, non paralle-
lism between consecutive bed boundaries, and
correlated parallel planes. The following column
indicates intervals containing a minimum of five
dips with angular spherical dispersion lower then
5",with the computed average dip. This represents
the structural dip if the interval corresponds t o a
low energy environment (shale, silt or marl).
Sometimes, selected dip results are represen-
ted in a third track. The dip, which is taken as
representative of a 1.5 f t wide interval, is the one
which minimizes the spherical distance to the
(n/2)th closest dip result among the n ones found
in this interval. The solid curve to the right is the
dip spherical standard deviation, and the dashed
line is the angle between current layer's top and
bottom.
The next track shows a conductivity curve,
shaded with a continuous grey scale (or in colour)
t o reinforce the sand/shale opposition in sand/
shale series. Colours are selected by using the
histogram of dipmeter resistivity measurements
(Fig. 4-78). Sometimes, two scales of conductivity
ramps are displayed on the left side.
The last track displays thicknesses of conduc-
tive or resistive layers in two mirror logarithmic
172

’
bPI
L4PI
--cccc(
160
,
0
: . : : :
5
: : : : 4
lovan
c : : : : : : : 4
20 15 10 5 0

Fig. 4-75. - Correlations between HDT derived synthetic logs (FRE, VAR and ALT) and gamma ray or CPI results.

scales. The thickness is equal to the interval
between correlation planes which correspond to
important changes in resistivity. The beds are
shaded to reinforce the perception of thickening or
thinning upwards trends. When conductive and
resistive beds correspond respectively to shale
and sand, a direct sand-shale ratio can be compu-
ted. To help to do so, the sum of resistive layers is
indicated on the left side.
In order to zoom on a shaly sand interval, a 1.2”
output sampling rate has been used for the syn-
thetic logs instead of the standard 6” rate (Fig.
4-79). Where the standard display shows thicknes-
ses ranging from about 5 cm to 33 cm, the zoom
presentation reveals two thin sand beds and gives
exactly their thickness: 10 and 22cm. It also
indicates that, apart from these two beds, the
thickness of sandstone laminae never exceed
10 crn.
Dipmeter derived synthetic logs can be output
a t any sampling rate, but the sharpness is always
maintained.
Synthetic logs highlight and quantify the sedi-
mentological information included in dipmeter
data. They lead to a more comprehensive geologi-
cal log analysis which will be used for facies
recognition and determination of the depositional
environment.
Sometimes, an unrolled image of the borehole
wall as seen by the SHDT dipmeter is obtained by
 173

02 - 0

Fig. 4-76. - Correlations between HDT derived synthetic log

(DEN) and spontaneous potential.

Fig. 4-77. - Example of SYNDIP display (courtesy of Schlum-

berger).

interpolation between the 8 resistivity curves, after

equalization, following the dips computed by the
LOCDIP program. This display is known as DUA-
DIM or STRATIM (Fig. 4-80).

4.5. COMPLEMENTARY REMARKS

ON FEATURES SEEN BY DIPMETERS

The above-mentioned examples demonstrate

that dipmeters and Formation Microscanner tools
provide a mass of information, covering the tex-
ture as well as the sedimentary structure of rocks,
the direction of transport and the thickness of the
beds. The advantages of its integration in all
subsurface sedimentological studies can therefore

Fig. 4-78. - Histogram of resistivity for the choice of the b

colours.

Mark of Schlumberger
174

be understood. It is obvious that HDT, SHDT or

Formation Microscanner tools do not see all CPI SYNDlP 6” I
sedimentary features : they detect only those
presenting a minimum resistivity contrast. Thus,
the figures visible to the naked eye due to a colour
change are not detected unless this change is
accompanied by a resistivity variation. The featu-
res appearing on the surface of a bed without
repercusion on a vertical section (tool marks, rain
imprints, ...), cannot be recognized because the
tool only analyses a cylindrical section. SYNDIP WITH A 1.2” OUTPUT SAMPLING RATE

,1
In general one can admit that all events detec-
ted by dipmeter or Formation Microscanner tool
(corresponding to resistivity variations) inevitably
explain a change of geological parameters (mine-
f
ralogy, texture, sedimentary structure, fluids ...)
with the condition, of course, that the pad is
properly applied to the borehole wall and is the
tool working correctly.

4.6. RULES FOR INTERPRETATION r

OF DIPMETER DATA
E’
c)

The interpretation of a dipmeter arrow-plot

should never be implemented without the integra-

!
tion of all other available data, consequently the

open-hole logs.
- The first step of the interpretation must be the
compilation of a composite log combining at 1/200
scale all available logs and the GEODIP or LOCDIP
plot after depth matching (Fig. 4-41). The result of
a LITHO, FACIOLOG or CPI lithology output can
also help considerably if it is reproduced along-
side.
- The second step consists of the observation
and description of the following aspects, by refe-
ring if necessary to the GEODIP or LOCDIP plot a t
1/40 scale, or to the Formation Microscanner
image at 1/5 scale.
. The investigated interval is subdivided into
zones with approximately constant characteristics.
. The mineralogical composition of each zone,
and of each event in the zone, is defined as
precisely and carefully as possible. To achieve
that, the data of other logs, especially litho-den-
sity, neutron, sonic, natural gamma-ray spectro-
metry, ..., or a LITHO display, must be used.
. The nature of the contact (abrupt or gradatio-
nal, planar or warped, conformable or not) is
observed.
. The type of layer succession is described:
simple or composite, with or without parallel
boundaries, continuous or discontinuous.
. The thickness of each bed type and its evolu-
tion with the depth must be noted.
. The existence of current features (flaser,
wavy, or lenticular bedding), revealed by the thick-
ness of the events and the dip variations (magni-
tude and azimuth), or by Formation Microscanner
images, must be extracted and analysed (Figs.
4-16, 4-17 and 4-24).
L
Fig. 4-79. - SYNDIP zooming capability: thin bed precise
description with a 1.2” output sampling rate (from Delhomrne
& Serra, 1984).
. Internal structure of a bed including the curve
shape (massive and homogeneous, heteroge-
neous, resistivity ramp revealing a graded bed-
ding), and dip evolutions (oblique bedding, cross-
bedding, foreset, ...) must be added. The amplitude
of dip variation is also analysed. The absence of
these variations indicate either a low energy, or, on
the contrary, a very high energy. The choice
between the two hypotheses is derived from the
mineralogical nature or the vertical position of this
phenomenon in the granulometric sequence, and
from the dips. The important variations of the dip
magnitude indicate changes of energy in the
environment.
. Finally, the sequential evolutions, the rhythms
or cycles, the evolution in thickness of each bed
and sequence as they are revealed by the dipmeter
resistivity curves, are studied.
- The third step corresponds to the direct inter-
pretation. It involves the translation of the obser-
ved features into geologically meaningful interpre-
tations. For instance a (( blue pattern )) (increasing
dip magnitude upward) will be interpreted as a
foreset (Fig. 4-81).
Fig. 4-80. - Example of DUADIM display obtainedfrom SHDTdata and interpolationbetween curves (courtesy of
Schlumberger) . -I
Ln
176

Table 4-6
Type of cheklist for description of GEODIP or
CURVE ACTIVITY (FBR)
LOCDIP arrow plots.
I LOW 1
1 I [E&q
HIGH

I DENSITY OF
CORRELATION
LOW MASSIVE

47
1 WD Caliper Washout 3 S Nature of Shatp 3
WN- Breakout 3 boundaries Planar 3
Supr- Non
poxd c planar 0
DIP DISPERSION (PAR) Separated 0 I4 dip amp
Smimth J GEOMPI
I LOW HIGH I Conant 0
Nominal
I-Symbol
LOCOlPor
PROGRAD. btSlfa 0 SVNOIPI
YES DRAPING diBse 0
CIRCLE Mudcake i3
COMPACTION
GROUPING caved c
NO 10 Angle Low 3
b*ween Medium 0
2 CUNS High 3 sumssslve High 0
~ivny Medium 0 d i p iparalle
Low 0 lisml
Nil 3
11 Dippa~ems Greer 0
RESlSTlVlN CONTRAST (SRES) RESlSTlVlN CONTRAST (SRES) 3 Conductivity High 0 Blue C
IWd Medium C Red C
LOW c Scater 3
Verylow, c1
CROSS WAVY
BEDDING BEDDING 12 kimuth Unimodal C
4 Amplitude of High 3 frequew Bimodal C
variations Medium J Pld Scaner C
Low 0
13 Rhythm UnlC 3
Fig. 4-81. - Bedding type identification from dipmeter. 5 Direction of Less Repitwe 2
variation mndudive 3 cyclic c
from the ave More
rage value mnductive 0
14 Thickness Thdenning
evolution of upward 0
6 C u m shap Ball 0 conductive Thinking
behveen Funnel 0 beds upward C
I Bipolar 120 D e g r e e s breaks Cylinder C
15 Thcknsrs Thidenning
1 Density of High 3 wolution of upward 0
mrrelations Medium C resisive Thinsing
Low c beds upward 0
Nil 3
~

16 Hole Nil 3
8 Non Pwm 0 daviation Low 0
mrmlatable m More High C
wems mnd C I Angle
.Less
mnd 0
.thin C 17 Tool rotation Nil C
.Medium C Slow 2
Rapid 3
Fig, 4-82. - Classification of azimuth frequency plots (from *Thick
b n t
0
r
Selley, 1968, in Pettijohn, 1975).

- The fourth step constitutes the deductive
interpretation in terms of a depositional environ-
ment. Analysis of azimuth frequency plots esta-
blished on selected intervals will help to define the
uni-, bi- or polymodal nature of the dips (Fig. 4-82).
To achieve this we have to integrate data
obtained from the observation of cuttings and
cores, such as the presence of glauconite, lignite
fragments, phosphate, shells; heavy minerals;
grain size, granulometric sorting, nature of ce-
ment, shale type, ...
One proceeds by the elimination of the envi-
ronmental hypotheses which do not fit with the
observed features. The final selected solution
among the remaining hypotheses, is the one which
fits the best with the geological knowledge we
have of the formation, the basin and the main
tectonic features.
It is suggested to summarize all the observa-
tions in a table (Table 4-6) or in several columns
put alongside the composite log a t 1/200 scale:
one column for lithology, one for sedimentary
features, one for sequential evolution, one for the
direct interpretation and complementary remarks,
one for the final interpretation in terms of facies,
subenvironments and environment (Fig. 4-83).
In the following chapters several other exam-
ples of the procedure will be presented.
4.7. S EDIMENTO LOGICAL APPLl CAT10 NS OF
SEDl MENTARY STRUCTURE DETECTION
The main application is the determination of the
depositional environment.
Without minimizing the sedimentological inte-
rest of the CLUSTER-type program - see the works
and papers of Gilreath et al. (1964, 1969, 1971),
Campbell, (1 968), Goetz et al. (1 977), Selley, (1 979)
- it should be underlined that this technique does
not utilize the very detailed analysis of the dipme-
ter that is now possible with the newer tool
(SHDT) or the Formation Microscanner tool and
 177

rm a f n . n o l i LWS GEODIP

DIPS
RESULTS

CORREIATIONS
n
I
;j
RESISTIVITY N RESISTIVITY INCREASES J
t
>
-
'. CALIPER?
....
CALIPER-1
*'
_- CURVES

7
I
I
SM

-
=====I =SL

a Foresetdir tr NE =ct
SM

BAR
=
rrn str dip 4 N 6 5
=Ct=

1 SM

j
BAR

Foresets dir fr E
-CL=
=sm-
channel f i l l ?
-CL -
;;
elongNW-SE
thick NE
BAR
I sh
CL

I SM I
draping
foresets dir t r E

SL
SM
BAR
foresets dir t r E

I SM I
CL: channel lag SL: storm or swell lag SM:shelf mud

Fig. 4-83. - Example of composite-log with GEODIP and its interpretation

improved processing techniques. The curves are to use a GEODIP or LOCDIP presentation for
generally not shown and the precise events from sedimentological interpretation.
which the dips are computed are still unknown. As previously stated the primary sedimentary
These dips are determined with the help of a structures - which, can be detected on dipmeter
correlogram established from a correlation of logs or on Formation Microscanner images -are
events in a given interval, without distinction and particularly important because they reflect the
selection of their origin. The obtained dip is hydro- (or aero-) dynamic conditions prevailing in
consequently an average dip for an interval which the environment a t the time of deposition.
can cover several sedimentary units, each of them Several illustrations of the importance of the
possibly having sedimentary features with diffe- dipmeter plot interpretation for the recognition of
rent dips. For these reasons it is highly preferable the depositional environment will be given later.
178
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DUNHAM, R.J. (1962). - Classification of Carbo-
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EKSTROM, M.P., DAHAN, C.A., CHEN, M.Y.,
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SPWLA, 27th Ann. Log. Symp. Trans., Houston.
F ~ L. sr.
~ (1969).
~ -, ~ ~ application
~ l ~of ~ i
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FRIEDMAN, G.M. & SANDERS, J.E. (1978). -Prin-
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p. 1902-1910.
GILREATH, J.A., HEALY, J.S. & YELVERTON, J.N.
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GILREATH, J.A. & STEPHENS, R.W. (1971). -Dis-
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GILREATH, J.A. & STEPHENS, R.W. (1975). -Inter-
pretation of Log Responses in a Deltaic Envi-
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GOETZ, J.I., PRINS, W.J. & LOGAR, J.F. (1977).
-Reservoir Delineation by Wireline Techniques.
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HEPP, V. & DUMESTRE, A.C. (1975). - CLUSTER -A
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Ann. Fall Mtg., Dallas, Paper SPE 5543.
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duction t o Petroleum Geology. Scientific Press
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INGRAM, R.L. (1954). - Terminology for the thick-
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JUNG, J. (1958). - Precis de petrographie. Masson,
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KRUMBEIN, W.C. & SLOSS, L.L. (1963). -Strati-
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KUENEN, Ph. H. (1953). - Significant features Of
graded bedding. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petroleum
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LANDES, K.K. (1951). - Petroleum Geology. John
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LLOYD, P.M., DAHAN, C.A. & HUTIN, R. (1986). -
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MATTHEWS, R.K. (1974). - Dynamic Stratigraphy.
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McGOWEN, J.H. & GARNER, L.E. (1970). -Physio-
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coarse-grained point bars : Modern and ancient
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McKEE, E.D. (1966). - Structures of dunes at White
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comparison with structures of dunes from other
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McKEE, E.D. & WEIR, G.W.(1953). - Terminology
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179
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180
STEINMETZ, R. (1967). - Depositional history,
primary sedimentary structures, cross-bed dips,
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THEYS, P., LUTHI, S. & SERRA, 0. (1983). - Use of
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WALKER, R.G. (Ed.) (1979, 1984). - Facies Models.
1st and 2nd ed. Geoscience Canada, reprint
series 1, published by Geol. Assoc. Canada.

Chapter 5
INFORMATION ON FACIES AND SEQUENCE
(Rock description)
5.1. REVIEW OF GENERAL CONCEPTS
Since its introduction by Gressly (1838), the
term facies has been used in many different ways
and these uses have been the centre of considera-
ble debate. Usages and definitions have been
reviewed by Moore (1949), Weller (1958), Teichert
(1958), Krumbein & Sloss (1963), and more recen-
tly by Selley (1970), Reading (1978) and Middleton
(1978).
Without reopening the debate, the general,
almost identical, definitions proposed by the
Glossary of Geology (1980) and by several geolo-
gists are listed here :
- "The aspect, appearance, and characteristics
of a rock unit, usually reflecting the conditions of
its origin; esp. as differentiating the unit from
adjacent or associated units" (Glossary of Geo-
logy, 1980).
- Haug (1907) : "the sum of the lithologic and
palaeontologi ccharacteristics of a [sedimentary]
deposit at a given place".
- Moore (1949) : "any areally restricted part of a
designated stratigraphic unit which exhibits cha-
racters significantly different from those of other
parts of the unit".
- Selley (1970) : "a mass of sedimentary rock
which can be defined and distinguished from
others by its geometry, lithology, sedimentary
structures, palaeocurrent pattern, and fossils".
It is obvious from such definitions that a facies
has a necessarily limited extension, both stratigra-
phic and geographic, even if it can be found a t
different levels in the same stratigraphic unit.
Geologists have noticed that a facies observed
in a stratigraphic unit can show similar features
and characteristics to those described in other
units of different ages or coming from other
regions of the earth. This is related to the fact that
such facies, with the same aspects, were deposi-
ted under identical physico-chemical conditions.
Consequently, the term facies can be used with
181
an extended meaning for designating sedimentary
rocks with the same aspect, fauna and flora, even
if they are different in age, reflecting similar
physico-chemical conditions in their environment.
In the following, the term facies will cover the
more general meaning given above. But, it will
always be descriptive, without any genetic or
environmental connotation. It will correspond to
the general aspect of a sedimentary rock as it
results from the sum of lithological, structural and
organic characteristics which can be detected in
the field, and which distinguish this rock from
other surrounding rocks.
These characteristics, on one hand, are the
results of the physical, chemical and biological
conditions under which the sediment was deposi-
ted, and, on the other hand, are derived from its
evolution under diagenetic influences since the
time of its deposition.
It is from its characteristics and the context in
which it is found - vertical and lateral sequential
evolutions, time-space relationship with neighbou-
ring facies, regional tectonic control in the period
of deposition - that one will be able to determine
its origin, its depositional environment and its
geological history.
Selley (1970) states "that a facies has five
defining parameters, viz. geometry, lithology, pa-
laeontology, sedimentary structures and palaeo-
current pattern".
Generally, a facies is surrounded by other facies
which are related to it. This means that in a given
environment the facies are not random1 ydistribu-
ted, but constitute a predictable association or
sequence.
The general meaning of a sequence is a "suc-
cession of geologic events, processes, or rocks,
arranged in chronologic order to show their rela-
tive position and age with respect to geologic
history as a whole" (Glossary of geology).
Lombard (1956) has introduced the concept of
lithological sequence that he defines as "a series
182
of two lithological units, a t least, forming a natural
succession, without any other important break
except for the joints of stratification. The thickness
of the bed is not considered". He distinguishes
three orders of sequence :
- thin microscopic sequences (i.e. varves);
- medium macroscopic sequences (i.e. cyclo-
them);
- large megascopic sequences (i.e. stage, sys-
tem).
Other concepts must be added. A granulometric
sequence corresponds to a grain size evolution
without change in mineralogy (i.e. coarse, me-
dium, fine, very fine sands). lt can be fining
upward, or coarsening upward.
A facies sequence corresponds to a series of
facies which gradually merge into each other. The
sequence may be bounded a t top and bottom by
a sharp or erosive junction, or by a hiatus in
deposition. An example is the Bouma's sequence.
Following the order of succession of the facies
A, B and C, or terms of the sequence, we have :
- a rhythm, which corresponds to ABC, ABC,
AB, ...; such succession characterizes a rhythmic
sedimentation and the results are rhythmites (e.g.
cyclothems, turbidites, varves);
- a cycle, which corresponds to the succession
of two sequences with opposite evolution :
ABCBA; such succession characterizes a cyclic-
sedimentation.
ELECTROFACIES CLASSIFICATION
UPPER CONTACT OF SAND
ABRUPT
CYUNDER SHAPE
i
I CONCAVE
FUNNEL SHAPE = coarsening upward sequence
Fig. 5-1. - Classification of electrofacies by shapes of log responses.
The first type of succession is more frequent
than the second.
A lateral evolution or association of related
facies deposited a t the same time, in different
places in the same environment but forming a
continuum, creates a lateral sequence, a succes-
sion of superposed terms in relation to time
corresponds to a vertical sequence.
IMP0 R TANCE 0F FA ClES
AND SEQUENCE ANAL YSlS
The study of facies and their arrangement or
association in lateral and vertical sequences is the
only way to establish the depositional environ-
ment, and thus to reconstruct the palaeogeogra-
phy. The physical, chemical and biological condi-
tions existing in an environment, which define it,
can only be determined by its imprints on the
sediments. Among these imprints, the primary
sedimentary features are more important because
they have been formed in-situ. The sequences will
reflect the modifications in the conditions both in
space and in time. Walker (1976) made a compari-
son between the results of analysis and facies
models (established on the basis of modern
environments). This comparison allows, by ana-
logy, determination of the depositional environ-
ment by application of uniformitarianism or actua-
lism theories introduced by Hutton (1 785) and Lyell
(1830) : "the present is the key to the past':
+
SHALE PERCENTAGE INCREASING
GRADUAL
BELL SHAPE= lining upward sequence
SMOOTH
LINEAR
CONVEX I
EGG SHAPE= pFle
 183

5.2. FACIES ANALYSIS FROM WIRELINE LOGS
5.2.1. Historical
It seems that the idsa of using wireline logs as
sedimentological t o o l s first came in 1956-1957,
I ber of wells t o be studied, etc.) and its real
from engineers working for the SHELL-PECTEN
Company in. Houston, U.S.A. Studying the Missis-
sippi delta, they stated that the spontaneous
potential curve (SP) presented characteristic sha-
pes. Each of these shapes corresponds t o a facies
of a particular sand body. By analyzing the SP
curve, the type of contact (abrupt or progressive)
between sands and shales, and the character of
the curve (smooth or serrated; concave, rectilinear
or convex) one can establish the classifications
shown in Fig. 5-1.
Pirson (1970, 1977) associates a facies and a
depositional environment to each shape, and he
interprets the curvature of the curve as an indica-
tor of the speed of transgression or regression
processes (Fig. 5-2).
Several geologists used this very rapid and
synthetic method of curve analysis t o construct
facies maps (Fig. 5-3).
Knowing the fundamental reasons for the
choice of the SP curve (other logs often being
unavailable, resistivity curves being heavily affec-
ted by the presence of hydrocarbons, large num-
possibilities in detrital sand-shale series (in a
majority of cases it reflects shaliness and grain
size evolution), we have t o acknowledge that the
use of SP curve alone is often insufficient to
clearly determine a facies and a depositional
environment. It may lead t o a misreading of the
events because of "parasite effects" on SP deflec-
tion (influence of Rt, invasion, contrast of RJRm,
compact zones, thickness of beds, etc.). Finally,
this curve becomes unusable if the contrast of
Rmr/R, is insufficient. This is why the shape of a
single curve may only exceptionally define the
facies and the depositional environment, particu-
larly if we intend t o use this method t o study other
types of sediments such as carbonates and evapo-
rites

ORAOATIONA L
ABRUPT
ACCELERATED
I
LINEAR ' DECELERATED

TRANSGRESSIVE
SMORE LINE .sMooT&y
r-== 2
8 dpc 2
L/ POINT BAR
SERRATED SVMYCTR
UPPER
CONTACT
(BELL SMAPE) f4$y

-
SERRATED
(BARREL SEOUEMCE OF ,EDGE W CHANNEL FILL

\
SMAPE 1 TURBIDITES

>
ITUlN C R I O E D
EDDING I
1

,
REGRESSIVE ' \R BAR
SMORE LINE

LOWER
CONTACT DELTA MARINE
FRINGE
(FUNNEL
SMAPE)

Fig. 5-2. - Classification of SP curve shapes in terms of sedimentary patterns

(courtesy of Pirson, 1970, and Gulf Publishing Co., fig. 2-1).
184
CHANNEL S A N D .... -
Fig 5-3 - Distribution of facies from the shape of the resistivity curve (from Lennon, 1976)
5.2.2. The Electrofacies Concept
As we have seen in previous chapters, every
wireline log gives, more or less, some information
about the mineralogical composition, the texture,
and the sedimentary structures, even if this infor-
mation is sometimes implicit. In other words, each
wireline log gives a particular spectral picture of
the rock properties.
In certain cases one or two spectral pictures,
therefore one or two logs as we have previously
noted, are sufficient for the determination of rock
characteristics (for instance, the use of the shape
of the SP curve in the sand-shale series of the Gulf
Coast). But, it is preferable t o use all the available
log data for interpretation. Their number, their
diversity and their complementarity allow, in fact,
the establishment of a spectrum of rock characte-
ristics covering their chemical and mineralogical
composition their texture and their structure. The
higher the number of wireline logs used, the richer
the spectrum will be, and the better defined the
rock characteristics. Hence there will be less risk
of ambiguity and error in their interpretation.
Moreover, dipmeter data processed by GEODIP
program for HDT tool, or LOCDIP program for
SHDT tool, or FMS data allow, in many cases, the
determination of the palaeocurrent pattern and the
direction of transport.
M A R I N E & FRINGE SAND 0ABANDONED CHANNEL
Finally, the geometry is defined by both analysis
of the true thickness of the beds (only dipmeters
give this information), and by the lateral extension
of beds. This can only be defined by correlations
between several wells and by the drawing of
isopach maps based on thickness data (Fig. 5-4
and 5-5).
Most of the parameters defining the facies, or
a t least the lithofacies in Moore's definition (1949),
are directly accessible from logs. The latter, there-
fore, produce a picture of the present facies. This
picture is certainly particular, incomplete, someti-
mes confused, but alway spermanent and objec-
tive. If the set of wireline logs i s diversified and
rich enough for a better covering of geological
parameters, the picture will be sufficiently precise.
In other words the spectrum will be sufficiently
rich and detailed t o permit a new representation of
the lithofacies by means of log data.
This parafacies was named by Serra (1970) as
electrofacies, the definition of which is :
"the set of log responses which characterizes a
bed and permits it t o be distinguished from the
others" (Serra, in Schlumberger Well Evaluation
Conference, Algeria, 1979).
All log responses (electric, nuclear, acoustic,
dipmeter, etc.), that indicate the quantitative (log
values) as well as qualitative (characteristics of
 185

G H
-
T33 N R 75 W -
133 N R 75 W
SEC 18 SEC 18 SEC 17 SEC 17 SEC 17 SEC 16 SEC 16
SW NE NW C SE SE sw N W sw SE N W sw SW SE SE W/2 W/2 N W SE SW NE

Fig. 5-4 - Log-correlations between wells in the South Glenrock Oilfield, Wyoming. Bar, beach and channel fill are easily recognized
(From Curry & Curry, 1972).

Fig. 5-5.- lsopach map of the lower Muddy in the South Glenrock Oilfield, showing t w o buried stream channels
(from Curry & Curry, 1972).
186
curves) aspects represent, therefore, the compo-
nent elements of the electrofacies.
Electrofacies constitutes more than one ele-
ment of a facies. It is, in fact, its equivalent since
it includes in itself the parameters which define
the facies.
But we have to realize that there is a parameter
which has never been taken into consideration by
sedimentologists in their definitions of facies. This
parameter is the fluid that occupies the porous
space of the rocks. If in surface outcrops it is
neglected because it is absent or without signifi-
cance, it is always present in the subsurface and it
influences the response of most logging tools.
Therefore, we cannot eliminate it and, in fact, it
enters into the definition of electrofacies. Conse-
quently ,several electrofacies, depending on the
nature of fluids present in the rocks (gas, oil, fresh
or salty water), may correspond to the same
geological facies. This situation may be conside-
red, a t first sight, as an important disadvantage of
the electrofacies concept and of its utilization. In
fact, it is not important because the purpose of the
electrofacies analysis is, first of all, to describe the
formations as they are "seen" by logging tools
.After all, we can possibly utilize logging tools, and
their data, less sensitive to fluids or to porosity (i.e.
NGT, LDT, GST), or we can correct the log res-
ponse for porosity and fluid influence. For all that,
in the absence of hydrodynamism, the fluid may
be an important factor for the recognition of a
depositional environment : fresh water in fluvial or
Fig. 5-6. - Examples of electrosequences (ramps) clearly seen on wireline logs.
lacustrine environment, briny water in swamp or
marsh, salty water in sands deposited in marine
environments ...
The objection has often been raised that the
electrofacies is only an equivalent of the lithofa-
cies because it does not contain palaeontological
information. Without being argumentative, it is
necessary to make the followings remarks :
- if the fossils are utilized as indicators of the
depositional environment, we have to remember
that :
. in many cases the fauna and flora are almost
nonexistent and, consequently, the definition of
the facies is given without this information;
. the fauna and flora are not always good
indicators of the environment (ubiquitous species,
mixtures, allochtone species, etc.);
. in many cases the presence of fossils (animal
or vegetal) is shown by their influence on log
responses, particularly on dipmeters and Forma-
tion Microscanner. Moreover, it is controlled by
the physico-chemical conditions existing a t the
time of deposition, which also determine the other
parameters, especially the sedimentary structures;
. other elements of facies (mineralogy, texture,
sedimentary features, palaeoccurents and geome-
try) are often sufficient for a precise definition of
the facies, and also for specifying the depositional
environment, especially if we use the additional
information on sequential evolution (see Chapter
6).
- If the fossils are used to define the geological

age, we may note that this information is implicitly
included in the subsurface data through the depth
data and the position in relation to markers.
Besides, at this stage, the logs allow a more
precise appraisal of the laps eof time than that
defined by fossils (see Chapter 13).
Hence, we have good reasons to assimilate the
electrofacies into the facies. Moreover, the recons-
titution of the time-space repartition of the diffe-
rent facies, and the definition of their mutual
relations is the final goal of facies and sequence
analysis, regardless of the methods used t o
achieve this goal (traditional method by examina-
tion of rocks, or from log data).
Depositional environments will therefore be
defined by these analyses, and thus we may
forecast more accurately the continuity of a reser-
voir, the presence, nature and distribution of
permeability barriers, and the location of mineral
resources in exploitable economic quantities.
5.2.3. The Electrosequence Concept
We sometimes observe, on certain recordings,
progressive evolutions of measured parameters
(resistivity, gamma ray, spontaneous potential,
etc.) in relation to depth (Fig. 5-6). These evolu-
bit size
Fig. 5-7. - Example of grain size evolution detected on wireline
logs. Observe, between 210 and 182 ft, the progressive
evolution of gamma ray (GR), thorium (Th), uranium (U) and
density (pa) curves. They suggest a progressive enrichment of
the sand with heavy radioactive minerals, thorium -and
uranium-bearing, which can be correlated with a decrease in
grain size, heavy minerals being more abundant in the silty
fraction than in the sandy. Observe the neutron curve (IHCNL)
it does not show significant porosity variations in the same
interval. The potassium curve (K) is practically zero, indicating
the absence of shale.
187
tions, having the shape of ramps, were named
electrosequences by Serra (1970). The proposed
definition of an electrosequence is :
depth interval thicker than the vertical resolu-
tion of the measuring tool, presenting a progres-
sive and continuous evolution between two ex-
treme values of measured parameter, tracing a
ramp.
This variation may reflect :
- a progressive change in mineralogical com-
position with depth : percentage evolution of shale
in a sand or in a limestone; enrichment of a
limestone in dolomite, or of a sand in radioactive
heavy minerals (Fig. 5-7);
- the evolution of a textural parameter: grain
size change reflecting fining or coarsening upward
sequences; sorting decrease, etc.;
CORE DIP ARMEA- RESISTIVITY CURVES
DEPTH DESCRIPTION 0- 10" ma -BILITY 1 7 1 d 1
Fig. 5-8. - Example of gradational evolutions or ramps very
easily seen on the dipmeter (HDT tool) resistivity curves,
: corresponding to electrosequences. The thickness of these
electrosequences varies between 1 and 3 feet. With such
thicknesses these sequences cannot be detected by other
tools.
188

- a simultaneous variation in mineralogical

composition and in texture (conglome- IDEALCYCLE - SEDIMENTARY AND LOG CHARACTERISTICS
rate + sand + shale); I BULK DENSITV grlcc
- a saturation evolution in the transition zone CALIPER GAMMA RAY SEDIMENTOLOGICAI
S.P. IAPI) LOG
between oil- and water-bearing reservoirs that
appears particularly on resistivity curves.
This electrosequence is not necessarily obser-
ved on all curves and, moreover, if it has a small
vertical extension, it will be detectable only by
microdevices (dipmeters, FMS tool, microlog,
Fig. 5-8).
It corresponds, most often, t o a first order
sequence (thin or microscopic according to the
definition of Lombard 1956), and sometimes t o a
second order (medium or macroscopic), if detailed 1
study of the curves shows very fine variations in Sand C.U. : Coarsening up
the general trend (Fig. 5-9). Silt F.U. : Fining up
Shale
Organic shale
Coal

RESISTIVITY CURVES Fig. 5-1 1. - Log responses of an idealized prograding sedimen-

DIPS * INTERPRETATIOf
tary sequence from shale t o sand, shale and coal (from Rider
& Laurier, 1979).
PADS

lI.

f FREQUENCY PLOT f
: Interval 4940-4680

220. ..... .............

240. .....
l Pb clay 2.46gICC :
260.. . t..
I At
. . . . :.
. . .clay. .l l.O P. .,cc/ft

Fig. 5-9.- Enlargement of one electrosequence of the previous

example showing thin microsequence within the macrose-
quence (from Serra & Abbott, 1980).

................

Y 2Y .................................. . . . . . . .I.. . . . . . .:
I .

: clay pOm1 :
FREQUENCY PLOT :chosen 10, C P I :
. :
In1C1vaI S!OO 4940

2 1 ...................................................
iw w I5 PO I5 IS 00 45 00 55 w

0 D 1 30 40 Y ON-
CWL r u 1 l l l l mnoatlr
Fig. 5-12. - The "boomerang" shape as it can be observed on
Fig. 5-10, - Plot of one progradational sequence showing the neutron-density and sonic-density crossplots in a sand-shale
crossplot trend (from Rider & Laurier, 1979). series. It reflects a grain size sequence.
 189

The "be1l"and "funne1"sh pes of the SP curve
correspond to electrosequences (Fig. 5-1),and not
to facies or environment.
It is possible to extend the electrosequence
concept to all depth intervals in which the cross-
plot of two parameters (hydrogen-index and den-
sity for instance) shows a continuous form (Fig.
5-10),even if each separate curve (Fig. 5-11)does
not clearly show a smooth evolution.
The "boomerang" shape, sometimes observed
on density-neutron crossplots and well knodn by
log analysts, is another example of an electrose-
quence of this type (Fig. 5-12).
the depositional environment. As previously seen,
a ramp or a gradient on a log could indicate an
upward-fining or coarsening of grains (Fig. 5-8).
Classification of electrofacies by the shape of
spontaneous potential response is well known and
has been used for many years (Fig. 5-1 and 5-3).
Other logs can be used. For example, Serra &
Sulpice (1975) correlated gamma ray and grain-
size (Fig. 5-13).

5.3. ELECTROFACIES ANALYSIS

FROM WIRELINE LOGS

The goal of this analysis is t o describe objecti-

vely the formations penetrated during drilling,
through their wireline log responses, and t o reco-
gnize all the different fundamental electrofacies
present, in such a way that ultimately it will be
possible to study their association in vertical
sequences, and, consequently, deduce the lateral
evolution by applying Watther's law. In other
words, the first goal is t o reconstruct the electro-
facies models which will help t o define the deposi-
tional environments (see Chapter 6). An electrofa-
cies analysis can be carried out manually or
automatically. In both cases the basic approach is
essentially the same.

5.3.1.Manual Identification
of Electrofacies
Originally a sedimentological study from logs
involved examining the shapes of various curves
for indications of the type of sedimentation and

Fig. 5-13. - Correlation between gamma ray and grain size Fig. 5-14. - Example of composite log obtained at the well site
(from Serra & Sulpice, 1975). (courtesy of Schlumberger).
190
One starts from a contrived document, the
composite-log (Fig, 5-14). This document gathers
together and depth matches all the log data
recorded in a well, including dipmeter data and dip
computation results obtained by GEODIP or LOC-
DIP processing.
One divides the studying interval into electro-
beds or electrosequences. For this purpose the
amplitude of the variations on macrodevice curves
is analyzed. According to its importance and its
shape, it is subjectively decided :
- either it corresponds to an electrobed boun-
dary;
- or it indicates a “noise” that is inherent either
to the measurement (statistical variations of nu-
clear measurements), or to hole conditions (bore-
hole wall rugosity, presence of caves, etc.), or to
minor changes in the geological parameters;
- or it reflects a gradual evolution (ramp) with
minor variations.
In the following step one determines the elec-
trofacies for each electrobed presenting a thick-
ness greater than the average vertical resolution of
most macrodevices (about 2 to 3 feet, or 60 to
90 cm).
As the synthesis of different measurements,
WELL A FACIES 1
RLLd
n.m
1000
1M
w .....
lnchr
\a
10
140 /
urn
Fig. 5-15. - After logs have been zoned and electrofacies
established, the log parameters are plotted on rosette or
spider’s web diagrams. Comparison of such diagrams facilita-
tes well-to-well correlation (from Serra, in Schlumberger Well
Evaluation Conference, Algeria, 1979).
corresponding to the same electrobed (especially
when it concerns a large amount of data) is not
easy, a representation using rosettes, spider’s
webs (Fig. 5-1 5 ) , or histograms has been proposed
t o visualize the electrofacies (Serra, in Schlum-
berger Well Evaluation Conference, Algeria, 1979).
As histograms cannot easily be obtained manually,
and a spider’s web varies in shape according the
number of involved measurements (hence the
branches), a ladder diagram presentation (Serra,
in Schlumberger Well Evaluation Conference,
Algeria 1979) seems to be more usefull because
the absence of one log data does not modify the
general shape of the figure (Fig. 5-16). In these
representations, each branch of the spider‘s web,
or each bar of the ladder, represents a scaled log
axis with is range of variation. One plot son these
basic documents the minimal, maximal and me-
dian values of each log.
When the points on each axis are joined, a
characteristic shape is formed. For each electrofa-
cies, there will be an allowed band on each axis;
hence, an allowed area is created corresponding
to one electrofacies.
Figure 5-17 shows the shapes of two electrofa-
cies. Two shapes need to differ in only one axis to
WELL A FACIES 1
i M
.....
.....
.....
.....
.......
.......
.........................
0 .* 0 .* * ,o
nLLI
...........
-00 100
Fig. 5-16. - Representation of the same electrofacies by
histograms (from Serra, in Schlumberger Well Evaluation
Conference, Algeria, 1979).
Fig. 5-17. - Spider’s web diagrams for (a) a limestone and (b)
a sandstone (from Serra & Abbott. 1980).
 I
I L L 1-1~
"
. '
.
:
'
? ru (LW
' mu,
o

!
-
:p
:p!*
.?
q
-,2-n

-
s
q , . o

',
l
2,
o
,
.
m
?,
..
,..,
i.lCm.1

LL. it*,
LLd (1-I
e
I ?
r
rn
I..
"4

1 5 7 . 1 -
" ""U,MI
2)

;:;,;
yl

'
-,,,pl,

I.. .I u i

UdI1D.l

1-
- ' ' :- '
> I .

'
"L.,a,. IYL<L.,l I Y L ",I

r lo,,
4 \o rm
,L.l
l r I o l m l * . ' I > o * m

Fig. 5-18. - Comparison of electrofacies (from Serra & Abbott, 1980).

establish the difference between two electrofa-
cies. Essentially, the comparison of shapes allows
an analyst to break down a logged interval into
some 10 to 15 electrofacies (Fig. 5-18). This last
figure shows the progressive change in shapes
from one electrofacies to the next. The interval
covered is shown in Fig. 5-19. The shallowest
depth is at the top left corner, and figures are
arranged in columns with depth increasing down-
ward. Correlation with facies defined from core
analysis is also made.
A correlation between electrofacies from diffe-
rent wells can also be achieved by this technique
(Fig. 5-19).
Determination of the electrofacies in thin beds
requires a preliminary step : the correction of the
different measurements for the influence of the
surrounding beds. For this purpose environmental
correction charts are used. But, this is a long and
very tedious operation. Therefore, the following
empirical method may be preferable. One draws
the electrofacies representation of the thin bed
and indicate, for each measurement, by an arrow
the direction toward which the correction shoul
ddisplace the representative point. By comparison
with preliminary defined electrofacies, and by
using dipmeter resistivity curves, it is possible t o
estimate the closest electrofacies (Fig. 5-21 &
5-22).
In the case of ramps or electrosequences, one
defines the electrofacies of the starting and stop-
ping depths or of the surrounding electrobeds.
This manual analysis is often long and someti-
mes tedious. Certain traditional geologists may
consider it as uninteresting. In this connection we
remind these geologists that this method is used
by some oil companies in the world, perhaps not
in the above mentionned way, but at least in spirit.
For example this method allowed the ELF-Aqui-
taine group t o study more than 1000 wells and t o
have, thus, a synthetic idea of the facies and
environments for each well. They were able t o
draw facies maps. It was done at low cost and in
a very short time. Otherwise, it would have been
impossible t o obtain this information, because
cores were rarely cut and the core analyses were
often unavailable (exchange wells). This method
enabled a more accurate covering of the seismic
profiles and a more reliable interpretation in terms
of seismofacies. This gave the best possible
knowledge of the basins and consequently a more
judicious and justified choice of prospects.
But this analysis is subjective, because the
results may partly depend on the analyst perfor-
ming the study. For this reason specialists drea-
med for an automatic process using computers.
The computer processed method (Serra & Abbott,
1980) described hereafter, was developed by
 GEOOIP
CURVES

C l I".",

*st, llWl

A , ,"."'I
e
+-- LLd L W ,

G" 1.11

.O
--- 0 l l". "I

LL. I I W I

0
-2-rn ,el

n, iP.i*l

1 11d 110.1

* n 0 W.ml

Fig. 5-19. - Correlation of electrofacies with core facies (from Serra & Abbott, 1980)

Schlumberger and commercialized under the mark
of FACIOLOG. Its description is destined to explain
the different steps of data processing. Other
approaches could be imagined, and will doubless
be developed. They will certainly be inspired by the
same general philosophy.
5.3.2. Automatic Electrofacies
Identification : FACIOLOG
Essentially the same steps are taken as when
applying the manual method. W e simply try to
translate the approach of the analyst into mathe-
matical functions or statistical processing.
The set of n log responses that characterizes an
electrobed, or level of reading, may be considered
as defining the coordinates of electrofacies (here
represented by a point) in a n-dimensional space.
Since the same causes produce the same effects,
we may think that another bed with same geologi-
cal facies and containing the same fluids will have
the same electrofacies. Consequently, its repre-
sentative point in n-dimensional space has to be
very close to the previous point. Hence, an electro-
facies must correspond t o a cluster, or to a cloud
of points very close to each another in this space.
Contrarily, the distinct electrofacies must corres-
pond to different and separated clusters. They can
possibly overlap in one or several dimensions of
the n space.
If we start with "raw", unzoned data, we will
observe a certain dispersion of points correspon-
ding to one electrofacies, and it will be more
dispersed with a higher number of log measure-
ments. This dispersion is related to the "noise" due
t o the tool, t o hole conditions and even to weak
variations of the geological parameters. A prelimi-
nary zoning and an analysis of the principal
components will, on the one hand, decrease this
dispersion, and on the other hand, reduce the
dimensionality of the space. Only after this step,
can an automatic clustering be carried out.
W e can, in certain cases (the absence of ramps
and of thin beds), immediately start the analysis of
the principal components and carry out a cluste-
ring. The results of the processing leads to an
automatic zoning (Fig. 5-23).
The use of automatic zoning concentrates the
cluster by attempting to eliminate measurement
errors. If an n-dimensional histogram is created
 193

WELL A FACIES 2 WELL B FACIES I

SHALE WALE

lm, t
WELL D FACIES 1
WATERIEARING SINOSTONE

lmO t lmO t

I
!dl

1mO c
Fig. 5-20. - Electrofacies identification and correlations between different wells (from Serra, in Schlumberger Well Evaluation
Conference, Algeria, 1979).
 194

RESISTIVITY
INCREASE
S

DIPS

THICK
c.LlGNlTlC
BED

THIN
LlGNmC

LEGEND UCoal Sand ashale

Fig. 5-21 - Composite-log

Fig. 5-22. - (a) : Electrofacies of the coal bed at 1241-1243 m. (b) : electrofacies of the thin bed at 1238-1238.5 m which corresponds
to a coal as indicated by dipmeter resistivity curves.

and the frequency of each cell analysed, we obtain
results as in figure 5-24a. The results on the same
interval after zoning are shown in figure 4-23b.
Evidently, the data distribution shown in figure
5-24b is easier to handle. Figures 5-25a and 5-25b
show the corresponding frequency plots on two
selected axes of the interval.
5.3.2.1. Automatic zoning of logs
A zoning program has to divide the studied
interval into electrobeds and electrosequences
(ramps). An electrobed can be defined as a suc-
cession of levels with contiguous reading, accor-
ding t o the sampling rate used (6 or 1.2 inches).
These levels present essentially the same values
.This means that their response variations do not
exceed certain limits (allowed variations). These
variations correspond t o the tool error in the
measurement, and to minor acceptable changes in
geological parameters (Fig. 5-26).
These changes may be expressed in terms of
measurement error or may follow a more complex
law.
An electrosequence can be defined as a suc-
cession of contiguous readings. The level having
an order n, shows a value higher than that of leve
lwith order n - 1, but lower than that of level with
 195

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Fig. 5-25. - Frequency plots of the data presented in Fig. 5-24 :

(a) unzoned, (b) zoned (from Serra & Abbott, 1980).

Fig. 5-23. - Example of automatic zoning of logs obtained by

clustering techniques and comparison with raw logs (from
Serra, in Schlumberger Well Evaluation Conference, India, 5015-
1983).

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h.MBEP3; :E..Sd$ hG3E.EMEh-S 5 hdABEROFCE..SnAL hG3E.EMEh-S
T A - h.UOER 3c CE..S '24 h.MBEROFCE-.SnA. hG4E.EMEhTS
NUMBEROFCELLSHAVING5 EiEMENTS
h,MBEROFCE..S " A 4 h G IE&EhTS
h,MBEROF CE.3 HA. hG.E.EUE\TS
\ABEPOFCE..S n A l h G 8 E.EUE\lS 5105-
LMBEnOCCE..SHAi hG9E.EMEhT
hABEROFCE..SHAV hG1:c F M F h T

\.MBEnOCCE..ShAu \G 'IE.EUE\TS
h,MBERFCE..ShAV hG'4E.EMEhlS
\.MBEROECE..Sr(A. h G 1SE.EUEhTS
\.MBEPO5CE-SdAi \G 'BE.EUE\TS
\.MBEEICCCE..ShAr hG "E.EME\lZ
hrMBEQ3FCE..SnAV hG *8i;&ihTi
h,MBEROF CE.3 dAV h G 19 E.EVE4TS
h.MBEPOECE..SdAV hG24E.EUEITS
\,MBEUO5CE..Sd. \G31 E.EUE\lS
-0TA. \JUBER OF C L S 107
Fig. 5-24. - Electrofacies are distinguished using data genera-
ted by a clustering program : (a) unzoned, (b) zoned (from Fig. 5-26. - Principle of the automatic zoning into electrobeds
Serra & Abbott, 1980). and electrosequences.
196
order n + 1, or vice-versa. This evolution must
constinue in a depth interval thicker than the
vertical resolution of the measuring tool, to be
considered as representative of an electrose-
quence. Otherwise , it corresponds to an artificial
ramp, due to lack of resolution of measuring tool
(Fig. 5-26).
Hence, it is necessary to define for each tool,
the vertical resolution and the amplitude of the
accepted variations, expressed as a percentage.
Figure 5-27 shows the influence of this last para-
meter on the division into electrobeds and electro-
sequences for a log (gamma ray). We can state
that the effect is minor if we do not exceed a
certain value. Generally, we carry out the zoning
from active logs, on which we rely to determine
the limits and the type of evolution. We impose
these limits to other so-called passive logs. The
type of evolution between these limits defines, for
passive logs, either a bed or a sequence. Figure
5-28 gives an example of automatic zoning obtai-
ned with the help of three active log sgamma ray,
neutron and density.
Fig. 5-27. - Influence of the allowed percentage of variation on
the zoning of the gamma ray log into electrobeds and
electrosequences.
5.3.2.2.Dipmeter deta processing
In chapters 3 and 4 we insisted on the interest
of dipmeter data as a source of textural and
structural information. This information, that is
very important for the definition of the electrofa-
cies, and therefore for facies and depositional
environment, should not be ignored.
But this information is by nature qualitative : the
aspect of resistivity curves, nature of the bed
boundaries, dip evolution with depth ... Its use can
only be achieved through a quantification of the
dipmeter data as done by the SYNDIP program
previously described in Chapter 4.
5.3.2.3.Automatic clustering techniques
The method described in the previous section is
essentially a way of trying to divide n-dimensional
log space (n corresponds to the number of diffe-
rent log data taken into account) into definable
volumes corresponding to each electrofacies (Fig.
5-29).
Many of the mathematical techniques known as
clustering are adaptable to such problems. In
more than two dimensions, we can think of the
electrofacies points falling into clusters or clouds.
(A cluster may be described as a continuous
region of the n-dimensional space containing a
relatively high density of points, seearated from
other such regions by regions containing a relati-
vely low density of points). The task of the cluste-
ring program is then to distinguish each cloud. For
this purpose, we determine, for each level or
reading depth, the distance dk of the kth closest
neighbour. It corresponds to the radius of the
smallest circle with its center a t a known level and
containing k neighbouring points. If any other
level, situated below or above a certain depth
window (IBAND) does not have a lower dk value,
and if among these neighbouring k none of them
has a lower dk value, a level will be taken as a cell,
or as a local mode (Fig. 5-30).Each cell obtained
in this manner corresponds to a'n elementary
eIect rof a c ies.
The shape of the clusters is difficult to define,
as one cannot assume, automatically, that the
distribution within each facies, for each log, is
normal. A clou dis dispersed in any direction by
the effects of log errors, as described, or by
changes in the facies itself. Consider, for example,
the grain size variation within a sandstone. This
will disperse the sandstone points, leading to a
"cloud" with a concentration of points a t one end
and a tail. In the case of a gradual change from
one facies to another, the actuation is even more
complicated since the clouds are not separated. In
most cases a t facies interfaces the differing verti-
cal resolution of the logs introduces some scatter
in the response. For these reasons statistical
techniques are needed to establish criteria to
separate clusters.
In deciding what kind of clustering technique to
 197

Fig. 5-28. - Example of automatic zoning obtained with three active logs : gamma ray, density and neutron logs (from Schlumberger
Well Evaluation Conference, Algeria, 1979).
198

LOG 2
use, several things are important :
EIeclrofacie8 1
- the number of levels to be examined a t any
time;
- the number of variables (logs) t o be conside-
red;
- the size and distribution of each cluster;
Eleclrotaciea 1
- the occurrence of electrofacies with only
limited representation;
- the effects of gradational changes from one
cluster to another.
If it is desirable to introduce information provi-
ded by a dipmeter, it must be quantified. This is
achieved through the dipmeter derived synthetic
logs previously described and obtained from the
SYNDIP program.
For data where the significance of changes over
the range of a log is heavily dependent on the log
value, some nonlinear scale changes are neces-
Fig. 5-29. - Three-dimensional case of three electrofacies on a sary. For example, resistivity values that vary from
three-log axis (from Serra & Abbott. 1980). 0.1 to 10000 are transformed to logarithm base 10.
This makes the processing easier and allows the
use of a metric standard.

5.3.2.4. Final electrofacies definition

The previous described method defines a cer-
tain number of local modes (or elementary electro-
facies) that is much smaller than the original
number of levels. A list of the local modes classi-
fied following the order of creation is also produ-
ced. It indicates the depth of the most representa-
tive value, the dk value, and the link with other
modes. The coordinates of the principal compo-
nents are also given (Table 5-1).
Even if they describe logging reality better and
more objectively (compare zoned logs with raw
logs of Fig. 5-23), these local modes are often too
numerous t o be easily correlated t o geological
facies. The analysis of their proximity to each other
can group some elementary modes t o reduce the
number of final electrofacies to a value close to
Fig. 5-30. - Determination of local modes or elementary the number of geological facies (Fig. 5-31). One
electrof acies. method is t o search within the multidimensional

Table 5-1
List o f local modes found by the clustering techniques.

4ODC LCVCL I DLPIM DK LTYR LCNGTW P R I N C I P A L CONPOICI? C O O R O I I I m 8

 199

WTHMOqlFA0.5 0.0 1.4 1.0 2.3 2.: 3.3 3.8 4.2 4.7
--I-----

Terminal mods
...
Local mods

Local mode

Terminal mode

Fig. 5-31. - Schemes explaining the clustering of points into

local modes and terminal modes.

histogram for cells of the locally highest frequency

(modes) and then t o construct a dendrogram of
similarities between the modes (Fig. 5-32).
The dendrogram is a graphic representation of
the distance, in n-dimensional space, between 1541.3 281
- 7
I l
i
each mode and its closest neighbour. Value salong 1542.5 251 5 1
the x-axis of Fig. 5-32correspond t o these distan- 15Wp.5~2l/13I
ces. They give an idea of the degree of similarity
between modes and can be used t o justify the
grouping of modes into the final electrofacies. The
analyst then chooses a reduced list of modes as
seed points for a partitioning algorithm, working
not on the histogram but on the original data.
Single-link clustering methods on the original
data have not been used because of the amount of
data and the effects of chaining. However, cluste-
ring directly on constant values within zones after
Fig. 5-32.- Example of dendrogram and its use for defining the
zoning gives a reduced data set and works well. terminal modes.
This is, in effect, a method of segmentation follo-
wed by clustering.

5.3.2.5.Principal Component Analysis
In fact, the clustering methods are applied on
the principal component logs, which are derived
from a Principal Component Analysis (PCA).
As we noted previously, each log is influenced,
in different degrees, by the geological parameters
of the rocks. In combining several logs we have,
automatically, a certain redundancy of geological
information. This is highly useful for mutual verifi-
cation of the data quality .The goal of the Principal
Component Analysis is t o study the correlations
between log data, t o reduce the number of n
variables t o a lower number m, by eliminating the
insignificant components.
The Principal Component Analysis, or PCA, is a
statistical study of the logging data over a given
interval. From the search of correlations between

Table 5-2
Statistical analysis of logging data.

Table 5-3
Correlation matrix between wireline log.
 e*e*aee.**
*e e e IeUe eOeI e e ** ICTlVt IIERTIh . 0.00066

,: !.........*......................-.--..............
10 20 30 40 50
1 !eeee**e*e!e.e*e*e.e!*ee**se**!*** I t 11.1,

i
2 ~ ~ ~ 8e ~ ~ * * e ~ * * * * l
~ e e ~ e e e e e ~ ~ e ~ e e e e e m e ~ e ~ e e ~ s * e ~ ! ~ e 60.1
3 ! I I I I 6.6 I

? I I I 1 0.1 I

::::
I I 0.0 I
I
I
* i j I
I
!.............................!.........! .............
"O'
a "0 I
r IOTIL 100.o

*eeeeeee*e
I IPRI * ICTIVl IICLTII = 0.001c6

........!:........................................
***e**e*ee

,: ! 20 10 40 50
I * e * eI*
1 e e e ~ ~ ~ e ~ e ~ e e e e ~ e e e . 1 e e e e ~ e e e e ~ e e e s s e e e * e e ens.3
2 e e I 4.2 I
3 lee*e*eee 8.6 I
4 1 0,) 8
1 1 0.6 I
a ! 0.1 b
1 1 0.4 I
n ! 0.0 I
1
...................
,................................... 0.0 I

-
! rnru, i00.0 8
Fig. 5-33. - Principal Component Analysis corresponds to a .,,,,,,,,,
change of axes. :*rf:e.*e: 'CTIVc ~urntlb c~o.#11cb

,: :................................................-.
!0 20 30 40 10

I
1
I e e e !8
! e * e e e e * e e ~ e e e e ~ e e ~ e 1 e ~ e e e ~ * e e ~ e e ~ e e e e e e e e e e 11.8
I

i
3 imee*eeeeei*we*eeeew 20.0 I
Table 5-4 1 1.e 2,o I
Evaluation of the principal axes and rank by 1 0.4 I

,
4

amount of original information carried. 5 1 0.4 I

I I
...............................................................
I.........!I ,,
0.0 I
0.0
I
...............................................................
1x1s I
I
INERT~A
cur+Iro
I I N I
I PcRcENrhm I :!+1! I
CUYUbIT D
Pcacenrtec
I
I .i j O.O

!................... . . .......
9 1 0.0,
j I1 11 5:93:9k:81
0
1
Den0 1
50U
%*!i:
4'909
I tt.ttt.t.t!
lOI4L 100.0 I

\ : II gi;i'it~l! i
I
400-01
:::i:
Fig, 1-34, - Histograms illustrating the contribution of the
...............................................................
I
I
u
q
I
I
b450-ni
::!418D-02
I
I 0,012
principal components to the reconstruction of the logs.

Table 5-5
Correlations between wireline logs and principal components.

logging parameters (Tables 5-2 and 5-3), PCA
replaces n measured parameters (or n curves or
logs as IL, SP, FDC, CNL, GR, etc.) with n other
uncorrelated parameters (or n PC logs). In fact,
this results in a change of coordinate axes (Fig.
5-33). The readings of n logs at a given depth can
be considered as coordinates of a point (corres-
ponding t o the depth) in a n-dimensional space.
Over a given interval, all measurements or
levels (or sets of data) define a cloud in n-dimen-
sional space.
This n-dimensional cloud can be described by a
set of axes. PCA defines the principal axes of
inertia. If each data point has the same weight, the
first axis of inertia (or PC 1) will be aligned accor-
ding t o the direction of maximum length. In other
words, the first axis is the one having the largest
variability. The second (or PC 2) is the second
largest but in a perpendicular direction. etc. There
is no correlation between PC 1, . . . . PC n, so their
use eliminates the redundancy between original
logs and permits isolation of the elementary
effects. The amount of original information that
each PC axis contains decreases from PC 1 to PC
n (Table 5-4). When the n of them are taken, the
total amount of information contained in the
original set of logs is restored. PC axes of high
order contain little information, which in some
 20 1

cases can be considered noise. In this case, we

can eliminate them in a further treatment. This
corresponds t o a filtering and reduces the number
of parameters to be taken into account (it reduces
the dimensionality of the cloud from n t o m, m
being lower than n).
But if variations observed on a PC of high order,
correspond t o events that appear on one log and
not on the others, these events cannot be conside-
red as noise (i.e. organic material only detected by
the uranium content, measured by the NGT tool).
The distribution of the information carried by a
log between the PC logs, can be represented by
histograms (Fig. 5-34). At the same time correla-
tion between logs and PC is provided (Table 5-5).
This can help t o understand what type of informa-
tion is essentially represented by a given PC log.
Once the principal axes of inertia have been
calculated from a set of "active"logs, it is also
possible to project other logs or curves (i.e., "pas-
sive'' logs) onto these axes. Thus, one can deter-
mine which part of the passive logs can be
explained by the information contained in the set
of active ones and how much the passive logs are
related to each PC log.
PC logs do not carry additional information. It is
just another way t o present the essential informa- 1450
tion contained in the original logs. This technique
makes clustering somewhat easier, with little or no
loss of information. Hence, after the principal
component analysis of the standard logs, a redu-
ced set of principal component logs is chosen. PC
logs can be drawn as logs (Fig. 5-35).
The definition of the axis is based on the cloud
distribution. The latter will depend on the weight
given to each data. Hence, if w e want t o give
priority to mineralogy, we can put more weight on
those logs that are more sensitive t o composition
(NGT, LDT, GST, ACT tools). This situation will
amplify the variations of parameters measured by
these tools, and will diminish the weight given t o
those logs particularly sensitive t o porosity and
saturation (FDC, CNL, LL, IL ... ). This will natural1
ycompress the variations of parameters obtained
from the last mentioned tools.
The results of either of these approaches is an
affectation of each log sampling level t o one
electrofacies. Fig. 5-1 9 shows the results obtained
by the partitioning technique. The electrofacies is
coded arbitrarily as a number from 0 t o 20.
Evidently, we expect the nth electrofacies t o reap-
pear whenever the core description indicates a
repeat of the lithofacies type. The maps from
electrofacies t o core lithofacies can be made
easily by means of the representation of Fig. 5-19.
For example, the No. 7 electrofacies is a clea
nsand, whereas No. 5 is a limestone. Electrofacies
12 repeats several times, corresponding t o the
shale intervals. I I I I I 1 I I 1
CUkUE 'ES PCL 4 , PCLG I -6.Llddddd I,. CldbclC 0
C u i i N 'ES PCL 5 , PCLG I -6. cibclbdd b. CldCldC 6
C b R u E #EL PCL 2 , P i ~ i , -I;.t1bOUb0 I;, ClclcldC 0
Fig. 5-35.- Example of PC logs. b CURVE "ES PCL 1> PCLG I - 6 . CIOOOOO 1;. ooooc 0
 202
DENOROGRAY OF ZONE SIMILARITIES
I
0.1710
0.1011 0.6493
0.7252
0.4915 0.3457 0.1940 0.0.22
0.5734 0.4216 0.1699 0.1111 9 . 0 3 3 7
LlONlTlC )AND
IHALV I A N D -1
_ _ _
SHALEIIHALV I A N D
~ ~
SAND C L U I
LIMITED SHALE --
-. , . . I.
0.1710 0.7252 0.5134 0.4216 0.2699 0.1111 -0.0331
0.8011 0.6411 0.4575 0.3451 O . 1 H O 0.0422
DEllDR00RA.M - VALUES ALONO X.AXIS ARE
5IYILARITIE5
Fig. 5-36. - Direct clustei*ing on zone values (fro
The correspondence with core data is shown.
The "ladder" presentation for some of the electro-
facies (Nos. 5, 6, 7, 8 and 12) also is shown. A
glance a t the "ladder" corresponding to No. 12
shows a wide variation on several logs. Further-
more, the GEODIP results shown on the right
indicate different response types within electrofa-
cies No. 12. It can be subdivided by establishing
subfacies in the shale zones.
Fig. 5-36 illustrates the result of direct clustering
on the zone values. In this case, the criteria used
in the automatic zoning program have been re-
laxed to give longer and, hence, fewer zones than
in Fig. 5-19. The dendrogram shows the zone
"families" grouped in terms of their similarities
and distinguished by use of a cutoff level. Each of
these families is assigned an electrofacies num-
ber, as shown in the appropriate column. We can
note immediately that this method gives four
different shale and three shaly sand types. With a
more detailed definition of the core, we probably
would see differences in the composition of each
of these shales or shaly sands. The main layers of
marl, sand, and limestone are as seen in Fig. 5-19.
An example of electrofacies analysis in carbo-
nates is given by Fig. 5-37. A final selection of 9
terminal electrofacies was made. The superposi-
tion of the squared logs obtained from these 9
terminal modes on the actual logs (Fig. 5-38) gives
a good quality-control indicator of the selection of
CORE lELECTROFAClES NUYIERI SONIC 0 IrJW. I ZONE I FOC' Idd)
GR I A W kUMlER1 CNL' lwJ
I
ZONE NUMBER
1:
::
terminal electrofacies. The 9 selected electrofacies
allow an adequate description of the main geolo-
gical facies over this interval. At the same time,
the representative mean values of the parameters
characterizing each final electrofacies are repro-
duced under the form of a listing (Table 5-6).
At this stage it is necessary to make the follo-
wing remarks :
- it is not recommended to try to obtain, a t any
price, the same number of electrofacies as well
recognized in the core by facies analysis made by
a geologist. Even if the logging tools "substitute
the geologist's eyes", it is impossible for them to
"see" the formations as a geologist would see
them. The tools do not react to the same parame-
ters as the eyes and the brain of geologist do. To
define a facies, he will often "filter" the available
information, and rely on a feeling that is based on
some of the information : composition, colour,
certain elements of texture, and more often sedi-
mentary features and faunistic associations. He
pays little attention to the precise proportion of
each mineral or element, because these are stu-
died on chosen samples, and they may vary
appreciably from one point to another. He rarely
estimates the porosity and never includes the
fluids. The majority p f tools are sensitive to minor
variations in composition, and the latter is not
easily detected in a core except in a very detailed
and expensive analysis.
 203

A = carbonaceous shale E = packstone t o wackestone rich in foraminifers

B = nodular bedded shale F = packstone t o wackestone rich in large foraminifers
C = dolomitic mudstone G = bioclastic mudstone t o wackestone
D = packstone to wackestone H = packstone to wackestone rich in bioclasts
with abundant rounded algae I = upper shale, calcareous

Fig. 5-37. - Open-hole logs, synthetic logs, GEODIP and FACIOLOG results and GLOBAL evaluation of a well (from Schlumberger
Well Evaluation Conference, India. 1983).
204

Table 5-6
Listing of the mean values of the parameters characterizing each terminal mode or electrofacies.

QAMMARAY - The purpose of electrofacies analysis is to

describe the formations from the tool responses. If
SQUARED SOUARED SQUARED S0 UA R ED we wish to be precise and objective it is necessary
1.8 OICrn3 2,1
that the retained electrofacies reflect, first of all,
ACTUAL
APl Units 150 0
ACTUAL
PI 11 160 65
CTUAL
P U 18
ACTUAL
gicm3 2.1 log parameters. This verification is carried out by
superposing the average values, defined for each
electrofacies, on the raw data (Fig. 5-38).
- It is important that the geologist gets to know
this new concept and learns to exploit the results
of this new method of formation analysis. It is
necessary that he benefits from its advantages;
objectivity, rapidity, quantification, accuracy, and
finesse of analysis. However, while maintaining the
detail made possible by analysis of the electrofa-
cies, the geologist can cluster several electrofacies
under the same shading, representing one lithofa-
cies.
- As it was previously mentionned he can give
more weight to those log data particularly sensi-
tive to lithological parameters, or to sedimentary
features.
- If the beds are very thin, compared to the
vertical resolution of the tools, or if the series are
fundamentally composed of thin sequences (i.e.
distal turbidites, tempestites), the majority of
open-hole logging tools will not recognise the
proper electrofacies of each bed or each term of
the sequence. The computer processing will thus
define an electrofacies corresponding to an ave-
rage response that combines the influence of two
or more beds, and therefore facies. This electrofa-
cies will not give an accurate idea of the real
facies. In such a case, it is necessary to use tools
with a high vertical resolution (dipmeters, EPT),
and a combination of the results obtained by
processing of the data with the LITHO and SYN-
DIP programs. This allows conversion of the
dipmeter resistivity curves in terms of lithology
and structure (Fig. 5-39), by analyzing dipmeter
resistivity histograms (Fig. 5-40) and the nature of
the events on the curves.

4 Fig. 5-38. - Terminal modes or electrofacies : averaged squa-

red logs superposed on actual logs. (from Schlumberger Well
Evaluation Conference, India, 1983).
 205

Fig. 5-39. - Example of the lithological interpretation of dipmeter resistivity curves by a combination of LITHO and SYNDIP results.

5.3.2.6. Translation of electrofacies to facies

Fig, 5-40, - ~~~~~l~ of dipmeter resistivity histogram and its
conversion in lithology.
An electrofacies is an abstract mathematical
concept that needs to be "translated" into geolo-
gical words to be easily understood and used by
geologist. Even if the two approachs are very
similar, they differ in language : a set of words and
qualitative adjectives for the description of the
facies by a geologist, a set of log parameters for
characterizing an electrofacies by a log analyst. To
pass from one language to the other it is neces-
sary to "bring together the two vocabularies". The
most accurate method is to put alongside each
other, a t the same scale, the two types of analysis,
and to attach to each eleCtr0faCieS the descriptive
terms used by the geologist to describe facies.
206

I 01*1 LOCI

Fig. 5-41. - Composite display of open-hole logs, GEODIP results, FACIOLOG results and GLOBAL results
(courtesy of Schlumberger).

Attach to the set of log values which characterize
an electrofacies (pb, &, At, GR ...), the set of words
and adjectives describing the composition, the
texture and the structure of the corresponding bed
(e.g. micaceous well sorted sandstone with calca-
reous cement, cross-bedded, having a porosity
between 18 and 23%, water saturated).
Sometimes the logs recognize an electrofacies
that a first core analysis has not differentiated. In
this case, if it is not linked to a fluid change, it is
better to review and re-analyze the core in a more
elaborate manner, and try to explain the origin of
this electrofacies (i.e. presence of heavy radioac-
tive minerals, of uranium linked to phosphates or
organic matter ...).
If the interval was not cored, we will try to
translate the electrofacies into facies using inter-
pretation techniques. To achieve this objective the
lithology must first be defined, and the features,
extracted from the dipmeter analysis, must be
converted into qualifying adjectives.
The conversion of open-hole log responses to
 207

lithology is obtained by crossplot analysis or by HOLE 0 CORRELATIONS

using an automatic program based on the
RESISTIVITY
construction of a lithofacies data base which itself
is done by combining multi crossplot analysis and CALLPER 1 CURVES
conversion of the composition of rock lithofacies 3 4----20

into log responses. This last program is LITHO and I

10' 0' 10' 20' 30' LO' 50'60'70'80'90' 1

r I-
has been described in Chapter 2.
The conversion of the dipmeter data in textural
and structural information is explained in Chapter

I, :p'
22!
4 and can be achieved with the SYNDIP program GR SUGGESTi

described in the same chapter.

kt
bdOG,*SSIV
CONTACT

5.3.2.7. Result presentation

1,
The presentation of the results of the interpreta- C9 SUOOESTIN

tion by the FACIOLOG program must include the IPWARD C O A R I

original logs, the dipmeter results provided by a

processing of the HDT or SHDT data using
GEODIP or LOCDIP programs, and if possible the
lithological column obtained from LITHO, as well
as a display of the SYNDIP results (Fig. 5-41).
Hence, we have the means of verifying the quality 23(

of the electrofacies analysis. W e may also add the

results of a quantitative interpretation provided by
the GLOBAL program. It is also possible t o super-
pose on the raw logs the zoning derived from the
electrofacies analysis.
a,

5.4. SEQUENCE ANALYSIS

FROM WIRELINE LOGS I

i
It consists of analysing, on the one. hand, the I
23!
I
type of transition from one electrofacies t o ano-
ther (gradational or abrupt contact), and on the Fig. 5-42. - Example of dipmeter resistivity evolution sugges-
ting thin fining upward sequences contradicting the evolution
other, the arrangement of electrofacies in vertical suggested by the gamma ray log (from Serra, in Schlumberger
sequences, at different scales (elementary, Well Evaluation Conference, Algeria, 1979).
meso-and mega-sequences).

5.4.1. Gradational Transition : detectable on macrodevices. In this case the

Elementary Sequence
A gradational transition corresponds t o a ramp
or an elementary electrosequence, simultaneously
detectable on one, two or several curves : most
often gamma ray, spontaneous potential, resisti-
vity, but sometimes sonic, density and neutron.
Remark :
It is necessary to remember that a ramp on
resistivity curves may correspond to a transition
from water-bearing to hydrocarbon-bearing reser-
voir, and thus may indicate a progressive change
in saturation. A look at other logs, less, or not,
sensitive to fluids (particularly gamma ray) distin-
guishes this case from that of a sedimentary
sequence.
When the sedimentary sequence is not very
thick (few centimetres or decimetres), it is not
electrosequences often appear more clearly on
dipmeter resistivity curves (Fig. 5-8 and 5-9).
It may happen that, following the vertical evolu-
tion of thicknesses of each elementary sequence,
the macrodevices give a hypothesis for the se-
quential evolution that does not agree with that
given by the dipmeter resistivity curve evolution
(Fig. 5-42). In this case, only the data derived from
dipmeter is valid.
Remark
Once more, we must be careful in the interpre-
tation of curve evolution in the case of deviated
wells. In fact, some sequences are purely artificial
and simply due to the influence of surrounding
layers which, because of the apparent low dip
between the axis of the hole and the beds, are
situated behind the bed immediately in front of the
measuring devices (Fig. 5-43).
208
between the axis of the hole and the beds.
In a terrigenous detrital series, the elementary
Fig. 5-43. - Scheme explaining the different evolutions observed on dipmeter resistivity curves, related to the apparent low angle
electrosequences (cf. Fig. 5-8) indicate evolution
both in grain size and in lithology : normal graded
bedding (fining upward) or reverse graded bed-
ding (coarsening upward).
In a carbonate series, an elementary electrose-
quence more often indicates a change in lithology
(enrichment in shale or in dolomite), a diagenetic
influence, or, sometimes, a textural evolution
(transition from grainstone or packstone to wacks-
tone or mudstone Fig. 5-44).
5.4.2. Abrupt Contact
It corresponds to an abrupt and significant
change of reading observed a t the same depth on
one, and more generally, on several logs simulta-
neously. Its interpretation needs the study of the
relationship between electrofacies. From that
analysis one should be able either to determine
sequences of electrofacies, or the significance of
this change : transition from one term of the
sequence to the following one, or break in the
sedimentological sequence, or fault, unconformity
... For instance, if the abrupt change corresponds
to the transition from anhydrite to halite, it only
reflects a natural evolution inside the evaporitic
3 33
sequence from a less to a more resticted environ-
ment.
Inversely, the abrupt change from a shale to a
sand, or from a sand to a limestone, may indicate
a fundamental change in depositional sequence. It
marks the beginning of a new cycle of sedimenta-
tion, after a break or an erosion even if it does not
correspond on the dipmeter to a non planar
surface (wavy symbol on LOCDIP display, 4 dip
computation on GEODIP display).
Finally, an abrupt change may be linked to a
fault or to an unconformity that brings into contact
two rocks having different properties. The inter-
pretation of the dipmeter generally allows recogni-
tion of these phenomena (see Chapter 13 and 14),
and hence determination of the origin of this
abrupt change.
5.4.3. Sequences of Electrofacies
The electrofacies, as well as the facies, do not
superpose each another randomly, except if there
are tectonic accidents, unconformities, erosion, or
periods of non deposition.
As we have seen previously some crossplots
indicate directly these sequences of electrofacies.
Rider & Laurier (1979) used this technique to

RESISTIVITY
CURVES
e&iktitr
MWSTONE
I
Fig. 5-44. - Example of textural evolution in a limestone.
Observe the general trend on the averaged resistivity curve on
the leftside.
characterize deltaic sequences. They give the log
responses for an ideal sedimentary cycle (Fig.
5-1 1 ) that consists of a progradation from shale to
sand, with occasional coal deposits. Their method
uses the location of each facies on crossplots (Fig.
5-10).
But, undoubtedly the best and most accurate
method will be the analysis of their arrangement
by probability methods. Once the electrofacies
have been defined, a study of their vertical organi-
sation can be made following a method proposed
by de Raaf et at. (1965). Applying a procedure
suggested by Selley (1 970). the succession of
electrofacies has been represented in a diagram
resembling a spider's web. An example of what is
now referred to as a "Facies Relationship Dia-
gram" (FRD) is given in Fig. 5-45. In this diagram,
the probability of transition from one facies to
another, as observed in the well, is shown by
numbered arrows.
In order to construct a FRD, a computer pro-
gram tabulates a difference matrix (observed
209
~~
OBSERVED FACIES RELATIONSHIPS
Fig. 5-45. - Example of a Facies Relationship Diagram, showing
the observed number of sharp and gradational transitions
between facies (from Walker, 1979). S S = scoured surface;
A = poorly defined trough cross-bedding; B = well defined
cross-bedding; C = large planar tabular cross-bedding;
D = small-scale planar tabular cross-bedding; E = isolated
scours; F = trough cross laminated fine sandstones and
shales; G = low angle stratification.
Table 5-7
Observed minus random transition probabilities
for well of Fig. 5-37
(from Serra, in Schlumberger Well Evaluation
Conference, India, 1983).
FACIES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 *** 18 39 -20 -2 -18 -15
I (COUNT) I 5 1 12 12 13 11 9 I
t I
I 1
minus random transition probabilities) as shown in
Table 5-7. The observed transition probability is
the number of observed transitions in the well
from one electrofacies to another converted to
probabilities. The random transition probability is
obtained on the assumption that all facies transi-
tions are random, and depends only on the abso-
lute abundance of the various electrofacies. The
difference between the two probabilities gives the
difference matrix. It is to be noted that some
values are high-positive (transitions much more
common than if electrofacies were random) and
some are high-negative (transition much less
common than random). The last row gives the
total number of occurrences of a particular facies
(e.g. facies H is observed only once).
Remark :
Walker (1984) mentionned that this method is
statistically incorrect. He suggests using a more
complex methods of Markov chain analysis.
210
a "the key t o interpretation is t o analyze all of the
- b
Fig. 5-46. - Spider's w e b diagram for well of Fig. 5-37 represen-
ting the facies relationship as obtained from data of Table 5-7,
and its FRD interpretation (from Serra, in Schlumberger Well
Evaluation Conference, India, 1983).
The interpretation of the FRD suggests a cycle of
deposition as represented by Fig. 5-46.
5.5. APPLICATIONS OF FACIES
AND SEQUENCE ANALYSES
Facies and sequence analysis is a fundamental
step of the geological study of a formation. So, it
is normal that its applications cover a certain
number of fields related t o sedimentology, and the
quantitative interpretation of reservoirs.
5.5.1. Reconstitution
of the Depositional Environment
As it was pointed out by Middleton (1978), the
final goal of facies and sequence analysis is the
reconstitution of the deposit io na I environment .
But, Walker (1979) stated "many, if not most,
facies defined in the field have ambiguous inter-
pretations - a cross-bedded sandstone facies, for
example, could be formed in a meandering or
braided river, a tidal channel, an offshore area
dominated by alongshore currents, or on an open
shelf dominated by tidal currents". In such cases,
facies communally, in context. The sequence in
which they occur thus contributes as much infor-
mation as the facies themselves". Finally, the
sequence will usually allow recognition of the
depositional environment.
In the same way, we can only reconstruct the
depositional environment, from logs, by replacing
the electrofacies both in vertical and lateral elec-
trosequences. This is why we cannot be solely
interested in the electrofacies of sand bodies. In
fact, when w e analyze the shape of the SP curve
we make this kind of interpretation unconsciously.
The "be II" a nd "f un ne I" s ha pes correspond ing to
electrosequences as previously noted. But, still we
cannot be conclusive, because such sequential
evolution can belong to several environments. The
choice between the several hypotheses will be
done by taking into account other information
related t o the thickness of each electrofacies and
electrosequence, and its evolution with depth and
in space through well t o well correlations.
Considering the importance of this application
the following chapter is completely devoted to this
topic.
5.5.2. Reconstruction of the Geometry
of the Facies
After an electrofacies and electrosequence
analysis for each well of a field, or possibly of a
permit or even a basin, we can, through the
correlations of electrofacies jointly with chronos-
tratigraphic correlations between wells, reconsti-
tute the space-time distribution of the different
electrofacies. The application of mapping techni-
ques will define the geometry of each facies or
group of facies (see Fig. 5-4 and 5-5). This question
will be discussed later in Chapter 15 devoted t o the
study of several wells.
5.5.3. Mapping of Electrofacies
As seen previously, SP and resistivity curves
can be used for mapping purposes, t o define the
spatial repartition of typical facies. This helps to
better define the environment (see Fig. 5-3). We
can generalise this application by the realization of
isopach or percentage maps of one typical electro-
facies or group of electrofacies. One can also
generate maps of sand-shale ratios computed
from FACIOLOG, LITHO or SYNDIP. For instance,
the ratio of the cumulative thickness of resistivity
peaks t o the cumulative thickness of conductive
troughs computed in a given interval, leads t o an
accurate sand-shale ratio map if the peaks corres-
pond t o sand beds and the troughs t o shale beds.
These maps describe objectively, precisely and
quantitatively, the lateral evolution of the facies.
This type of application will be developed in the
Chapter 15.

5.5.4. Constitution of a Data base
of Electrofacies
By combining the results of electrofacies analy-
sis processed on several wells of a field or a basin,
we can constitute an electrofacies data base
which can be used as reference for the study of
any new wells in the field or the basin. Each set of
log data will be cross checked with this data base
for attribution. If not attributed a new electrofacies
must be introduced into the data base for its
completeness.
By applying methods suggested by Walker
(1979). the analysis or the "distillation" of the
electrofacies and electrosequences, belonging t o
the same depositional environment will allow the
extraction of the logging responses and features
which characterize a depositional environment.
Thus, we can constitute an equivalent of what
Walker (1979) calls a facies modelwhich will "act
as :
- a norm t o which each new example will be
compared;
- a framework and a guide for future observa-
tions;
- a predictor in new geological situations;
- an integrated basis for interpretation of the
environment or system that it represents."
This application is very important. It will later
enable definition of the depositional environment
directly from wireline logs using programs invol-
ving "expert systems". This will be developed in
the following chapter.
5.5.5. Quantitative Interpretation
The electrofacies analysis leading t o a reconsti-
tution of facies and depositional environment, we
are able t o attribute to.each electrofacies, or group
of electrofacies, the most probable mineralogical
model for quantitative interpretation (i.e. quartz,
potassium feldspar, plagioclase, kaolinite as prin-
cipal minerals entering into the composition of a
sand). This limits the number of unknowns for
each electrofacies and optimises the interpreta-
tion b y ' a GLOBAL or ELAN type program as
suggested by Suau et a/. (1982).
Moreover, the texture and the sedimentary
structure indicated by dipmeters or Formation
Microscanner images enable definition of the
types of distribution of shales and, consequently,
a better choice of the response equations (for the
computation of shaliness and saturation), and the
parameters a, m and n that relate porosity to the
formation factor and saturation (textural and struc-
tural models, see Chapter 9).
* Mark of Schlurnberger.
21 1
..
(@scale) 3--lbp6 \ Shaliness
, .* ...\
\
100%
(from core)-
6--1
-- -
wo
Fig. 5-47. - Calibration of the dipmeter resistivity curve in terms
of grain size, shaliness and permeability.
One can also better specify the constraints and
determine for each electrofacies the functions that
permit an approach t o permeability. Finally, one
can reduce the computation time and thus carry
out a higher number of tests by working with local
modes or electrofacies instead of level by level. All
these aspects will be developed in Chapter 9.
5.5.6. Choice of a M o r e Judicious Core Sampling
for Analysis
This aspect is often neglected. In bringing
together the cores and the results of electrofacies
analysis, or a t least the open-hole logs and more
precisely the dipmeters and FMS images, we
are able to select in a more reasonable manner the
sampling intervals and rates for detailed laboratory
analysis. This way t o sample allows both a saving
on expense and time, and a clarification of certain
lo gresponses not clearly understood and interpre-
ted.
Thus, if we refer to the example of Fig. 5-8, if
the sampling and the analysis were concentrated
on one, two or even three electrosequences with a
sampling interval of 5 cm, we should be able t o
calibrate the dipmeter resistivity curves (Fig. 5-47)
in terms of grain size, shaliness and permeability.
W e should also be able t o precise the facies and
the depositional environment (turbidite). In this
way, all uncored intervals, and even all the wells of
the same field, representing the same characteris-
tics, would be easily, rapidly and economically
interpreted.
212
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 Chapter 6
INFORMAT10N 0N DEPOSIT10NAL
SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS
(Formation of sedimentary rocks)
DEFl NITION
REVIEW OF GENERAL CONCEPTS
An environment is a general term used by
geomorphologists or oceanographers to characte-
rize physiographic or morphologic units (mountain
ranges, desert, deltas, continental shelves, abyssal
plains ... A sedimentary depositional environment
is a geographically restricted part of the earth's
surface, which can be easily distinguished from its
adjacent areas by the complex of physical, chemi-
cal and biological conditions, influences or forces
under which a sediment accumulates. This com-
plex largely characterises the environment and
determines the properties of the sediments depo-
sited within it (Krumbein & Sloss, 1963; Selley,
1970; Reineck & Singh, 1975; Blatt et al., 1980).
The physical conditions which act on and
control an environment are numerous. They in-
clude :
- the climate: the weather and its compo-
nents :
. temperature variations (diurnal, nocturnal,
sea sona I);
. importance and frequency of rainfalls, snow-
falls;
. humidity;
. wind regime (dominant direction, velocity, and
their variations);
. all these factors acting on the vegetal cover;
- the altitude and the topographic profile :
nature, size, shape and slope of the mountains or
of the receiving basin, the energy of the flow, the
water depth, which will control the hydraulic
regime; in marine environments : the bathymetry,
the amplitude of the tides, the waves, the current
system of the water mass, the wind regime, the
Coriolis forces.
The chemical conditions which operate within
an environment include the geochemistry of the
rocks a t the surface, and of the waters (river, lake,
sea, ocean) : salinity (nature and percentage of
salts in solution), pH, Eh, gas in solution.
The biological conditions comprise both fauna
and flora, terrestrial or aquatic, and bacteria
present in the environment.
These three conditions or factors are not inde-
pendant but, to the contrary, are strongly linked.
Any change in one of them has immediate reper-
cussions on the others.
Following the medium (air, ice, water) and the
relative importance of each condition, factor and
process, an environment can be depositional,
erosional or non depositional (equilibrium). As a
broad generalization, subaerial environments are
essentially erosional, while sub-aqueous environ-
ments are mostly depositional.
In the study of ancient deposits, because we
analyze sedimentary rocks, we will always refer to
depositional environments. However, it must be
kept in mind that depositional sequences can be
interrupted by periods of non deposition or even
erosion, which of course have no associated
sediments. It will be important to detect and
localize them, both in time and space, because
they will enable a better definition of the environ-
ment and the geological history of a sedimentary
basin. They can also be used for correlation
purposes.
The determination of the depositional environ-
ment will only be possible through the description
of the imprints, or responses, that the physical,
chemical, biological and geomorphological condi-
tions characterizing the environment left in the
deposit.
Those imprints define a facies which is, as
previously seen, the "sum of the physical, chemi-
cal and biological characteristics which differen-
tiate a sedimentary body from another".
As pointed out by Krumbein & Sloss (1963), "the
study of any sedimentary environment includes
21 6

1 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS I RESULTING FEATURES

0 Size of the deposits Geometry

Geometry of the environment

-
0 Properties of the Sediments
[ LJ
-
- Composition
-Texture
Lithology Facies
- Sedimentary structures Palaeocurrents
- Colour
- Fossils Palaeontology
Biological elements of the +
environment 0 Lateral variations in the Lateral
sedimentary properties sequences

[ Environment
I ,
I
Feedback on the environmental factors:
progressive inf l u 1

Fig. 6-1. - A generalized sedimentary environment process-response model (from Krumbein & Sloss, 1963).

considerations of the four basic environmental
elements" listed in Fig. 6-1. To each element are
attached several factors. "The relative influence of
environmental elements varies with the nature of
the environment. Similarly, the factors in any
element vary in their importance within different
enviro nment s " .
The material factors include the medium (air,
fresh or salty water, ice), the pH, the Eh, the
temperature, the dissolved salts (Ca2+, Na+, COi-,
SOa-, CI-), and gases (COZ, 02,SH2), and the
solids. "Each of the material factors may have
some effect on sediments being deposited, but the
importance of the effect is controlled, in part, by
factors of other elements". For instance in a high
energy environment (zone of breaking waves), the
solids (sand and gravel) are dominant, salts and
gases have very little influence. On the contrary, in
a low energy environment (quiet water), they
become dominant in controlling organisms, and
hence play a part in the deposition of carbonate.
"Boundary and energy factors include water
depth, distance from shore, topography of the
bottom, and, in a general way, the geography of
the depositional area". The energy controls the
quantity of particles in suspension, and the size of
the settling grains. It also controls the current type
(laminar or turbulent) and consequently the nature
of sedimentary features.
The energy and material factors control, in turn,
the biological factors. "In clear warm seas, well
oxygenated and mildly alkaline, organisms may
thrive and produce abundant carbonate sediment"
(Krumbein & Sloss, 1963). On the contrary, turbid
medium, or reducing conditions, may restrict living
conditions for some organisms.
The areal variations of the elements and factors
within an environment, called the environmental
pattern by Krumbein & Sloss, (1963), induce
progressive evolution of the nature and properties
of the sediments creating a lateral sequence of
facies.
But, the accumulation of sediments in an envi-
ronment can modify its elements and factors
sufficiently to create new conditions and conse-
quently new properties. "This sort of interlocked
relation between process and response is called
feedbacK. These continuous modifications at any
given geographical point contribute to create a
vertical sequence of facies.
Consequently, an environment will be characte-
rized by a typical sequence of facies both in space
and time. Following the Walther's law' these
sequences are similar.
So, the knowledge of the vertical sequence,
which can be obtained from wireline logs, helps t o
predict the type of lateral sequence and the
depositional environment.
By considering all the possible combinations of
the physical, chemical and biological processes or
all elements and factors which characterize an
environment, one could guess that there should be
an infinite number of environments. In fact, due to
the strong interdependance of all these processes
and factors, a finite number of environments has
been recognized. This is also related to the fact
that there are a finite number of physiographic
types. It is for this reason that, even if two
environments or morphologic units are never
totally identical, the number of major environ-
ments is reduced if one considers the dominant
' Walther's Law : "The various deposits of the same facies
area, and similarly, the sum of the rocks of different facies
area, were formed beside each other in space, but in a crustal
profile, we see them lying on top of each other. It is a basic
statement of far-reaching significance that only those facies
and facies area can be superimposed, primarily, that can be
observed beside each other at the present time" (Blatt e t a / . ,
1972 , p. 187-188).
 21 7

Table 6-1
~~

ENVIRONMENTS
A classification o f depositional sedimentary
environments
(from Selley, 1970). ABYSSAL NERITIC BAR or BEACH LAGOON DUNES LOESS

I 1
Fang lomerate Braided

d+
Continental Fluviatile Meandering
Lacustrine

I
Eolian
L"
Shorelines ] Lobate (deltaic)
Linear (barrier)
Terrigenous
Mixed carbonate-
terrigenous
CI,"

Marine e
$,y:!! 1 Terrigeneous

Carbonate
I Carbonate

MANTLE

This Table tabulates only those environments which have

generated large volumes of ancient sediments.

GI.".
Sand
Sl,,
"
.
,
C

factors. They are listed in Table 6-1. Of course,

especially when we study modern deposits, seve-
ral sub- or even sub-sub-environments can be
a
added t o take into account small variations. But,
for the ancient sediments the separation between
them is not an easy task. It is for that reason that
we will limit the illustration of their recognition by
wireline logs t o the major environments. Road Plain
ROW en*rgy1

INTEREST OF THE RECONSTITUTION

OF THE DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT
The reconstitution of the depositional environ-
ment is not a pure academic objective. It is a
necessity in the search for mineral natural resour-
ces such as hydrocarbons, coal, phosphates,
potassium salts, uranium ... because these resour-
ces are, most commonly, strongly associated t o Immature Submatun, M.t",* Supermature
specific depositional environments.
In petroleum exploration, one of the essential
objectives is the evaluation of the hydrocarbon
potential of a basin. This requests the determina-
tion of the quality, the thickness and lateral
extension (the volume) of the different facies
which represent source rocks in which will be
generated hydroca r b ons , reservoir rocks in w hic h RECOGNITION OF THE MAJOR
hydrocarbons will accumulate by migration from DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS
the previous rocks, and cap rocks which will FROM WIRELINE LOGS
constitute impermeable traps avoiding any dismi-
gration of the hydrocarbons from reservoirs. In the study of ancient deposits, the traditional
In reservoir study, only the reconstitution of the approach of geologists consists of analysing rock
depositional environment gives a correct idea of samples by defining their facies through the
the lateral evolution of the facies and consequen- mineralogical, textural and structural characteris-
tly of the petrophysical properties of the reser- tics of the rocks.
voirs, and t o enable prediction of the existence, The knowledge of the lithology and the minera-
nature, importance and distribution of permeabi- logy is important, but it is necessary to control if
lity barriers. This information is of the utmost diagenesis has modified the original rock type.
importance t o evaluate the production potential of The grain size and the textural maturity can help
a field and t o locate extraction and injection wells t o recognize the depositional environment as illus-
for a better oil recovery. trated by Fig. 6-2.
21 8

As previously seen, sedimentary features Correlations (Fig. 6-6) and isopach of total sands
constitute a fundamental information for the reco- (Fig. 6-7) in the Bisti Oilfield show the barrier bar
gnition of the facies and the environment. nature of the reservoir (from Sabins, 1972).
But, the facies knowledge is not sufficient t o
identify an environment. As pointed out by Walker
(1 979), "a cross-bedded sandstone facies, for Alluvial Fan. Reviwer dominated
example, could be formed in a meandering or (Steel et al, delta
braided river, a tidal channel, an offshore area 1977). (Miall, 1979).
50
dominated by alongshore currents, or on an open rn
shelf dominated by tidal currents." Additional
information related t o the thickness of each facies,
or sequence of facies, and t o its evolution with
time, and consequently with depth, will often allow Wave dominated
discrimination between two or three possible delta
environments (Fig. 6-3). (Miall, 1979).

In a multi-well study the facies and the envi-

ronments will be more accurately recognized using
correlation techniques (Fig. 6-4), and facies map-
ping (isoliths or isopachs, Fig. 6-5), the geometry
of sedimentary bodies being an important parame- 0
ter for facies and environment recognition. For
example, the meandering channel fill system is
easily recognized from the isopach map of the
lower Muddy in the South Glenrock Oilfield,
Wyoming (Fig. 6-5 from Curry & Curry, 1972).

w-.
DELTA OFFSHORE BARS & BARRIER BEACHES

regressive ransgressiv

sand

i il
conglornerole
cool

w ::0oulLding
herringbone
E48 crossbedding
'L. low ongle
crossbedding
hhummochy
CroSsbeddlnQ

no scale
ALLUVIUM TURBIDITES EOLIAN DUNE! 7 3 roots
4D shell debris
meandering
v bioturbotion

Barrier Island
channels (Davies et al. 1971).

Prograding storm
dominated shoreline.
4 Submarine fan. b
(Hamblin &Walker, 1979) (Walker, 1979).

Fig. 6-3.- Typical examples of thickness and grain size evolution related t o typical depositional environments. (a) : from Selley
(1970); (b) : from Miall (1984).
 219

G H

- Log-correlations between wells in the South Glenrock Oilfield, Wyoming. Bar, beach and channel fill are easily recognized
Fig. 6-4.
(from Curry & Curry, 1972).

Fig. 6-5. - lsopach map of the lower Muddy showing t w o buried stream channels (from Curry & Curry, 1972).
220

SHELL 2 MEYER COV7 FANNIN 1 FANNIN WHITE PHILLIPS I GALLEGOS SKELLY I BOUCK APCO I ES U Y*UIE APCO I KO SA NATIONAL I WEAVER FED

A SEC il23lN RllW SEC 13 T 24 N R 12 W SEC 1 1 1 2 4 N R II W SEC 5 T 24 N R I1 W SEC 28 T 25 R II W SEC 23 T 25 N R I1 W SEC 15 T 25 N R II W

A'
NOR1'H

B B
SOUTHEAST
"ORTHWESTPANSEC
AM1 OLD TRAMNG POST
lOT28NRl4W
EL PASO 2D SULLIVAN
SEC 2 8 T I O N R I 3 W
EL PASO 2 D KELLY STATE
SEC I I T Z I N R 1 2 W
APCO I KO SA EL PASO IA BRWKHAVEN FOREST MUERFANO
SEC 23 T 25 N R II W SEC ZS T 16 N R 10 W SEC 13 1 2 4 N R 10 W

Fig. 6-6. - Log-correlations between wells in the Bisti Oilfield, New Mexico (from Sabins, 1972)

Fig. 6-7. - lsopach map of total sands in the Bisti Oilfield, N e w Mexico (from Sabins, 1972).

In fact, the depositional environment will be the facies communally, in context. The sequence
better and more accurately defined by integrating in which they occur thus contributes as much
all the information on facies and sequences of information as the facies themselves" (Walker,
facies. "The key to interpretation is to analyze all of 1984).
 221

SP SP SP

i tI
Resistivity Resistivity Resistivity

L A JOLLA FAN

TOURELLE FM
\ (
HATTERAS ABYSSAL PLAIN

CLORIDORME F M LOCAL

VARIABILITY
7 I
UTlCA F M
\ \ k DISTILLED AWAY

I
DO LOCAL EXAMPLES
DIFFER FROM NORM

1\ Channel

\k
FRAMEWORK FOR PURE ESSENCE OF
FUTURE OBSERVATIONS ENVlRONMENTAL SUMMARY

5i
MODEL AS NORM A - F I U Y ~ ~chsnne:
I overbank B - Deltaplain lacier
1mes

/=\
A MODEL PIS BASIS FOR &2 SP Resistivitv SP Resistivitv SP Reslstlvltv SP Reststlvitv
HYDRODYNAMIC INTERPRETATION
MODEL AS
PREDICTOR

LOCAL + GUIDANCE FROM

FACIES MODEL
PREDICTIONS IN
AREA 7
1
Fig. 6-8. - Distillation of a general facies model from various
local examples to extract pure essence of environmental
summary (from Walker, 1979).

These sequences can be described, as sugges-

ted by Visher (1965), by a vertical profile, or, in
other terms introduced by Walker (1976), by a
facies model. As illustrated by Fig. 6-8 from
Walker, the facies model is obtained by "distilling
and concentrating the important features that"
several similar environments "have in common". c . Delta from C -delta front
C4
IaCIBS
Marginal
c 2 Slope
As Walker explained "a facies model could be
defined as a general summary of a specific sedi- Fig. 6-9. - Examples of vertical SP and resistivity profiles in
mentary environment, written in terms that make high-constructive lobate delta systems, Gulf Coast Basin (from
the summary useable in a t least four different Fisher, 1969).
ways".
For Walker a facies model must "act as :
- a norm, for purpose of comparison;
- a framework and guide for future observa-
tions; But, as previously mentioned, SP and resistivity
- a predictor in new geological situations; curves are not always sufficient to correctly de-
- a basis for hydrodynamic interpretation of the termine the facies. The other logs, especially the
environment or system that it represents". dipmeter or FMS, bring information which help to
In a subsurface study involving well logs, the be more accurate and precise. It is the reason why
equivalent of the facies model will be the concept I suggest they be introduced, when available, in
of an electrofacies model. As seen in previous any sedimentological study.
chapters, wireline logs enable determination of all
the components of facies (mineralogy, texture,
sedimentary features, geometry). One can also
define the organisation of facies in sequences. ILLUSTRATION
Many authors (Fisher, Visher, Pirson, Coleman, OF DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS
Galloway ...) have used the SP-resistivity curve BY WIRELINE LOGS
shapes to determine facies and environments. An
illustration is given by the small sketches of Fig. In the following pages, the main geological
6-9 and 6-10 from Fisher (1969) which quickly characteristics of each major environment, on a
determine the different facies and sub-environ- single vertical profile, are described, through the
ments of two delta systems. geological facies-model concept.
Fluvtdl channel laces

- channel mouth D . Strandplald-shelf f a c e r E - Strandpla~n-lagoon F - Lagoom. marsh G - Shelf

B Channel c .Stacked coastal barrtei
1 1 ,

bar faces lprogradatronall

faces
. marrh fioodbs~ln feces
facies I.cI~.

Fig. 6-10. - Examples of vertical SP and resistivity profiles in high-destructive, wave-dominated delta systems, Delta Coast Basin
(from Fisher, 1969).

The geological parameters are then "translated" Remarks

into well-log responses, both open-hole logs and
dipmeter data, the validity of which is in turn
controlled and illustrated by examples in which
GEODIP or LOCDIP arrow-plots have been inter-
preted with the help of the other open-hole logs.
In each case the most important logging features
which allow their recognition are indicated. As
suggested by Walker (1976), such an electrofacies
model will act as a norm to which any actual
example will be compared, and as a guide for
future observations and enrichment of the model.
GEODIP or LOCDIP arrow-plots have been
prefered to CLUSTER or MSD and CSB displays
because on a GEODIP or LOCDIP presentation one
can easily control the correlations and consequen-
tly the dip validity, and one can base the interpre-
tation on real facts and features (it is known that
CLUSTER, MSD or CSB processing can someti-
mes compute wrong dips or generate artificial
patterns). One can also analyse the curves, thus
helping to interpret the dips or understand why
they are missing.

6.1. GLACIAL ENVIRONMENT
6.1.1. DEFINITION
Environments characterized by deposits on
continents, in lakes or in seas (Fig. 6.1-1), resulting
from the melting of ice masses (glaciers, inlandis)
which carried along detrital materials landslided,
avalanched or pulled out from bed rocks by
erosion and abrasion of the glacier floor during
their movement. A present day aerial view of a
valley glacier is given Fig. 6.1-2.
6.1.2. GEOLOGICAL FACIES MODEL
6.1.2.1. Lithology
Two parameters must be considered separately.
~~~~~~ ~~
Fig. 6.1-1. - Glacial environments and associated landforms typical of glacial areas (from Edwards, in Reading, 1978)
223
6.1.2.1.1. Composition
Glacial deposits are commonly known as drift.
They show a wide type of lithology from rock
fragments (i.e. igneous, metamorphic or even
sedimentary rocks) to clay minerals. This variety of
lithology is controlled by several factors (Kukal,
1970) :
- the character of bed rock on which the glacier
moves,
- the morphological characteristics and flow
velocity of the glacier,
- position of the transported material in relation
to the glacier,
- mode of deposition,
- subsequent reworking by melt water.
Drift can be divided into two general catego-
ries : unstratified and stratified.
~~
224

- Unstratified glacial drift is laid down directly

by glacier ice. It is called a till or a mixtite which
is found in moraines and drumlins. It is characteri-
zed by the constant presence of a certain amount
of gravel fraction and by the equilibrium among
the sand, silt and clay fractions (Kukal, 1970).
Larger sediment particles are scattered irregularly
in the fine-grained matrix (Fig. 6.1 -3). An important
feature of glacial sediments is the presence of

Fig. 6.1-4. - Example of varves (from Pettijohn, 1975).

I
GLACIAL TILL GLACIOMARINE
n DRIFT
30 40

20 20

10

%
:
10
8PARTICLE
4 2 1 12%SIZE
'/WVg

Fig. 6.1-2. - a) Photograph of a compound valley glacier fed by

many tributary ice streams with moraines. b) Cross-section
illustrating various modes of transport and types of sediment
load (adapted from Sharp, 1960).

0 2 112 1/0

Fig. 6.1-5. - Examples of grain size distribution (histograms) in

a till (from Pettijohn, 1975, and Easterbrook. 1982).

numerous labile minerals, e.g., feldspars, ferroma-

gnesian minerals as 'unalterated, angular grains
even in silt and clay-size fractions.
- Stratified glacial drift is ice-transported sedi-
ment that has been washed and sorted by glacial
melt waters according t o particle size. Sediments
of stratified drift are laid down in recognizable
layers. They occur in outwash and kettle plains, in
eskers, kames, and varves or laminites formed in
glacial lakes (Fig. 6.1-4).

Fig. 6.1-3. - Example of till (photograph by Holmes, in Petti-'
john, 1976.)
6.1.2.1.2. Texture
The sorting is very poor in unstratified deposits
(Fig. 6.1-5), the size of particles ranging from
boulders or large blocks (erratic), weighing several
tonnes, t o silt or clay, or even colloids. The shape

Fig. 6.1-6. - Example of scour and fill structure in sandur
deposits (after Augustinus & Riezebos, 1971, in Reineck &
Singh, 1980).
Fig. 6.1-7. - Photograph of a varve, magnified 75 x , t o show
laminations of silt, mainly angular quartz and feldspar, inter-
bedded with layers of finer materials (dark) of similar compo-
sition but much richer in chlorite (from Pettijohn, 1975).
Fig. 6.1-9. - Composite log illustrating typical well-log responses in a glacial drift.
225
Fig. 6.1-8. - Sedimentation in a glacial lake. During the
summer, mainly climbing ripple-laminated sand is deposited
on a prograding delta, while thin silt layers are deposited by
a density under flow on the lake bed. During the winter, lake
surfaces are frozen and suspended clay material can settle
down and drape the previous deposits. Icebergs (shore and
river ice) may raft coarse sediment into the lake during the
spring thaw and summer (from Edwards, in Reading, 1978).
is angular, especially in the sand fraction. Pebbles
and boulders are better rounded and show stria-
tions on their surface. The outwash sediments are
better sorted.
6.1.2.2. Structure
In unstratified sediments a lack of sedimentary
structures is generally observed and they comprise
a mass of heterogeneous materials with no regular
bedding planes, except when pebbles are imbrica-
ted. In stratified sediments, cross-bedding, fore-
sets, and scour and fill structures (Fig. 6.1-6) are
observed in outwash deposits (sandurs),and lami-
nations in varves (Fig. 6.1-7).
6.1.2.3. Boundaries
Generally a sharp, erosional lower boundary is
present. A gradational upper boundary can be
2 26

Fresh Waler, Liquid-Filled Holes P I - 10

K I.
19

varved ?

outwash
deposits

2.9

3.0
0 10 20 40

Fig. 6.1-10. - Typical pb vs & cross-plot in a glacial drift.

observed in outwash sediments with conformable

sharp lower and upper contacts in varves.
moraines wit1
6.1.2.4. Sequences intercalations
of outwash
deposits
A fining upward sequence can be observed in
outwash deposits and in varves (coarse grains
deposited during the summer period, finer mate-
rials during the winter).
unconfonnitj
__L

6.1.2.5. Geometry of bodies

and directional f l o w model
Tills can be accumulated in mounds or ridges Fig. 6.1-11. - Typical results obtained by the GEODIP program
applied to the HDT dipmeter data.
(moraines) of various sizes and shapes (crescent,
loop), or in smooth, elongated hills ( drumlins). A
drumlin can be from 8 to 60 m thick, 0.5 to 1 km
long and several times longer than wide. Drumlins
can occur in clusters or in fields with their long 6.1.2.7. Reservoir characteristics
axis parallel to the ice flow. Varves, typical of
glacio lacustrine deposits (Fig. 6.1-8) are on ave- Glacial deposits do not constitute potentially
rage 6 to 10 cm thick. Each annual varve is itself good reservoir rocks. This is related to the, gene-
composed of 0.2 to 1 mm thick laminae, ranging in rally, high amount of fine materials (silt sand clays)
number from 75 to 150. They indicate seasonal present in the deposits.
fluctuation in the rate of supply of sediment and
can accumulate in very thick sheets exceeding
several tens of metres. 6.1.3. WELL-LOG RESPONSES
AND CHARACTERISTICS
6.1.2.6. Surrounding facies
6.1.3.1. Electro-Lithofacies
Generally glacial deposits grade into braided
fluvial deposits. If a glacier terminates in a water The natural radioactivity (thorium and potas-
body, delta-like features are produced and they sium content) can vary significantly, depending on
grade to lake or marine sediments. the source rock type, reflecting the chemical

immaturity of the material. In the example of Fig.
6.1-9, from Oman, the gamma ray is between 45
and 75 API indicating a relatively immature mate-
rial of metamorphic and sedimentary origin (de la
Grandville, 1982). On a p b vs & crossplot the
representative points fall between sandstone and
dolomite lines suggesting the presence of heavy
minerals (feldspars, plagioclases, amphiboles),
and clay. Porosities range from 5 to 20% (Fig.
6.1-10).
6.1 3.2. Dipmeter response and dip patterns
In general, tills and outwash deposits are cha-
racterized by very "noisy" dipmeter resistivity
curves. Those curves show erratic peaks of diffe-
rent sizes which are not or wrongly correlatable
giving no, or few and scarce, dips, with variable
magnitudes and azimuths (Fig. 6.1-1 1). The thick-
ness of the events varies considerably from curve
to curve (cf. Fig. 6.1-11 at 144 m : the event on pad
2 is approximately 1 m thick. It disappears on pad
4. This suggests a block with an angular shape,
since a rounded boulder with a diameter close to
1 metre should extend beyond pad 4). The angular
shape of the blocks should be easy t o see on FMS
images. Outwash deposits can probably be reco-
227
gnized by a generally lower amplitude of the
resistivity peaks with fewer thick events. Varved
deposits should be characterized by numerous
dips with the same azimuth and magnitude, if a
sufficient resistivity contrast between summer and
winter deposits exists.
6.1.3.3. Boundaries
On most of the well logs the bed boundaries
cannot be detected in tills. Sometimes they can be
recognized in outwash deposits.
6.1 3.4. Electro-Sequences
Some ramps can be observed on well logs (i.e.
Fig. 6.1-9 between samples 4 and 5). They reflect
changes in porosity which can correspond to a
better sorting in a coarse to medium grain size
grade.
6.1.3.5. Confusion with other environments
Tills and outwash deposits can be confused
with alluvial fan and debris flow turbidite deposits.
However, the angular shape of the resistive events
can possibly be used to avoid this confusion.
 6.2. ALLUVIAL FAN ENVIRONMENT

6.2.1. DEFINITION COARSE11WKi-UWARDS tlNIIIO.UCWARDS

ALLUVIAL FAN SEOUENCES ALLUVIAL FAN sEauENcEs

A continental environment characterized by

Irrn UnllMm SO1
CM," ""IU.11I1.d I,

coarse sediments, shaped like an open fan or a

segment of a cone, deposited by an emerging
mountain stream at the outlet of a narrow valley
upon a plain or a broad valley. An aerial view of a lnl.1.11.11l~.d
and c-re.
l~n. csl
I.

modern alluvial fan is reproduced Fig. 6.2-1 and a

general vertical lithology column shown in Fig.
6.2-2.

Mud.

ss
Cm~l~mr*.,

Fig. 6.2-1. - Alluvial fans in the Mohave desert, California. Each Fig. 6.2-2. - Examples of coarsening upward (Devonian alluvial
cone-shaped fan has been deposited where the slope chan- fan cycle in the Hornelen Basin, Norway from Steel et a/.,
ges abruptly at the base of the mountains (photo by J.R. 1977), and fining upward (Devonian, western Norway, from
Balsley, U.S. Geological Survey; in Press & Siever, 1978). Nilsen, 1969). showing cyclic deposition.

6.2.2. GEOLOGICAL FACIES MODEL
6.2.2.1. Lithology
Two parameters must be considered separately.
6.2.2.1.1. Composition
Alluvial fan deposits are essentially composed
of rock fragments, the mineral composition of
which depends on the geological source. The
abundance of rock fragments decreases down fan
as a result of abrasion during transport.The matrix
of fan gravels is sand or mud of primary or
secondary origin with a filling of intergranular
finer material an over-
lying braided river on the previous fan. In keeping
with their typically chemical immaturity, alluvial
fan deposits range from arkoses to lithic quartz-
oses. Plant fragments may be present. Clay occurs
as films around sand grains or as a partial filling in
intergranular voids.
 229

A B

o n llllllll I Illlllll I Illlllll I I l l I I I

NI PROXIMAL I MID-FAN

100

50

0
0,001 0.01 0.1 1.0 10.0 64

- GRAIN DIAMETER, IN MILLIMETERS

Fig. 6.2-3. - Grain size distribution curves and sorting coeffi-
cients for the three main types of alluvial fan deposits (from
Bull, 1963).
Fig. 6.2-4. - Block diagram, plan view and cross-section of Van
Horn fan, West Texas. Widths of arrows, in plan view, indicate
relative competency of stream flow. Profile and section show
down fan decrease of slope and particle size and the types of
stratification : proximal fan = massive conglomerate; mid-
fan = interbedded conglomerate and cross-stratified sands-
tone; distal fan = cross-stratified sandstone (from McGowen
& Groat, 1971).

6.2.2.1.2. Texture
Tread of lobe, finer material
Particles range from boulder t o clay size, and
50 O/O or more of particles are coarser than 2 m m in Front of lobe,
coarser
diameter. Sand and silt grade sediments are material
commonly subordinate (Fig. 6.2-3), with clay
content increasing in debris or mud flows.
Abrupt changes in maximum or mean particle profile
size and roundness are characteristic. Particle
shapes vary from angular t o very well rounded. I

Particle size generally decreases from fan head or

proximal fan to fan base or distal fan (Fig. 6.2-4).
Fan surface
But in sieve deposits, down slope of the intersec-
Intersection point
tion point (Fig. 6.2-5). where water will transport no Depositional lobe below
further, coarser material can accumulate a t the
base and act as strainers or sieves holding back
finer material. Clast roundness increases down
fan. Bed thickness typically decreases down fan. Channel profile
Sorting of debris flow and mudflow deposits is
generally poor. Stream flow deposits are better Fig. 6.2-5. - Schematic sketch of a sieve lobe (from Hooke,
sorted. 1967).
230
Distinction must be made between grain- (or
clast-) supported (Fig. 6.2-6),and matrix-suppor-
ted conglomerates (Fig. 6.2-7).
Grain-supported conglomerates are the predo-
minant facies of stream flow or water-laid deposits
within a proximal fan, while matrix-supported
conglomerates are more characteristic of debris
flow or mudflow deposits. They are also found in
distal fans of water-laid deposits. According to
Bull (1977),debris flows form on steep slopes
(more than loo), with a lack of vegetation, during
short periods of very abundant water supply
(heavy rains in dry regions, or rapid thaw).
Water-laid deposits are characteristic of wet re-
gions with permanent water supply (perennial
stream).
6.2.2.2.Structure
Trough cross-bedded grain-supported gravel is
the major structure and planar cross-bedded
gravel, trough and planar cross-stratified sands
are the minor structures present in the environ-
ment (Fig. 6.2-8).Graded bedding is frequent,
fundamentally fining upward, but coarsening up-
ward may be present if tectonic uplifts occur
(Steel et a/., 1977).
6.2.2.3.Boundaries
The lower contact is generally irregular and
erosional. There is a gradational contact toward
the top.
HORIZONTAL AND
VERTICAL SCALE
APPR 116
-1 FOOT
MUDFLOW DEPOSITS. SAND, PEBBLY SAND,
UNSTRATIFIED GRANULES, STRATIFIED
AND LENSES
Fig. 6.2-8. - Characteristic sedimentary structures in an alluvial
fan (from Blissenbach. 1954; in Spearing, 1971).
6.2.2.4.Sequences
Rhythmic sedimentation with each sequence
thickness ranging from few centimetres to few
metres. Several tens or hundreds of superposed
sequences are generally observed. The lateral
facies sequence is alluvial fan deposits evolving to
proximal braided river and flood plain deposits.
6.2.2.5.Geometry of Bodies
Alluvial fans are usually cone-shaped. Each
sequence is a long narrow tongue-shaped body
extending radially down slope from the fan apex.
The depositional area from a single flood may be
several kilometres long, but only 150 to 500 m wide
(Fig. 6.2-9).Surface ranges from 1 to 900 km’.
Thickness ranges from several hundred metres up
to 10 000 m (Southern California). On a cross-fan
profile the shape is convex upward, on a radial
profile the general shape is concave upward (Fig.
6.2-10).Fan surface slopes vary greatly, but are
generally less than 100.
6.2.2.6.Directional current flow model
The general direction of flow is radial and can
be deduced from the imbrication of gravels (Fig.
6.2-11).
6.2.2.7.Surrounding Facies
Fans may interfinger with talus deposits toward
the source area. Fan margins may coalesce or

Fig. 6.2-9. - Distribution of various types of sediments in the
Trollheim alluvial fan (from Hooke, 1967).
Fig. 6.2-10. - Schematic cross-sections in an alluvial fan (from
Spearing, 1971).
Fig. 62-11, - Sketch showing the imbricate arrangements in a
single pebble band. Archean conglomerate, Little Vermilion
Lake, Ontario, Canada. The arrow gives the direction of the
flow (from Pettijohn, 1930).
23 1
interfinger with deposits of playa, flood plain,
aeolian dunes, and fluvial sands. Playa lake depo-
sits are easily distinguished by their dominant clay
size and chemical deposits (carbonates, evapori-
tes). Flood plain deposits have better stratification
than alluvial fans. Aeolian sands are recognized by
their dip pattern (see chapter 6.3).
6.2.2.8. Reservoir Characteristics
"Alluvial fan deposits are not generally reservoir
rocks for petroleum because they fail to connect
laterally to source rocks, are not sufficiently exten-
sive laterally, do not have proper seals, have low
permeability and porosities following diagenesis,
and generally do not contain facies that are good
source rocks" (Nilsen, 1982).
6.2.3. WELL-LOG RESPONSES
A N D CHARACTERISTICS
6.2.3.1. Electro-Lithofacies
The radioactivity (potassium and thorium
content) is generally medium to high, reflecting
chemical immaturity and presence of feldspars,
micas, and rock fragments from igneous, meta-
morphic or even sedimentary origin. Because of
oxidizing conditions uranium is present only if the
source-rock contains uranium bearing minerals
(i.e. granite). On a pb vs & crossplot representative
points fall between the sand (quartz) line and the
shale "region" according to the rock fragment
composition and the percentage of matrix. Pe
ranges generally between 2 and 3 b/e. Fig. 6.2-12
shows typical open-hole log responses in such
facies.
Fig. 6.2-12. - Typical log responses in an alluvial fan deposit as
shown by this composite-log. Logs reflect a certain heteroge-
neity continuing on a thick interval.
232

-
6.2.3.2. Dip patterns -
v1 DIPS RESISTIVITY
Fig. 6.2-13 represents a typical GEODIP result in I
I- CURVES
an alluvial fan (part of Fig. 6.2-12). Grain-supported nY. interpretation
conglomerates are characterized by high resistivity O
with low amplitude activity on the curves, no or
erroneous correlations, and scarce and scattered 2155 water laid
dips. Matrix (or mud) supported conglomerates debris flow
are characterized by higher amplitude activity, aeolian sand ?
lower resistivity intervals with isolated resistivity
peaks corresponding to compact indurated peb- water laid
bles embedded in a more conductive matrix. 2160
Layers of pebbles can sometimes be interbedded
debris flow
with sand layers, generating correlations and dip
computations (water-laid deposits). Some very aeolian sand 1
consistent and high dips may correspond either to
aeolian sand deposits, if the green dip pattern 2165
does not correspond to structural dip, or to water laid
water-laid (braided fluvial) deposits, if the green
pattern can be related to structural dip. Pebbles aeolian sand ?
can be detected on, and their orientation someti- water laid
mes determined from FMS images. debris flow
2170 water laid
6.2.3.3. Boundaries debrisflow

The lower sharp erosional contact, as theoreti- water laid

cally expected, is not frequently observed as a
result of the coalescence of pebbles with the 2175
previous unit. This abrupt contact can occur only debris flow
on one or two curves.The upper gradational water laid
contact is better seen on the averaged resistivity
curve. debris flow
2180 water laid
6.2.3.4. Electro-Sequences debris flow
The sequential grain size evolution appears aeolian sand ?
more clearly on the averaged resistivity curve than
debris flow
on the raw curve because of the small resistivity
peaks occurring randomly and obscuring the !185
general trend. water laid

6.2.3.5. Directjon of flow

The direction of flow is not easily extracted !190 debris flow
from the dipmeter data. It can be determined from
isopach maps of alluvial deposits.

6.2.3.6. Thickness
!195
The above mentioned characteristics persist water laid
over several tens or hundreds of metres.
debris flow
6.2.3.7. Confusion with other environments water laid
!200
Alluvial fan deposits can sometimes be confu-
sed with glacial deposits, or with debris flow
turbidite deposits. The angular shape of the resis-
tive events can help to differentiate these deposits
-
from the tills. The position of the deposits in the
megasequence should distinguish alluvial fan
deposits (general fining upward megasequence) Fig. 6.2-13. - Typical GEODIP response in an alluvial fan, and
from debris flow turbidite deposits (general coar- its interpretation. It corresponds t o a short interval of the
previous composite log.
sening upward megasequence).
 233

6.3. AEOLIAN E N V I R O N M E N T

6.3.1. DEFINITION
MARINE
Anhydrite and halite VAPORITE
A continental environment characterized by Dolomite
-
Copper Shale base Zechstein
BASIN
MARINE
deposits resulting from wind action,often mixed Homogenized (non-laminated)sand-
stones some slump structures.
3E.WORKINQ

with fluvial or sabkha facies. An aerial view of

modern dunes is given in Fig. 6.3-1, and a vertical
lithology column in Fig. 6.3-2. Three aeolian suben-
vironments have been distinguished by Ahlbrandt
e t a/. (1982) : dune, interdune and sand sheet.
Well-sorted horizontal and large- MAINLY
scale planar cross-bedded sand- 4EOLIAN
stones, adhesion ripple beds i n -
creasing i n importance upward. b

Some bedsofsandstone withsmall- dTERDUNI

scale cross-bedding. iABKHAS

Homogenized sandstones. sand-

stones w i t h small-scale cross-lami- MAINLY
nation, locally developed bads of WADI
conglomerate. mud-cracked clay or
adhesion ripples.
MIXED
Well-sorted horizontal and planar
cross-bedded sandatones. some AEOLKN
beds of adhesion ripples. b
Sandstones [small-scale cross-bed- WADI
ding or homogenized), clay-pebble
conglomerates and mud-cracked
clays w i t h sandstone dikes.
Homogezized sandstones or send-
stoneswith planar cross-bedding a t HUMID
base. PARALIC
Dark shales, cross-bedded sand-
stones.
Coal seams - Carboniferous, mainly
Wastphalian.
Fig. 6.3-1. - Aerial photograph of a sand dune in the Saudi
Arabian desert (from ARAMCO, in Press & Siever, 1978, Fig.
8-16).
0 Eolian sand
Fluvial sands
clay flakes, :
iales, curlea
likes

n
Adhesion ripples Quartz and clay-pebble
i n aolian send conglomerates

Homogenized and siltstones

. ' ' slumped sands

Fig. 6.3-2. - Vertical cross-section in aeolian deposits in

6.3.2. GEOLOGICAL FACIES MODEL
6.3.2.1. Lithology
Two parameters must be considered separately.
6.3.2.1. l . Composition
The typical dunes are made of protoquartzite t o
quartzite sands (more than 85 OO/ quartz grains); but
depending on clastic source and transport dis-
tance, marine calcareous sand dunes (Bahamas),
oolitic dunes of Abu Dhabi, and loess-gypsum
northwest Europe, southcentral part of Rotliegendes basin
(from Glennie, 1970).
sand dunes (White Sands, New Mexico) have been
described. Heavy minerals may be present, but
iron-bearing minerals tend t o be chemically altera-
ted. According t o their composition, sand dunes
are considered t o be chemically mature deposits.
Clays are minor components in an aeolian envi-
ronment, occurring only in wadi deposits, inter-
dune or coastal sabkhas, in inland sabkhas and
234
playa lakes, or as post depositional authigenic
minerals. Cement may be calcitic or dolomitic and
due often to the rise of the water table (phreatic
level). Nodules of gypsum or anhydrite may be
present in intertongue wadi or sabkha deposits.
6.3.2.1.2. Texture
Aeolian sand generally consists of fine-to-me-
dium sand grains (0.2 to 0.5 mm), well rounded,
well sorted (Fig. 6.3-3), frosted and positively
skewed. But Ahlbrandt (1979) recognized three
textural groups :
- moderately t o well sorted, fine- t o medium-
grained inland dune sands;
- well sorted fine-grained coastal dune sands;
- moderately to very poorly sorted interdune or
serir sands.
Grains are commonly coarser on ripple tops
than in adjacent swales, but lag grains in swales
may be coarser than grains in adjacent large
dunes. The absence of fines (clays) and micaceous
minerals, due to aeolian winnowing, give a high
grain/matrix ratio. Flat deflation surfaces (serirs)
may have characteristic lag deposits of coarser
grains. These grains are very evenly spaced due to
deflation and saltation of sand across the surface.
Fig. 6.3-3. - Grain size distribution curves and sorting coeffi-
cients (from Glennie. 1970).
6.3.2.2. Structure
Dunes commonly contain the following internal
structures (Fig. 6.3-6, 6.3-8, 6.3-10 and 6.3-12) : (1)
large-scale, moderate to high angle (up to 340)
cross-strata, facing downwind, commonly wedge
planar to tabular planar sets and laminae within
sets are, generally, tangential to the lower boun-
ding surface; (2) successive boundaries separating
individual cross-sets horizontal or downwind a t a
low angle of dip; (3) cross-sets become progressi-
vely thinner toward the top of dunes, as the dunes
grow upward, winds more frequently truncate the
upper laminae, producing the thinning - upward
pattern of sets; (4) dipping foresets are progressi-
vely larger in a downwind direction; (5) contorted
bedding; (6) rare ripple laminae.
6.3.2.3. Boundaries
Sharp, abrupt contacts are developed for each
unit. It may even be undulated because of inter-
dune blowouts, making nicklines and serirs (Fig.
6.3-4). This boundary is related to phreatic control
over deflation processes (Reineck et a/., 1975).
Surfacing of phreatic levels produces interdunal
deposits (oasis, intracontinental sabkhas). Flash
flood deposits (wadis) are also responsible for
scoured boundaries.
(a)
Wind direction
c
UnconforrnityI on older dune. Ism1 AJ
.. -
Unconforrnity II cutting older end younger dune.
(b)
1. Dune rand accumulater on previous level rubrtretum.
2. Sand accumulater cont1nuer.water table riser in rand.
3. Wind action remover sand to water table.
4. Second dune field accumulateron water table surface.
6. Water table riser to new position in dune Reid
6. Wind action remover send to second water to&.
7. Third dune fiold eccumulator, otc.
Fig. 6.3-4. - (a) Development of scoop-like erosion surfaces
and nicklines within aeolian dune sands by the development
of a interdune blowout (from Walker & Harms, 1972). (b]
Schemes showing horizontal truncation surfaces and the role
of phreatic level (from Stokes, 1968).
 235

6.3.2.4. Sequences
A well defined fining-upward sequence is some-
times described for dunes (Fig. 6.3-2 and 6.3-14).
The type of dune, persistence of winds and fluvial
or marine influences will also affect their sequen-
PARABOLIC tial arrangement. Sedimentary structures also
BARCHAN $\y show a vertical organization with thinning-upward
units. Bottomset beds develop over sharp lower
.... contacts, followed by planar cross-bedding, cove-
red by sediments affected by variations of the
phreatic level. The sequence may be interrupted
by wadi channels or fluvial systems.

Fig. 6.3-5. - Major dune types, showing orientation with

respect to dominant wind direction (arrows) (from Spearing, 6.3.2.5. Geometry of Bodies
1971). and Directional f l o w model
As the flow model defines the dune geometry,

[ 0 without any other influence of slopes, it is impos-

sible to separate dune geometries from directional
I 10 0 '? 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100Fe.t
I
flow models. They will be discussed together as
more comprehensive items.
Several dune types are recognized in modern
dune fields (Fig. 6.3-5).
0 10 20 30 40 50 80 70 80Fe.t
Each dune type can be characterized by the dip
pattern and the shape of the azimuth frequency
Fig. 6.3-6. - internal stratification of parabolic dune, White plot. The following figures illustrate both internal
Sands, New Mexico (McKee, 1966). stratification and dips plus their azimuth patterns.

r
Position 1 High angle dips
(10-40) 7 c Cross section
0 -
-
-

I
t wind

F wind
-

0
-___I) Plane view >Medium angle dips.
1 Y
Plane view position 2 , direction (5-10')
-
-
-
L
Shape Dip pattern
. .
t
L
Shape
Dip pattern
Azimuth frequency plot

-
-

Fig. 6.3-7. - Shape, dip pattern and azimuth frequency plot of Fig. 6.3-9. - Shape, dip pattern and azimuth frequency plot of
a parabolic dune. a transverse dune.
....

E TRENCH, EAST WALL

0 '0 ?a ID a0 )D '0 m *I a '0 0 20 I0 .O I0 11.1
I

Fig. 6.3-8. - Internal stratification of transverse dune, White Sands, N e w Mexico (McKee, 1966).
236

--- ---Base of dune

10. main trenc

150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290Feet
L 1

Fig 6 3-10 - Internal stratification of barchan dune, White Sands, N e w Mexico (McKee, 1966)

Position 1 High angle dips

(10-40')
Cross section

A0
A

Plane view p* wind

Medium angle dips
position 2 direction (5-10')

A--@

Shape
Dip pattern Azimuth frequency plot

Fig. 6.3-11. - Shape, dip pattern and azimuth frequency plot of

a barchan dune.

I I Fig. 6.3-14. - Lacquer peel and "core" from a seif dune. Dubai,
Fig. 6.3-12. - Internal stratification of seif dune, North Africa Trucial Coast (from Glennie, 1970).
(Bagnold, 1941).

Position 1 High angle dips

6.3.2.6. Surrounding Facies
[ Cross section
(10-40') ~

Aeolian dunes are found in dry deserts, along

rivers, and along coastlines. Consequently, aeolian

1
sands may grade laterally or intertongue with
P1ae
nw
;
d i nearshore marine sands, silts or clays, fluvial
overbank silts and clays, or alluvial fan, playa and
Medium angle dips
evaporite deposits of the desert setting (Fig.
6.3-15).

I
L
- B
Shape Dip pattern
@'
Azimuth frequency plot 1 4 Fig. 6.3-13. - Shape, dip pattern and azimuth frequency plot of
a seif dune.
 237

6.3.2.7. Reservoir Characteristics

Aeolian deposits are complex, heterogeneous
reservoirs due to : "(1) lateral discontinuity of
reservoir zones; (2) impermeable or less perrnea-
ble carbonate or flat-bedded units interspersed
with more permeable cross-bedded units; (3)
anisotropic permeabilities and related textural
changes and cementation along individual laminae
causing low transmissivity across laminae - anhy-
drite cement is the most common, but calcite,
dolomite, and silica cement are problems in well
log interpretation; (4) secondary and tertiary reco-
very problems related to isolated reservoirs cau-
sing reduced well spacing, commonly to 10 or 20
acres" (Ahlbrandt & Fryberger, 1982).

6.3.3. WELL-LOG RESPONSES

AND CHARACTERISTICS

6.3.3.1. Electro-Lithofacies
As shown by Fig. 6.3-16 and 6.3-17, the general
radioactivity of dune sands is low. On the p b vs qh
crossplot representative points of massive dunes
fall very close to the sandstone line (if no gas
influence) clearly indicating quartz as the main
component. The increase of radioactivity corres-
ponds to interdune deposits (wadi or sabkha),
which are also reflected by density and neutron
responses. Pe values are close to 1.8 and increase
when calcitic or dolomitic cement or anhydrite
nodules are present. Dolomite and anhydrite (or
gypsum) are common in interdune sabkhas or
bottomsets.
Porosities are often high and range from 10 to
30 %. When the porosity decreases the representa-
tive points slightly move toward the limestone line
reflecting the presence of cement (calcite, dolo-
mite or anhydrite).

Aeolian sands

nterdune - sabkha

nterdune - sabkha

Aeolian sands

Fig. 6.3-15. - Example of aeolian deposits in Colorado, U.S.A.

Subsurface core description of Weber Sandstone (Pennsylva-
nian-Permian) in Chevron well Larson 6-15 (from Fryberger, Fig. 6.3-16. - FDC-CNL-GR logs show typical responses in dune
1979). sands.
238

h1' 1x1 500x1

0%1 SORTED ISlRUClWIAL UP OF 14'

( ~ N L I ~ N E U T R O~N I T INDEX,^^
Y
(APPARENT LIMESTONE POROSITY)

Fig. 6.3-17. - Density-neutron porosity crossplot showing the

lithology (quartz sandstone) of the aeolian sands represented
by Fig. 6.3-16.

6.3.3.2. Dip Patterns

As well known by log analysts and geologists
and as mentionned by Ahlbrandt et a/. (1982), "the
dipmeter is an extremely useful device for reco-
gnizing and interpreting eolianites in the subsurfa-
ce". Fig. 6.3-18 represents the results of a CLUS-
TER on Rotliegendes in North Sea. It shows, very
clearly, a succession of green patterns (foreset
beds), generally superposed on blue patterns
(toeset or bottomset beds), which can in turn
cover wadi deposits represented by scattered dips,
or interdune clays, represented by a green pattern
if they are not mud-cracked. Very low dips consis-
tent in azimuth, may correspond to sabkha depo-
sits. All these features can easily be extracted
from CLUSTER processing due to the vertical and
lateral extension of the sedimentary features.
Fig. 6.3-19 represents the results of a GEODIP
processing on a 35 feet section of the well illustra-
ted by Fig. 6.3-16. GEODIP gives a very high
density of correlations allowing a very precise
study of the formation and the recognition of the
sedimentary features generally observed in dunes.
Low changes in dip magnitude generate small blue
and red patterns which represent foreset beds.
The longer blue pattern ( a t 4686 ft) corresponds to
a bottomset bed with a sharp contact at its base.
This resistivity evolution can correspond to a
decrease of cement percentage from the water

Fig. 6.3-18.- Example of CLUSTER results in aeolian deposits

(Rotliegendes in North Sea) and its interpretation in terms of
facies.
 239

I I % I I >7 I v I ncn
A_..--

AZIMUTH RESISTIVITY
~~

F:REQUENCY INTERPRETATIOI
PLOT

i
INTERPRETATION

bottomset bed

major dune
(transverse type)

bottomset bed

major dune
(transverse type)

bottomset bed

46
major dune
(transverse type)

large scale planar

cross bedding
bottomset bed
. .
. . . ..
.. . .
-
C
major dune
(transverse type)
,: u:

...,... sd
more radioactive
cross bedding wadi deposit
Irp : large red pattern
Ibp : large bluepattern
sbrp :small blue & red patterns
rp : red pattern
sd : scattered dip
Fig. 6.3-19. - GEODIP results over 35 feet of the aeolian sands shown on Fig. 6.3-16, and its interpretation.

table toward the top of the dune. Other small
resistivity evolutions can reflect fining upward
sequences. Azimuth frequency plots show a very
narrow dispersion, possibly indicating a transverse
dune. The direction of the wind was toward SE.
Sometimes red patterns are present a t the top,
indicating avalanche scars on steep unstable fore-
sets. In general, azimuth frequency plots show
uni-or bimodal distribution with narrow to large
scatter depending on the dune type.
Fig. 6.3-20is another example of GEODIP inter-
pretation in sand dunes. All the observations and
their interpretation are listed on the side.
In aeolian environments FMS images (Fig.
6.3-21)show, very well, the foreset beds, the
sharpness of the erosional surface ( a t x 425.5),
the more cemented sandstones, the changes in
wind direction, and the change in dip magnitude.
The comparison of FMS images with core photo-
graphs in this aeolian environment shows the
perfect fit between the two types of data. In such
cases FMS images indicate more clearly the
cemented intervals (white bands) than the core
photographs. They can be used to define the
permeability barriers.
6.3.3.3. Boundaries
The sharpness of the lower boundary is clearly
seen on the dipmeter resistivity curves (Fig. 6.3-19
and 6.3-20).as the progressive evolution toward
the top of each cycle.
6.3.3.4.Electro-Sequences
The dipmeter resistivity evolution and the dip
patterns reflect the sequences. Small resistivity
evolutions can reflect either changes in cement
percentage, or fining upward sequences, if they do
not correspond to variations on density and neu-
tron responses, and consequently to changes in
porosity by cementation.
6.3.3.5.Surrounding Facies
Sabkha deposits can be recognized. They cor-
respond to intertongue dolomitic or anhydritic
7
240

~~ ~

DIPS CORRELATIONS

w -
RESISTIVITY
N
1 RESISTIVITY
INTERPRETATION
OBSERVATIONS

I PADS
M1 9 3 1 ,

medium scale planar major dune

cross bedding (transverse type)
bottomset bed
wadi deposit
maior dune
bottomset bed

= topset bed II

major dune
(transverse type)

more cemented
sharp contact bottomset bed

possible parabolic
dune type
azimuth change

medium scale planar

cross-bedding

sharp contact
major dune
(transverse type)

large-scale planar
cross bedding

I more cemented
sharp contact bottomset bed

i
1
I possible parabolic
azimuth change dune type

I bottomset bed-
interdune sabkha
deposit

major dune
(transverse type)
medium-scale
planar cross-bedding
2 990
> : large blue pattern
3 : blue & red patterns
: scattered
rp : red pattern
sbrp : smale red &blue patterns
g p : green pattern

Fig. 6.3-20.- Example of GEODIP results and its interpretation indicating an aeolian environment
 241

Fig. 6.3-21.- Comparison of core photographs and FMS images in an aeolian environment (courtesy of Schlumberger).

1.0
I I I I Y .*l

T W
omni
-

M
I
N
N
E
L
U
S
A

llMHl
-

Fig. 6.3-22.- Composite-log showing sabkha, aeolian and

interdune deposits in the Minnelusa. Powder River Basin,
U.S.A.

Fig. 6.3-23.- Density-neutron crossplots indicating the main

h,,Neutron
, Porosity Index (pu)
lithology of Fig. 6.3-22. i*r.n L,n*ltcTm p,,,y,
242

silty-shaly deposits. Wadi deposits can be also

observed. They are characterized by coarser,
- poorly sorted sediments richer in clay material and
consequently a little more radioactive. They show
scattered dips (through cross-bedding), or even no
8710
dip (conglomeratic levels or mud-cracked clays).
Another example of an aeolian environment with
interdune and sabkha deposits is illustrated by Fig.
6.3-22 to 6.3-24. It comes from the Minnelusa
8720 Formation, Powder River Basin, U.S.A.

6.3.3.6.Confusion with other Environments

8730
The log responses, especially dipmeter, are so
characteristic that confusion with other environ-
ments is unlikely.

8740

8750 4 Fig. 6.3-24. - LOCOlP presentation on the same interval and its
- interpretation.
 243

6.4. FLUVIAL E N V I R O N M E N T : BRAIDED S Y S T E M

6.4.1.DEFINITION and reworked clay-ironstone concretions may be

present. Common mineral constituents are quartz,
A continental environment characterized by feldspars, micas. Glauconite is absent (non marine
deposits resulting from a river system of an inter- deposit). Carbonaceous organic matter is very
laced network of low sinuosity channels. The style rare, due to the oxidizing nature of the environ-
of a braided system is shown in Fig. 6.4-1,and ment (Selley, 1976).Alteration of iron-rich minerals
representative vertical sections in Fig. 6.4-2. t o haematite or limonite is frequent. Uranium
bearing minerals may accumulate along with gold
as placer deposits (e.g. Blind River in Canada and
Witwatersand basin in South Africa). These mine-
6.4.2.GEOLOGICAL FACIES MODEL rals concentrate a t the bases of channels (Minter,
1978).
Lithology
6.4.2.1.
Two parameters must be considered separately.
.l. Composition
6.4.2.1 sd st cl x-
Braided river deposits are typically composed of
texturally and chemically immature gravels and
sands with a sand-shale ratio greater than 1. They
can be classified as lithic arenites to lithic wackes
(Pettijohn eta/., 1972).Only minor amounts (some
10 %) of silt are found and correspond to abando-
ned channel deposits (Selley, 1976).Gravels and
pebbles are rock fragments, the composition of
which depends on the source areas. Shale pebbles

Fig. 6.4-2a. - Theoretical vertical cross-section of a braided

Fig. 6.4-1. -Aerial photograph of a braided stream choked with alluvial channel system deposits. Sedimentation occurs almost
erosional debris, near the edge of a melting glacier (Photo by entirely in the rapidly shifting complex of channels. A flood
6. Washburn, in Press & Siever, 1978, Fig. 7-25). plain is absent (from Selley, 1976, Fig. 101).
244

SCOlT TYPE DONJEK TYPE PLAlTE TYPE BIJOU CREEK TYPE

rn ...
m

rn

Superimposed
Linguoid Bars 25

Superimposed
20 Flood cycles

debris Flood -
deposit 15-
15

10

Longitudinal
Bar
5

0
lo1 10' 10' lo7 10'107 101107
ergs/cm'/sec ergs/cm'/sec ergs/cm2/sec ergs/crn*/rec
BRAIDED RIVER DEPOSITIONAL PROFILES BRAIDED RIVER DEPOSITIONAL PROFILES

Fig. 6.4-2b. - Four braided river depositional profiles representing the four models of braided river systems related t o the energy
involved during deposition, and consequently t o the proximity t o the apex (from Miall, 1977).

99 99

UNIT4

99 00
UNIT3
A
>
6
Y
UNIT2

i
2 9000
"
Y

UNIT 1
2 1500
E
1 P 5000
2
Fig. 6.4-3. - Schematic vertical sequence of a braided river
deposit. Unit 1 : large scale cross-bedding with pebbles. Unit
-
a
25 00

? 1000
2 : medium sand megaripple bedding. Unit 3 : fine sand small
ripple bedding. Unit 4 : fine sand and mud horizontal bedding, V
5
occasional convolute bedding (from Reineck & Singh, 1975,
based on data of Doeglas, 1962). 100

0 10

0.01
6.4.2.1.2. Texture
- 3 - 2 - 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Poor to moderate sorting (gravel to sand) with Grain Sire 6
low sphericity and with moderate to low grain-
Fig. 6.4-4. Cumulative size frequency curves of samples from
matrix ratio is observed; abundant silt in fine end
~

tail (Pettijohn et a/., 1972). Conglomerates range
from clast-supported matrix-free, through clast-
supported with interstitial sandy matrix, on to
sandy conglomerates with dispersed clasts. Ma-
trix-free conglomerates are reasonably well sorted
and unimodal; conglomerates with sandy matrix
show a bimodal distribution; matrix-supported
conglomerates are unimodal with poor sorting.
braided river systems (from Williams & Rust, 1969, Fig. 4). For
a given sample the range of grain size reflects the poor
sorting.
6.4.2.2. Structure
Table 6.4-1 summarizes the principal sedimen-
tary structures and their abundance found in a
braided river deposit. Asymmetrical small scale
 245

Table 6.4-1
Principal sedimentary structures and their relative abundances
(from Williams & Rust, 1969, Table 1 ) .

A -Abundant. C -Common. 0 -Occasional. R =Rare.

ripples and abundant well oriented cross-bedding, 6.4.2.5. Geometry of the Body
commonly unimodal, are observed, as well as
small scale cross-laminations. The bedding may be "Braided channel systems are characterized by
either massive or graded. Beds tend to be lenticu- a network of constantly shifting low-sinuosity
lar with erosional scour; infrequent tracks and anastornozing courses" (Selley, 1976).
trails. Depositional bars are abundant. Both sandy and gravelly braided rivers migrate
laterally leaving sheet-like or wedge-shaped depo-
sits of channel and bar complexes preserving only
6.4.2.3. Boundaries minor amounts of floodplain material (Cant, 1982).
In detail, three main geomorphological bodies
Lower contact of the sand is erosional. Upper
are recognized : channels, bars and islands (Wil-
contact is also frequently abrupt.
liams & Rust, 1969) (Fig. 6.4-5).
NO OR VEGETA
6.4.2.4. Sequences
Four units or facies can be distinguished. They
are arranged as shown in Fig. 6.4-3 t o compose a
theoretical vertical sequence.
Unit 1 : large scale cross-bedding mostly
coarse-grained with pebbles, with erosional lower
contact. Discontinuous lenses of sand, silt and clay
can be present. This unit is related to lateral and
downstream advance of channel bars.
Unit 2: megaripple bedding in medium sand; _ I *D I PL L w
U Y-

- -
rn-

m---
I.

large and small scale cross-stratifications and

ripples. They correspond to migrations of channel
__.I
.Y(. I=-XI, D - - m u

sand bars. Fig. 6.4-5. - Composite model of a braided river deposit (from
Unit 3: small ripple bedding in fine sand com- Williams & Rust, 1969, Fig. 27).
posed of banded sands and silts. Ripple laminated
or massive. Small scale ripples, microbars and
scours. They may be related t o recently abando-
ned channel deposits.
Unit 4 : fine sand and mud showing horizontal
or convolute bedding. This unit corresponds to
abandoned channels.
Such fining upward sequences are best develo-
ped in channel fill sediments. The grain size
gradually decreases upward and the sorting im-
proves upward. Coarse- and fine-grained units
may be interbedded. Small grain size reversals can
occur. They are due to fluctuating river stages.
In relation to the energy involved during deposi- Fig. 6.4-6. - Block diagram of a braided sandy system with low
tion, Miall (1977) proposed four models of braided sinuosity channels. Vertical accretion can occur during flood
river sediments, which are shown in Fig. 6.4-2b. stage (from Walker, 1969).
246
Channels vary considerably in size and are
arranged in five hierarchical orders. A composite
stream channel is straight with an average width
of one mile (1.6 km). Stream channel is characteri-
zed by a braided network of three finer order
channels. These smaller channels - width up to
hundreds of feet - are generally of low sinuosity.
The basic sedimentary fill succession is fining-
upward. In cross-section the channels are erosio-
nal, occurring in a very high frequency association.
The main channel is divided into several channels
which meet and redivide (Fig. 6.4-5 to 6.4-7).
Channel bars, which divide the stream into several
channels a t low flow, are often submerged during
high flow. They are commonly composed of
coarse-grained lag deposits of the stream (often
gravels) which could not be carried by the flow.
Fig. 6.4-7. - Aerial distribution of a braided system showing
hierarchical organization of channels and bars (from Allen,
1965).
%ANNEL COMPOSITION OF CHANNEL GEOMETRI
TYPE CHANNEL FILL CROSS SECTION I MAP VIEW
0
W
0
z
a
W
I
Fig. 6.4-8. - Geomorphological and sedimentary characteristics of bed-load, mixed-load, and suspended-load stream channel
segments (from Galloway, 1977, and in Galloway & Hobday, 1983, Fig. 4-13).
Once such a channel bar is formed, it may stabilize
by the deposition of fine-grained sediment on its
top during high flows and may later be colonised
by vegetation forming an island.
Three types of bar are present : longitudinal,
transverse, and point bars. Longitudinal bars are
the most abundant (95 O/O) and occur as lateral bars
along channel sides and central bars in mid-chan-
nel areas. They are invariably elongate downs-
tream. Maximum length and width vary from a few
feet to hundreds of feet. The surface of the bar is
never smooth, including a very wide range of
large- and small-scale structures. They are com-
posed of gravel, sand, and silt-mud admixtures.
Bars tend to be built up by lateral accretion down
stream. The upstream end is partly eroded.
lslands are the most permanent features on the
valley floor within a braided system. They are
elongate downstream. Root evidence or carbona-
ceous material can be present.
Braided rivers are characterized by wide chan-
nels of changing position, and rapid and conti-
nuous shifting of the sediment. Consequently, an
individual unit may be between . 5 and 8 km wide.
Their length may commonly range from 10s to
100s km. The thickness of an individual unit ranges
from several decimetres to 30 metres. The width-
depth ratio is high. The area occupied by braided
rivers may be very wide (100s km) and coalescing
bars and sand-flats will result in a laterally conti-
nuous and extensive sand sheet, unconfined by
shales (Walker, 1979).
INTERNAL iTRUCTURE LATERAL
ECIMENTARY FABRW IERTICAL SEWENCE RELATIONS

/HIERARCHICAL I STRUCTURES
ORDER I I
SMALL SCALE STRUCTURES LARGE SCALE STRUCTURES
I I I
Fig. 6.4-9. - Dispersion of the azimuth of the directional current
flow from the structures (from Williams & Rust, 1969, Fig. 28
& 23).
6.4.2.6. Directional Current f l o w Model
The ranges of directional current data for the
hierarchical orders of small scale and large scale
structures are summarized in Fig. 6.4-9. They show
a characteristic unimodal azimuth distribution with
a moderate to low scatter, along the down dip
direction of the palaeoslope.
6.4.2.7. Reservoir Characteristics
Braided river deposits may constitute poten-
tially good reservoir rocks with up to 30 O/O porosity
and permeabilities of thousands of millidarcys. The
247
Fig. 6.4-10. - Generalized depositional model, vertical sequen-
ces of grain size and sedimentary structures, and S.P. log
profiles produced by a low-sinuosity, braided channel. Se-
quence (A) is dominated by migration of a gravelly longitudi-
nal bar. Sequence (B) records deposition of successive trans-
verse bar cross-bed sets upon a braided channel fill (from
Galloway & Hobday, 1983, Fig. 4-4).
shales are of limited lateral extend and do not play
a major role in blocking fluid migration. They do
not commonly form stratigraphic traps.
6.4.3. WELL-LOG RESPONSES
AND CHARACTER ISTlCS
Galloway & Hobday (1983) proposed a generali-
zed depositional model for a braided channel with
theoretical S.P. log response (Fig. 6.4-10). The S.P.
shape is typically a smooth cylinder. The respon-
ses and characteristics of the other logs will be
illustrated by a case-study : The Upper Tipam
Formation (Assam, India), the composite-log of
which is represented by Fig. 6.4-11.
6.4.3.1. Electro-Lithofacies
A detailed study of the various crossplots was
made in order to define the mineralogical compo-
sition of the formation.
The pb vs qh crossplots (Fig. 6.4-12) with S.P.
(Fig. 6.4-12b) and E A T (attenuation of the elec-
tromagnetic wave) (Fig. 6.4-12c) on the Z-axis
248

Fig. 6.4-11. - Typical log responses over a braided river system

(from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference, India, 1983).

show, very clearlv, the change of grain size in the

sands. The sandstone line corresponds to the line
from the fluid point (pb = I., = 100 01~)going
through the most north-westerb points with low
SP and E A T values. Similarly, the siltstone line
Fig. 6.4-12. - Density-neutron porosity crossplots with (a)
frequency,(b) SP, (c) E A l T and (d) potassium content on
Z-axis (interpretation from Serra, in Schlumberger, Well
Evaluation Conference, India. 1983).

Fig. 6.4-15. - SSP vs thorium with grain density on the Z-axis
(interpretation from Serra, in Schlumberger, Well Evaluation
Conference, India, 1983).
can be drawn from the fluid point through the
lowermost points with low to moderate SP and
E A l T values. The "sand point" corresponds to
& = 0 on the sandstone line, and the "silt point"
is obtained from the intersection of the siltstone
249
line with a line drawn from the sand point parallel
to the equiporosity line for the sand-silt mixture.
The moderately high and constant potassium
values on the corresponding density-neutron
crossplot (Fig. 6.4-12d) for all the sand and silt
points suggest an immature rock composed of
quartz, feldspar and plagioclase with mica and
heavy radioactive minerals (e.g. zircon).
The potassium vs thorium crossplot (Fig. 6.4-13)
confirms the presence of feldspar and also hig-
hlights the high thorium concentration from heavy
radioactive minerals such as zircon.
The variation in the feldspar and biotite concen-
tration in the sands can be recognized by analy-
sing the evolution of the potassium content with
respect to grain density ( (p,,),) on the Z-axis (Fig.
6.4-14). The cluster of points with a high SSP
deflection corresponds to sand. Within this clus-
ter, plagioclases are more abundant when the
potassium contentis lower (1.5 to 1.8%) and the
density higher, while K-feldspar concentration
increases with higher potassium content (1.8 to
2.2 %) and lower density. The shale trend is clearly
observed toward the low SSP values and high
grain densities. In fact, over the interval studied, it
is possible to identify two types of shale, one
which appears in thick beds, and the other which
is present as thin intercalations around 2260 and
2180 m. The corresponding Kshcan be selected for
each shale from this crossplot.
On the SSP vs thorium (Th) crossplot (Fig.
6.4-15) the K-feldspar is more abundant in the
sand cluster with lower thorium values (6.5 to
10 ppm) and lower densities (2 to 3 on the Z-axis).
The increase in the content of biotite and heavy
radioactive minerals corresponds to higher tho-
rium values (10 to 18 ppm) and higher densities.
The presence of the two type of shale is confir-
med, and the general shale trend is clearly indica-
ted. Core analysis confirmed the mineralogical
composition deduced from the study of the cross-
plots.
6.4.3.2. Dipmeter curve Shape and
Dip Patterns
From the GEODIP analysis (Fig. 6.4-16) the
following conclusions can be done :
- Each sand starts with an abrupt lower contact,
often non planar (four dip computation or no dip
on GEODIP display). This feature could be related
to possible erosional scoured surfaces.
- The sands are massive, apparently homoge-
neous, but with a few randomly distributed highly
resistive peaks appearing only on 1, 2 or 3 curves.
The resistive intervals show low GR, t,l and hydro-
gen content, and high density. The mineralogy
associated with such levels is not obvious, but
chert or hydrated silica (opal) could possibly be
present. If (p,,), is higher than 2.65 a late diagene-
tic calcite formation may be involved.
250

~~

OBSERVATION AND FACIES

1 2 3 4 1

Main braided
channel

20%

Flood Plain

Main braided
channaI

Flood Plain

Upper flow
str. dip: ‘aglma plane bed
7O N l W

2100
Maln braided
channel

lir. tr. : SE

an- of
Imonita

Imonlta

nonlta Ithorlun
2150
wrlng mlnual
mncontratlon)

hart

hut

Fig. 6.4-16. - GEODIP arrow-plot on the same well and its interpretation (interpretation from Serra, in Schlumberger, Well Evaluation
Conference, India, 1983).
 251

z
L

&
w
OBSERVATION INTERPRETATION

mnd streak abandoned

h s o a of channel
mnd in shale sequences
- A.C.
A.C. erosional surface
Hlling of a
palsootrough
- A.C.
scatter. d trough cross kdding
b h rp. large scale X-bdding
dir. tr : SE
active
channel
b.p. dir. tr : E sequences
OCEttOkl trough %bedding
dips

. A.C.
A.C.
b.p. abandoned
mnd streak channel
sequences
A.C.
lenses ot
sand in shale

actlva
scattered trough cross-bedding ChannQl
dips sequences

pebble of
shale
d.tr : E
b.p.
OCattered good correlations
dlps trough %bedding

active
channel
sequences

abandoned
r.p. draping ot a channel
und bar sequences
NNW-SSE
dlr. tr : E

b.p.
active
more cementing channel
sequences

mbandoned
channel
wquencaa
erosional surface
Hlling ot a
b 4 r.p. palamtrough

letive
channel
nquencr

Fig. 6.4-17. - Other example of a braided river system from Africa as can be interpreted from GEODIP
252
- Some thin, very conductive spikes are seen
within the sands. Such features have high density,
hydrogen content, E A T , tPl and GR values. This
could be limonite with concentration of thorium-
bearing minerals (zircon).
- The sand-shale ratio is high.
- The general tendency within the sands ap-
pears to be fining upward.
- The upper intervals of the different sands
show thin laminations.
- Few blue patterns can be seen. They generally
indicate a S to SE direction of transport.
6.4.3.3. Boundaries
As it can be easily seen on the dipmeter resisti-
vity curves the lower and upper sand boundaries
are sharp or abrupt giving a general cylindrical
shape.
6.4.3.4. Electro-Sequences
The general evolution of the resistivity curves
indicates a fining upward sequence in the sands.
6.4.3.5. Thickness
Thickness of sand bodies is variable, but gene-
rally important in this example.
Another example from Africa, illustrated by Fig.
6.4-17 shows very variable thicknesses. As can be
observed from the GEODIP analysis, all the other
features are similar to the Tipam ones.
6.4.3.6. Confusion with other Environments
Cylinder shape of braided channels can be
confused with the same features found in chute-
bars (see Fig. 6.5-11).
 253

6.5. FLUVIAL ENVIRONMENT : MEANDERING SYSTEM

6.5.1. DEFINITION

A continental environment characterized by

deposits resulting from a river system of high
sinuosity channels generated by a mature stream
swinging from side to side accross its flood plain
on a gentle slope. The style of a meandering river
system is shown in Fig. 6.5-1, and a representative
vertical section in Fig. 6.5-2.

6.5.2. GEOLOGICAL FACIES MODEL

6.5.2.1. Lithology Fig. 6.5-1. - Aerial photograph of meander bed and floodplain
of the Animas River a f e w miles above Durango, Colorado
Two parameters must be considered separately. (from Shelton, 1966, in Press & Siever, 1978, Fig. 7-26)

6.5.2.1.1. Composition
The main minerals are quartz, more or less
altered feldspars and micas, and the sandstones Sd St CI
range from quartzitic to lithic arenites due to their
low to moderate chemical maturity. The most
common cements are siliceous or calcareous. In
the bedload of the channels, clay pebbles can
occur; they come from levees slumping. Glauco-
nite is absent. Peat and coal are present as beds
(flood plain) and small fragments (channels).
Carbonate and iron concretions may be formed in
areas with a high rate of evaporation (flood plain).
Clays are generally kaolinitic but other types may
be present depending on the climatic conditions
and the distance from the source area. During
diagenesis fluids circulating in the subsurface may
react with the detrital unstable minerals resulting
in clay cementation. Calcite cement can also
precipitate.
6.5.2.1-2. Texture (see Table 6.5-1)
Meandering river deposits show normal grading
and are typically composed of sands, silts and
shales with a sand-shale ratio generally lower than

Fig. 6.5-2. - Generalized section of fining-upward sequence in

a meandering system in Devonian Catskill facies, U.S.A. and
south Wales (from Selley, 1976, Fig. 99).
254

Table 6.5-1
Physical characteristics of fluvial or valley-fill
model. Line weight is suggestive of abruptness of
transition between units
(adapted from Visher, 1965).

CLAY CHIPS
BEoLoAD CoARs. POOR-GO00 PEBBLES
POORLY BEOOEO
ZONE
COARSE SAND 30 M I

1 . The basal zone is poorly sorted and grain size

ranges from conglomerates to coarse grained Fig. 6.5-3. - Topographic features and internal structure of a
sands. It grades upward to a well sorted medium coarse-grained point bar. (a) Plan, (b) cross-section (after
to fine sands. The upper zone is generally compo- McGowen & Garner, 1970).
sed of very fine sands, silts and some clays and
may be poorly to fairly sorted (Visher, 1965; Selley,
1 972).
6
UNIT L
6.5.2.2. Structure 5

Table 6.5-1 summarizes the principal sedimen-

tary structures found in a meandering system
UNIT 3
deposit in relation to the main facies. Sedimentary
structures are related to the flow regime and
consequently organized in sequences. The se-
quence starts with an erosional surface with scour
troughs, followed by medium-scale cross-bed-
ding; parallel laminations which are related to UNIT 2
upper flow regime; foreset bedding in point bar or
chute bar with small trough sets (Fig. 6.5-3 and
6.5-4, Mc Gowen & Garner, 1970). Flood plain UNIT 1
deposits show horizontal or convolute bedding,
generally destroyed by bioturbation. Rootlets may
also be present.
Fig. 6.5-4. - Vertical sequence of coarse-grained point bar
6.5.2.3. Boundaries deposits, showing various bedding features. Four units can be
distinguished : Unit 1 - scour pool deposit; unit 2 - lower point
bar deposit; unit 3 - chute bar deposit; unit 4 - flood plain
Abrupt, sharp, erosional lower and lateral deposit (from McGowen & Garner, 1970).
contacts are observed; they are gradational to-
ward the top.
channel deposits (lateral accretion) followed by
6.5.2.4. Sequences overbank fines (vertical accretion). The lag depo-
sits cover a near-horizontal erosional surface and
Fundamentally, the sequence is fining upward are capped by trough cross-bedding (sands),
(Fig. 6.5-5 from Allen, 1970). It consists of in- which, in turn, is overlain by small-scale trough
 255

and muds) introduced a t the flood stage. Root

traces and dessication cracks can be observed. In
some humid climates, vegetation may grow suffi-
ciently to form coal seams. In semi-arid or arid
climates, the fluctuating water table and drying a t
the surface favour the formation of caliche-like
concretions.

VA 6.5.2.5. Geometry of the Bodies

Fig. 6.5-5.- Theoretical sequence of facies in a meandering
system. VA = vertical accretion (from Allen, 1970).
Fundamentally a shoestring geometry is obser-
ved. Although, depending on the relationship
between lateral and vertical accretion, tabular
sand units may be developed (Fig. 6.5-6).
The length of the meander increases with the
widening meandering stream and the mean radius
of curvature of the meander (Fig. 6.5-7).
The width of sand bodies tends to be up to 10
times more than the channel width and up to 200
times more than the thickness. The overall thick-
ness of one genetic sand unit compares closely to
the water depth of the channel during flood (3 to
30 m). The coal beds are commonly 1.5 to 8 km in
lateral extend and split by crevasse splay which
thicken toward the meander belt.

6.5.2.6. Directional Current flow Model

In the meanders a spiral or helicoidal flow is
created by the heaping up of water against outside
shores of the bends. This mechanism is responsi-
ble for the lateral accretion of point bars (Fig.

Fig. 6.5-6.- Conceptual models of fluvial channel geometry

(adapted from Allen, 1965, by Visher, 1977).

Meanderr 01 rive19
and ~nllumer

)o wo , iMeandor 01 Gull Stream 30 000

0 Meanderr on glacier ICE

3wo.

300
E

Channel width m Mean radius 01 Curratwe m

11. Ibl

Fig. 6.5-7. - Relationship between meander length and (a)

channel width, (b) mean radius of curvature (from Leopold &
Wolman, 1960, in Leet et a/., 1978).

Fig. 6.5-8. - Downstream schematic block diagram of two

cross-laminations (silts). Horizontal laminations
can occur at several places within this sequence.
After the lateral channel migration, the sequence
continues with vertical accretion deposits (silts
meander bends and intervening crossover. Solid arrows indi-
cate direction of surface current; dashed arrows indicate
bottom current along; circular arrows with one barb, direction
of spiral flow in plane of shaded transverse sections (from
Friedman & Sanders, 1978, based on Friedkin, 1945).
256
Fig. 6.5-9. - Generalized depositional model, representative
vertical sequences, and idealized S.P. log profiles through
laterally accreting (A) and symmetrically-filling channel seg-
ments (6) of an anastomosed channel system (from Galloway
& Hobday, 1983, Fig. 4-5).
6.5-8). Whereas, between meanders the flow is
straight. The scour and fill in the channel genera-
tes down dip stream foresets in the direction of
the flow. The helicoidal flow generates foresets in
the point bars whose down dip direction is oblique
to the channel direction, giving a bimodal azimuth
frequency distribution in one sequence. The gene-
ral azimuth frequency distribution shows a very
large dispersion.
6.5.2.7. Reservoir Characteristics
Sand bodies potentially form good reservoir
rocks with porosities up to 30 O/O and permeabilities
up to several thousands of millidarcys, but they are
laterally restricted. Shales beds or laminae can
create permeability barriers. In such environments,
the abundant impermeable floodplain shales can
form stratigraphic traps. They often contain their
own source rocks (plant debris and peat, lignite or
coal), and, due to that, they are commonly consi-
dered more likely to contain gas than oil.
Fig. 6.5-10. - Generalized depositional model, representative
vertical sequences, and idealized S.P. log profiles of a
meanderbelt sand body produced by a high-sinuosity channel.
Sequence (A) illustrates a complete fining-upward sequence
typical of the mid- or downstream point bar. Section (6)
illustrates the truncated vertical sequence commonly found in
the upstream end of the bar (from Galloway & Hobday, 1983,
Fig. 4-6).
6.5.3. WELL-LOG RESPONSES
AND CHARACTERISTICS
Galloway & Hobday (1983) proposed idealized
S.P. log profiles for the main subenvironments
found in meandering channels. They are represen-
ted by Fig. 6.5-9 to 6.5-11. A more complete
description of log responses and characteristics
will be now given.
6.5.3.1. Electro-Lithofacies
The radioactivity is medium to high depending
on the importance of chemical maturity. Potas-
sium percentage is generally less than 1 OO/ if the
rock is relatively mature, or between 1 and 2% if
immature (with feldspars, micas). Th/K ratio tends
to be higher than 10. Uranium is often very low
(oxidizing conditions), except in flood plain depo-
sits rich in organic matter. On a p b - qh crossplot,
representative points fall between the sandstone
and shale region. A few points may indicate

Fig. 6.5-11. - Generalized depositional model, representative
vertical sequences, and idealized S.P. log profiles of a chute-
modified point bar. Upstream portions of the point bar are
capped by chute-channel deposits (A). Downstream, the
channel and lower point bar deposits are capped by chute-bar
sediments (B) (from Galloway & Hobday, 1983, Fig. 4-7).
200
210
220
230
240
Fig. 6.5-12. - One meandering channel as illustrated by a SARABAND result display.
257
carbonates (caliche-like). Points with high density
and Pe may correspond to the presence of laterite
or limonite. Pe generally does not exceed 3, unless
heavy minerals (limonite, pyrite) are abundant.
Sand-shale ratio is generally lower than 1 . Coal
beds are well identified by their well log respon-
ses. Two examples of meandering channels are
represented in Figs. 6.5-12 and 6.5-14.
6.5.3.2. Dip Patterns
Most of the time, GEODIP or LOCDIP result
displays (Fig. 6.5-13 and 6.5-15) show no dip or
scattered dips (trough cross-bedding). Blue and
red patterns may be present, sometimes with the
same azimuth (Fig. 6.5-15, unit 3), indicating fore-
set beds, sometimes separated by a 900 azimuth.
This last type of red patterns corresponds to
channel fill; those patterns are perpendicular to
the channel axis and indicate the direction of the
thickest sand.
6.5.3.3. Boundaries
Generally one can observe a sharp contact a t
the bottom of the sand bed (Fig. 6.5-12 and 6.5-14),
which is better seen on a resistivity microdevice
(microlog) or on dipmeter curves (Fig. 6.5-13 and
6.5-15). Erosion can be detected by different thick-
nesses of the underlying unit on each pad. A
gradational contact toward the top is observed.
6.5.3.4. E'ectro-Sequences
A general "bell shape", often serrated, for each
individual sedimentary sequence is observed (Fig.
6.5-12 and 6.5-14; see also Fig. 4-2), which reflects
258

IBSERVATION INTERPRETATION

00 0 8 0 -
overbank
Uood plain Unit 4
deporilr

fornn
trough
srorr-bdding
uppw point bar Unit3
bnnlaxl. : = N.S Ichute b.11
chlnni csnter
tow-sw

-
lawn point
Unit 2
bar
-

inshwnnd
2
l C O Y I pool Unit 1
fornat b d r
jir. tr. ' = N 10'

-
Unlt4

A
Fig. 6.5-13. - GEODIP display on the same interval shown in
100
Fig. 6.5-12, and its interpretation in terms of facies.
INTERPRETATION

Over bank

6450 a general fining upward sequence. A succession of

"bell shape" features with variable thicknesses is
the rule.
6470
6.5.3.5. Thickness

Over bank
It ranges from several decimetres to several
metres for one sequence. Shale beds also have
various thicknesses.

S5tO 6.5.3.6. Confusion with other Environments

In some cases fluvial deposits can be confused
with turbidite deposits formed by stacking of
several incomplete Bouma sequences (A, B and C
units). Cylinder shapes corresponding to chute-
bars can be also confused with braided channels.

meandering cham.

4 Fig. 6.5-14. - Three meandering channels as they can be

recognized from a SARABAND result display.
 259

I I 1 I I
PESlSTlVml DIPS CORRELATIONS

'OLE
)RIFT CALIPER 2__
_.._..____AZIMUTH
RESISTIVITY INCREASES 8 p 3 OBSERVATIONS INTERPRETATION

v) FREOUENCY PADS
== _ _ _ - -
tc CALIPER 1 PLOT v)

$7 I

i
0 10203

ovrrbank

I deposits

I
I Upper point bar unit 3

1
(chute bar)

I
I
r-=& sc.d c U troughcross-bedc

I b&rWaparl
lower point
unit 2

I
bar
8c.d. trough crossbdc

4
I
I

rl
Scour pool

channelfloor I
I I I
I
I
unit 4
, 648%+

8. az :-I& azimuth

Fig. 6.5-15. - GEODIP display on the upper meandering channel shown in Fig. 6.5-14, and its interpretation in terms of facies.
260

6.6. DELTAIC ENVIRONMENT

6.6.1. DEFINITION 6.6.2. GEOLOGICAL FACIES MODEL

A transitional environment characterized by Delta environments have a wide variety of

"sediments that have been transported to the end
of a channel, (or a set of bifurcating channels), by
a current of continental water, and deposited
mostly subaqueously but partly subaerially, a t the
margin of the standing water into which the
channel(s) discharged or is (are) still discharging
(lake, sea, ocean)" (Friedman & Sanders, 1978). A
satellite photograph of the modern Mississippi
delta is shown in Fig. 6.6-1, and theoretical vertical
cross-sections of the three types of deltas are
reproduced in Fig. 6.6-2.
individual depositional facies. This complexity
results from several factors : they exist in a wide
range of geographic settings; they form in zones
of interaction between fresh water and marine
processes; they carry large volumes of sediments;
the rate of deposition is often rapid resulting in the
formation of extremely weak foundations, with a
wide variety of mass-movement processes. Thus,
these deposits display a large variety of geome-
tries and vertical sequence characteristics (Cole-
man & Prior, 1982).

delta marsh
crevasse splay 70
m 1distributary
interdistributary channel
shell bank delta marsh
distributary channel fill
stacked
beach
proximal distributary ridges
mouth bar

shoreface
deposits
distal
distributary
mouth
bar
deposits pro-delta shale

WAVE DOMINATED DELTA

pro-dalta shale

RIVER DOMINATED DELTA

60
rn
1
;:I;; marsh

channel
deposits
tidal flat
tidal channel

offrhors
tidal
sand
ridge
0 -
TIDE DOMINATED DELTA

Fig. 6.6-1, - Aerial photograph of the modern Mississippi river

delta. (Photo from NASA, extracted from Friedman 81 Sanders, Fig. 6.6-2.- Theoretical vertical cross-sections in the three
1978). types of deltas (from Walker, 1979).
 261

6.6.2.1.Subenvironments
In general terms, a delta can be subdivided into
several subenvironments.
The Delta Plain
6.6.2.1.1.
This is the subaerial, lowland part of the delta,
which comprises active and abandoned channels
separated by shallow water environments and
emergent or near emergent surfaces. It includes :
- Upper delta plain or the part of a delta above
the area of significant tidal or marine influences.
Its deposits are essentially composed o f :
a) migratory distributary channel deposits
(braided or meandering; natural levee and point
bar deposits);
b) lacustrine delta fill, interdistributary flood
plain-deposits.
- Lower delta plain which lies within the realm
of river-marine interaction and extends landward
from the low-tide mark to the limit of tidal in-
fluence. Deposits include :
a) bay fill deposits (interdistributary bay, natu-
ral levee, marsh, crevasse splay-);
b) abandoned distributary-fill deposits.
Subaqueous Delta Plain
6.6.2.1.2.
This is that part of the delta plain lying below
low-tide level and extending seaward to that area
actively receiving fluvial sediments.This area ran-
ges in water depths from 10 t o 300m. It can be
subdivided into two parts.
6.6.2.2.Lithology
Two parameters must be considered sepqrately.
6.6.2.2.1.Composition
Siliciclastic deposits, with a relatively good
chemical and textural maturity, are the dominant
lithofacies. Mica and lenses of heavy minerals are
frequently described. Coal beds and detrital coal
fragments are common. Glauconite and phospha-
tes may be present, depending on marine in-
fluence. Shell debris and thin limestones are
present. Siderite, pyrite, limonite and other iron-
rich compounds are normally present in small
amounts. Thin layers of evaporites would be
present if climatic conditions favour them.
6.6.2.2.2.Texture
Grain size is mainly medium sand to clay.
Conglomerates and coarse sands are rare, except
for intraformational types (soft-clasts, slumped
blocks or clay galls), or deltas resulting from
alluvial fans penetrating the water mass (Fig.
6.6-3). Sorting is medium to well developed. Grain
size tends to alternate in cyclic sequences. Round-
ness tends to be moderate to good. Each of the
alternative sub models will leave their impressions
on textural parameters.
100
60
60

- The Delta Front 40

A high energy subenvironment, where the se-

diments are constantly reworked by tidal currents, 1 20

marine longshore currents and wave action (10 m

or less water depth). It includes delta front sheet 05mm 0 05 0005 05mm 0 05 0005 0001

sands, distributary mouth bar, river-mouth tidal BAR SANDS FACIES PRO-DELTA AND INTERDISTRIBUTARY
TROUGH FACIES
range deposits, near shore, longshore and stream -SOUTHWEST
---SOUTH PASS
PASS -PRO.DELTA
---BAY FLOOR
mouth bar deposits. The delta front is represented ..-NORTH PASS ,....SPITS

by a relatively large-scale coarsening upward

sequence which records the vertical upward facies 100

change from fine-grained offshore or prodelta

no
facies into shoreline facies which is usually sands-
tone dominated. These sequences result from 60
progradation of the delta front and may be trunca-
ted by fluvial-or tidal-distributary channel sequen- 40

ces as progradation continues.

- The Prodelta
A transitional subenvironment between the
delta front and normal marine shelf deposits. It is
05mm 0 06
BAR "SANDS"
0005
I z:
05mm 0 05
CHANNEL, NATURAL LEVEE,
0 005

MARSH b M A R S H FRONT FACIES

the part of a delta that is below the effective depth -0URKWOOD BORING ---CHANNEL - - MARSH
of wave erosion, lying beyond the delta front and ---PORT EADS BORING
ITROWBRIDGE 19221
-NATURAL LEVEE , .. -MARSH FRONT

sloping gently down to the floor of the basin into

which the delta is advancing. The sediments found Fig. 6.6-3.- Cumulative size frequency curves of selected
surface and subsurface samples representative of various
in that part of the delta are composed of the finest sedimentary facies from the bird-foot delta (from Fisk et a/.,
material deposited from suspension. 1977).
262

Table 6.6-1 Table 6.6-2

Factors influencing deltaic sedimentation Characteristics of deltaic depositional sequences
(from Morgan, 1970). (from Galloway, 1975).
Ouantitv of suspended load and bed load ithat
Sediment IS Stream
mm WAM mL

-
Flood load capacltyl i n ~ i e l l s during
i flood
DDYUTD DDYUW -TED
9"l* 'lage Panicle Panicle m e Of suspended load and bed load (that I S
REOlUl size Stream competcnceI increases during flood GEOMElRV ELONGATE TO LOWE ARCUATE ESTUARINE TO IRRLGUW
v m a t , o n s influence
sediment load and
tianlPOn eapacrfy Low ";td:Ft Stream ~apacityd#m#nrrhesdurlng low river stage CIUWEl lWf STRAIGHT TO SINUOUS
OISTRIEUTARIS
MEANDERING
MSTRlEUiARYS
FLARING SlTiAlGH7 TO
SlNWUS MSTRIELnbMS
llVW

'lage p ~ ~ ~Stream
~ l competenca
e dtminirher during low w e r stage I11u. MUOOV TO MIXED SANOV VUUBLE

Energy High wave energy with resulting turbulence and currents

eiade tework and winnow deltaic sediments
WMWuM MSTRIEUTARY MOUTH COASTAL BARRIER ESTUARY f i w o nou
F W EAR AND CHANNEL FILL AND E A C H RIDGE SAND RIDGES
CO'IIAL
T,dll range High tidal range distributes wave energy across an anends SANDS. DELTA MARGIN SANDS
P*OC~SSLS l8noral zone and creates Ida1 currents SAND SMET
Cu,rent ltrsngth Strong linoral curt0ntr generated by waves and tides RuLlEmm PARILLELS PIRULELS P M L S
transport sediment alongshore allrhore and mrhore OllEWlAMW DEPOSITIONAL SLOE DEWSmONAL SLOE E W S M N US L M
Stable a,aa Rigid basemen1 precludes delta subsidence and forces
deltaic plain to build upward as 11progradei
Subsidence through structuraI downwarping coupled w ~ t
Subsiding area ried8ment ComPaCtmn illowr delta to construct over-
lapping sedimentary lobes as 11prograder
~

datum1 Uplik of land ior lowering of sea levell causes w e ,

;2
Elevating area distributaries to cut downward and rework thmr
sedimentary deposits
Hot High temperature and humldlty yield dense vagetative
or cover. which aids m trapping sediment tranrponad
warm by fluvial or tidal wrrents
WSt 1 MISSISSIPPI la Plaquemines RIVER ENERGY
area Seasonal character of v e g e t a t ~ vgrowih
~ I S 11)s. e f f m w e 2 PO b St Bernard
in rsdiment tnppinp, cool winter tempereture 3 Danube c Lafourchel
illows seasonal acCUmulat8on of plant debrm to 4 Ebro
c:;d 5 Nile
CL'MITIC form delta plain peati
F.CTOPI 6 Rhhe
Hot Sparse vegetative cover plays minor role m sediment 7 S i o Francisco
or trapping and IIIOWS significant aeolmn p r ~ ~ e s s e s 8 Braios
warm in deIta8s p l m
9 Senegal
Dry
area cool Sparse Vegetative cover plays mlnor role 6n sedtrnsnt 10 Burdskin
trappings. winter ice interrupti fluvial processes, 11 Niger
seasonal thaws and aeol8an processes Influence 12 ormoco
cDld
sediment transportati~n and depostion 13 Mekong
14 Copper DOMINATED
15 Ganges-Brahrnaputra
16 Fly
17 Klang.Langat
18 Mahakam
19 Colorado

/ " I

1
10

WAVC ENERGY TIDE ENERGY

Fig. 6.6-5. - Triangular classification of deltaic depositional

sequences (completed from Galloway, 1975).

LOGY

6.6.2.3. Classification
The distribution, orientation and internal geo-
metry of deltaic deposits are controlled by a
variety of factors (Table 6.6-1 and Fig. 6.6-4) which
include climate, morphology, vegetation, water
DELTA
discharge, sediment load, river-mouth processes,
waves, tides, winds, currents, shelf slope and the
tectonics and geometry of the receiving basin
(Wright et a/., 1974).
To accomplish this complex set of variables, the
deltas will be classified according to Galloway,
1975 (Table 6.6-2 and Fig. 6.6-5).
River-dominated deltas are referred to as
" h ig h -constructive a nd wave - a nd tide - do m inate d
"

deltas as "high-destructive" deltas, in the literature

(for example Fisher et a/., 1969).
Structure, boundaries, geometry and directional
Fig. 6.6-4. - Major process controls on river systems (from flow models will be presented according with the
Coleman & Prior, 1980). classification.

mouth bars
CONSTRUCTIVE-
ELONGATE
Fig. 6.6-6. - Block diagrams of the two types of river-domina-
ted deltas (from Fisher et a/., 1969).
6.6.2.4. River-Dominated Deltas
If waves, tidal and longshore currents are weak,
and if the volume of sediments carried by the river
is high, rapid seaward progradation takes place,
and a variety of characteristic river-dominated
depositional environments develops. At the mouth
of each distributary channel subaqueous levees
may form as the jet of the river water enters the
sea. The main sediment load is deposited in a
distributary mouth bar, in which the grain size
becomes finer seaward. As progradation pro-
ceeds, the river slope is flattened and flow beco-
mes less competent. At this stage a breach in the
subaerial levee may occur upstream during a
period of high discharge. Such a breach is termed
a crevasse. The shorter route it offers to the sea
via an interdistributary bay is generally the cause
of a major flow diversion, and a subdelta crevasse
splay deposit may develop rapidly. Eventually, the
crevasse may become a major distributary and the
process is repeated.
These are, in summary, the main mechanisms
occurring in a river-dominated delta and genera-
ted subenvironments.
Fig. 6.6-7. - Block diagram showing subenvironments and
facies relationship of a river-dominated elongate delta (from
Coleman & Prior, 1980).
Fig. 6.6-8. - Surface distribution of facies in a bird-foot type
river-dominated delta (from Fisher et at., 1969).
But there are two main subtypes in this delta
category.
- The river discharge can be steady, generally
with a high suspension load. This generates bird-
foot, elongate type deltas with few distributaries,
shoestring sands and discrete mouth bar deposits
(Fig. 6.6-6 to 6.6-8).
- The river discharge can fluctuate, with, typi-
cally, a higher proportion of bedload in the trans-
ported sediments. This generates a lobate shape in
outline; there are a greater number of distributa-
ries, each of which tends to be more ephemeral,
and the sediments are coarser grained and the
mouth bar deposits merge laterally into sheet
sands.
6.6.2.4.1. Structure
Massive bedding with general erosional sur-
face; lenses, thin bedding up to laminations,
parallel or wavy, of clay or interbedded silt and
264
'ig. 6.6-9. - Vertical sequences of sedimentary structures in
9ver-dominated interdistributary areas (from Elliot. 1974. in
Reading, 1978).
LITHOLOGY
Fine-grained micaceous
ripple laminated sandstones
and siltstones with
nmproverished ripples
Planar crosr-stratified
sandstones with midirect-
ional palaeocurrents.
E
b
INTERPRETATION
Shallow water chsnnel4ill
deposits deposited during
channel abandonment.
Main channeI.fil1 deposits in
which the massive sandstone
and erosional planes indicate
frequent flood conditions,
whilst the cross-stratification
reflects dune or bar migration.
4 Fig. 6.6-10. - Boundaries and sedimentary structures of a
Fig. 6.6-11. - The "constructional" phase of the delta cycle
(from Scruton, 1960).
clay; small t o large symmetrical and asymmetrical
ripples, abundant planar and trough cross-beds,
generally high angle with unimodal current distri-
bution, are the most common bedding types.
Distorted bedding grades from load marks to
convolute, mud lumps, diapiric and slumps
(growth faults), generally related to prodelta clays.
Bioturbations are moderate to high, including flora
and related fauna. Shell beds may be present.
Concretions of iron-rich minerals, scours, cut-
and-fill and lag deposits are also sedimentary
features commonly found (Fig. 6.6-9).
6.6.2.4.2. Boundaries
Large units tend to show basal gradational
contacts with abrupt tops. Internally, gradational
or sharp contacts are randomly distributed with
tendency to be similar to the large units (Fig.
6.6-10).
6.6.2.4.3. Sequences
River-dominated deltas generate a large cyclical
deposition (Fig. 6.6-1 1). Lithology, thickness and
grain size evolution are illustrated by Fig. 6.6-12.
The rapid seaward progradation of these deltas
gives rise to the most characteristic feature of
deltaic sediments : the coarsening upward se-
quence. The complete cycle of a delta lobe (typi-
cally 50 t o 100 m thick), and the distributary and
crevasse cycles, which are its component parts,
are summarized in Fig. 6.6-13.
Scruton (1960) pointed out that the growth of a
delta is cyclic. He recognized two phases :
- Constructional phase : active seaward pro-
gradation causes prodelta muds to be overlain by
delta-front silts and sands, these in turn by distri-
butary-mouth bar deposits, mainly sands, and
finally top-set delta marsh sediments, possibly
including peat beds (Fig. 6.6-1 1).
- Destructional phase: a delta lobe is even-
fluvial-distributary channel (from Reading, 1978, after Kelling
& George, 1971).
 265

100- crevasse splay

m
interdistributary
shell bank
distributary channel fill

proximal distributary
mouth bar

distal
distributary
mouth
bar
deposits

Y-
pro-delta shale

RIVER DOMINATED DELTA

Fig. 6.6-12. - Vertical sequential evolution in a river-dominated Fig. 65-14, - Sub-deltas infilling interdistributary bays of the
delta (from Walker, 1979) modern Mississippi delta (from Coleman & Gagliano, 1964).

-
DELTAIC SEDIMENTATION CONCEPTUAL DIAORAMS
DELTA COMPLEX: DELTA COMPLEX: INDIVIDUAL DELTA:
DIP SECTION STRATIORAMIC MAP MORMOLOOV
Highly burrowed ahalea-alita: Ientlcular laminations abundant:
scattered macro and micro brackiah water fauna. A > SEALEVEL A

Coarsening upward sequence of shale 10 sanda. burrowed near

bale. rands usually poorly aoned, thia aequence may be
repeated numaroua times RdlRs > 1

Shales highly burrowed. thin. sharp. bonomed aand.ailt

string& scattered shell fragments: pouoble brackiah
water shell reefs, I' SULEVEL I
Thin rootad coai.
Alternating thin rand. ~ 1 1 ahale
. atringera, aands-ailla have
poor lateral continuity. root structuraa usually common; b a n
of randa uaually gradational. abundant climlinp ripplea.
Ciaan. medium Mned sand with concentrations of tranaponad organics. RYRa- 1
Sand and silt beda. smaII.acaie croaa bedding, hipt mica Content.
penorally poorly aoned near b a n and becoming cleaner upward.
pouibiliry of cut and fill channels: u n d amion could expand
thickneaa rapidly by growh faulting: louily large channel swurs
occur in top of und. verf thin beda of ahale aomaimoa prment:
loul thick pockela of tranaponed organics prewnt near top.
Alternating u n d . aill. ahale iammationa. aand-ain tmcomea
more abundant near top. abundant ripple marks (wave and currentl.
climbing rippies abundant near top; pouibia .lump block featurea 0ALLUVIAL AND KUVK).MLTAIC
SANDS AND SILTS
and flowage mructuras; poaaibility of cut and fill channeia:
faunal content decreawa upward. DELTAIC SANDS, SILTS
Shale*, finely Iaminamd, tunered ahalia, micro fauna d.sreawa AND CLAVS
upward, grain am increawa upward, ailt-.and laminations tmcome
thicker upward.
FzlL:" ZNO MARINE
SCALE: NONE
Silt-und dump biocka with flowago structures, multiple amall
Iauita and fraciurea. high x-bedding.

11 Shale. merino. finely laminated near top, highly burrowed noar ban.
, o f deposition and rate of subsidence (Rd/Rs). (From Curtis,
Fig. 66-13, - Composite stratigraphic sequence of depositional
environments in the Mississippi River delta (from Coleman &
Prior, 1980).
tually abandoned if crevassing generates a shorter
route to the sea. The topmost beds are then
attacked by waves and current activity, and may
be completely reworked. Compaction may allow a
local marine transgression to occur.
This cycle is of course idealized. The complete
delta cycle (sometimes termed a megacycle) may
Fig. 66-15, - Conceptual diagrams of variations in delta
characteristics resulting from variations in ratio between rate
1970).
generate a stratigraphic succession between 50
and 150 m, or more, in thickness, but it may
contain, or pass laterally into, numerous smaller
cycles representing the progradation of individual
distributaries or crevasse splays (Fig. 6.6-14).
These smaller cycles range from 2 to 1 4 m as
shown by Coleman & Gagliano (1964) and by Elliot
(1974). As in larger cycles, they tend to coarsen
upward. The manner in which cyclic deltaic se-
 266

ACTIVELY PROGRADING ABANDONED WEDGE

DELTA WEDGE

TYPE 1

Conditions: IDW wave energy,

MEAN SEA LEVEL
B tidal range, and littoral dritt,
B'
low offshore slope, fire-grained
sediment load.
Characteristics: widespread.
fingar-like channel sands normal
to the shoreline.
Example: modern Mississipi delta

Fig. 6.6-16. - Cyclical active and abandonment evolution of Fig. 6.6-17. - Sand distribution pattern (modified from Coleman
Carboniferous deltas in the United States (from Ferm, 1970). & Wright, 1975).

Table 6.6-3
Geometrical and other geological parameters to identify deltaic subenvironments.

1 DISTRIBUTARY
MDllltl-BAR I POINTBAR I CHANNEL I OVERBANK

DDMtNANTROCKTYPE 1 Shale& siltylshale

I
1 Seatrock. clay,coal
~~~

Mediumto fine sandstone

with shale lenses
Coarser to medium
sandstone
Medium sandstone Silty shale sillstone

I I
GRAIN SIZE TREND Generallycoarsening No specific trend Coarseningupward Fining upward

'
upward

1 NAWEOFBASUCONTACT
I
Generallynotseen 1 Gradationaltosharp Gradationaltosharp Highlyscouredwavy Sharptruncation Highly
erosive
Gradational
I i
I MRTlCALTHICKNESS 15to15h I 03to18m 15to45m 6to14m 3to45m 091045m
I
~ UTERALEXXNT M m t o 7 3 2 Km 1 In kilometres 0 4 m to48 Km 90 m to0 4 Km 19m orless to lZOm Veryvariable
SHAPE OF UNll Rectangularin Cross Elongated Sheet like Hedge shapped lenticular Biconvex,planeconvex Thin, sheet4ke
section I
BEDDING THICKNESS Thinly bedded laminated Mediumbedded 0 3109 m Thick bedded 1 510 2 0 in Medium to thinly bedded Thin bedded, laminated
I

I
SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES Parallel and wavy i Planarcross-beds Multidirectional trough Small scale xour and fill Parallel lamination,current

'
lamination Cornpositsetscommon cross-beds Ripples Small sale
Climbing ripples on lateral Solitary cross.strats cross-bed
eXtremities common

NATURE AND DISTRIBUTION
OF ORGANIC FRAGMENTS
~~
Smal eaves and hu gs
a ong beaaing panes
BraCniODOdS
Maseratea p.ant mater,a. Sma.1 ro.ndM 0rgan.c
fragmentsd striD.tW at
random
~~~~~
Large eaves ana stem on Oriented large stem at the Smai leaves and twigs
beading p.anes base a ong bead ng planes
, Rahed Coa lenses at base
I1 i1 Segregated
~~~

MlcIcHHlS MINERAL Coarse mica flakes along Generallydistributed at - Mica distributed a random Distributedat random along bedding
1 bedding planes random Some beds show Coarse flakes segregated planes
unusually high along bedding planes
concentration

'#)sTD€- Rooting on top only Rooting Gas heave Structure Convolute laminations Slump features Rooting
MODFlCAlKiNS coneinane burrowing
1
1 NODULES Siderite nodules present Not seen 1 Largedix, shaped nodules Not seen Not seen

i
1 present
PMMARV HUES Darkgrayish,black ~ Blackgrayish, black Lightwhistish,gray Darkgray Dark greenishgray grayish
I black

quences are superimposed upon each other de- 6.6.2.4.4. Geometry of the bodies
pends on the relative rates of sedimentation and
subsidence (including compaction). If the two The main bodies are lobate features with a
rates are in approximate balance a delta will tend strong lateral accretion mechanism which genera-
to build vertically; if subsidence is faster the delta tes lenticular units (Fig. 6.6-16). Sandstone bodies
will prograde seaward, and, as each part of the tend to be lenticular to tabular for the distribu-
depositional basin becomes filled, successive tary-mouth bars, grading to sand sheets. Near the
progradational events will move laterally. The top, finger- or shoestring-shapes are described.
mechanisms are described by Curtis, 1970 (Fig. River-dominated delta geometry can be mapped
6.6-15). most readily in the subsurface by measuring the
 267

total sand content or the sand/shale ratio in a

given stratigraphic unit. Areas of high sand
content may outline lobate areas perpendicular to
the basin margin, corresponding to the principal
paths of delta progradation.
Fig. 6.6-17 shows this approach correlated with
a present-day model.
Table 6.6-3 summarizes geometrical criteria for B
this kind of deltas.

Basin

of bed

+
9..
mixing
Density of /i Axial jet
inflow and

Gilbert-type delta
Axial cross-section

Fig. 6.6-19. - Lateral and vertical cross-sections of a delta,

showing topset, foreset and bottomset developping as delta
grows (from Reineck & Singh, 1975; and from Reading, 1978).

6.6.2.4.5. Directional current flow model

C waters mix at the distributary mouth. In an early
Basin
bed load
~
Fig. 6.6-18. - Contrasted modes of interaction between sedi-
ment-laden river waters and basin waters, determined by the
relative density of the water bodies : (A) homopycnal flow; (B)
hyperpycnal flow; (C) hypopycnal flow (from Fisher et a/.,
1969; originally from Bates, 1953).
The radial change in hydraulic conditions a t the
distributary mouth causes the out flow to expand
and decelerate, thus decreasing outflow compe-
tence and causing the sediment load to be deposi-
ted. Basinal processes either assist in the disper-
sion and eventual deposition of sediment, or
rework and redistribute sediment deposited direc-
tly as a result of outflow dispersion.
Of prime importance in this part of the delta is
the precise manner in which the outflow and basin
example of the application of hydrodynamic prin-
ciples to essentially geological problems, Bates
(1953) contrasted situations in which the river
waters were equally dense, more dense and less
dense than the basin waters (homopycnal, hyper-
pycnal and hypopycnal flow respectively, Fig.
6.6-18). If the water bodies are of equal density,
immediate three dimensional mixing occurs a t the
river mouth causing appreciable sediment deposi-
tion a t this point. High density outflow tends to
flow beneath the basin waters as density currents,
causing sediment to by-pass the shoreline and
thus restricting the development of a delta. If the
outflow is less dense than the basin waters it
enters the basin as a buoyantly supported surface
jet or plume. This latter situation has been obser-
ved off the Mississippi and Po deltas (Scruton,
1956; Nelson, 1970) and is considered to operate
wherever river outflow enters marine basins as sea
water is slightly denser than freshwater. Other
268

important factors include inertial processes rela- 6.6.2.5.1. Structure

ted to outflow velocity, and frictional processes
which result from the outflow interacting with the
sediment surface a t the distributary mouth
(Wright & Coleman, 1974).
In relation with the main progradational pro-
cess, the mouth bars develop foreset beds, in
which dips are generally downslope - as flow does
- ranging in magnitude from 100 to 250 (Fig. 6.6-19).
The dip azimuths show an unimodal distribution
with moderate scattering around 900 (Coleman &
Prior, 1980).
Laminations, thin bedding, parallel stratification,
large and small scale, low and high angle cross-
bedding, are the distinctive bedding features of
this delta. Barrier and shoreface sands generally
contain low-angle cross-bedding, representing
wave accretion surfaces. Palaeocurrent distribu-
tions are bimodal or random (Fig. 6.6-22).

6.6.2.5. Wave-Dominated Deltas

In environments of strong wave activity mouth
bar deposits are continually reworked into a series
of superimposed coastal barriers. These may
completely dominate the final sedimentary suc-
cession, and the internal geometry of the deposits
will be quite distinctive. Sand bodies will tend to
parallel the coastline, in contrast to those of
river-dominated deltas, which are more nearly
perpendicular to the coast (Fig. 6.6-20).
The surface facies distribution shows a strong
reworking of the sand, creating more cuspate
subaerial forms (Fig. 6.6-21).

-INFLUENCED

.
Beach-barrier
Fig. 6.6-22. - Typical example of deltaic coastal plain sedimen-
tation, RhGne delta. Five upward coarsening sequences, of
which three (1, 2 and 5) are overlain by upward fining
Fig. 6.6-20. - Block diagram of wave-dominated deltas (from channel-fill sequence, can be recognized in this core-log (from
Fisher et a/., 1969). Oomkens, 1970).

5' r c 1 Fig. 6.6-23. - Schematic illustration of the properties and

Fig. 6.6-21. - Principal sedimentary environments of the Niger relationships of principal sedimentary facies of the modern
delta (from Allen, 1970). Niger Delta (from Allen, 1970).

Table 6.6-4
Characteristics of sediments of Guadalupe delta and its beach-ridge plain
(from Donaldson et al., 1970).
Stringers and partings of sand, shale, coal,
evaporites, shell beds and heavy minerals may be
present. Sands and shales tend to be burrowed
and rooted, the last near tops of banks. Prodelta
clays are rich in mud pellets. Fig. 6.6-23 summari-
zes structures and subenvironments in one of
these deltas.
6.6.2.5.2. Boundaries
The base of megasequences shows gradational
contacts. Parallel boundaries dominate in external
as well as internal units. Distributary channels cut
delta marshes showing small scours a t the base
(Fig. 6.6-22 and Table 6.6-4).
6.6.2.5.3. Sequences
Goarsening-upward mega- to micro-sequences
are well developed. They are noticeable through
grain size, sorting, thickness of bedding and fossil
content (Fig. 6.6-24). Stacked beach-ridges obs-
cure the effect (Fig. 6.6-25).
Beach-ridge sequences can develop in nondel-
taic settings as a result of longshore drift and
therefore additional criteria are necessary in order
to identify a specific sequence as deltaic in origin.
Bars forming on nondeltaic coastlines are com-
monly backed by lagoons, the sediments of which
may cap the bar sequence, whereas in deltaic
settings the bars develop in front of swamps and
269
Alternating sands. alits. ahales. and coals
with thin evaporite layers: coal layers
have low lateral continuily: sand layers
display both gradational and acoured bawa:
entire sequena burrowed.
Well-aoned, clean randa displaying large-
scale low-angle cross bedding; x-bedding:
some srnall.acale tangential x-stratification:
intenawe rooting on top of sand
Well.roned, clean randa diaplaying
low-dipping parallel layers: local
concentration of aheil; amail-scale
x-atratification common near base; local
concentrations of heavy minarala in thin
layers.
Alternating sand, silt, ahale, and coal
layers: sands more common near baae: baa8
of rand layers display scouring; root and
animal burrowing common, especially near
top of zone.
Medium sorted sands and ailti; small-scale
x-bedding abundant; sand layera diaplay
grading characteriatica, ram aim
increases upward: low-dipping parailel
laminations common near top of zone: thin
ahale layera common locally.
Alternating sand. tilt. and clay layera:
w n d content increaaea upward: shale layers
decrease in thickness upward: faunal con.
tent decreares upward; small.scale
x-stratification abundant in upper pan
of zone.
Marine shale with silt iayers: highly
burrowed: scanerad shell iayers; amall
scaie x.laminationa increase upward.
Fig. 6.6-24. - Composite stratigraphic sequence of depositional
environments in the Senegal River delta (from Coleman &
Prior, 1980).
fluvial channel complexes, the deposits of which
should be quite distinctive. Coal may be an impor-
tant constituent.
270

delta marsh
1channel
distributary
TYPE 3
Conditions: intermediate
wave energy, high tides, low
delta marsh littoral drift, shallow stable
basin.
stacked Characteristics: channel
sands normal t o shoreline,
beach connected laterally by
ridges barrier-beach sands.
Examples: Burdekin. Irra-
waddy and Mekong deltas.

shoreface
deposits

TYPE 4
Conditions: intermediate
pro-delta shale wave energy. l o w offshore
slope, low sediment yield.
0 Characteristics: coalesced

1
channel and mouth bar sandr
WAVE DOMINATED DELTA fronted by offshore barrier
I islands.
Examples: Apalachicola and
Brazos deltas.
Fig.'6.6-25. - Vertical sequence distribution in wave-dominated
delta (from Walker, 1979)

0 Fluvial sand TYPE 5

0 Coastal barrier sand
rc Conditions: high, persisten!
wava enargy, low littoral
drift, steep offshore slope.
Characteristics: sheet-like.
laterally persistent barrier:
beach sands w i t h up-dip
channel sands.
Examples: SBo Francisco
and Griialva deltas.

do la M e r TYPE 6
Conditions: high wave
energy. strong littoral drift,
steep offshore slope.
Characteristics: multiple
alongate barrier-beach sands
aligned parallel t o the shore-
Fig. 6.6-26. - Distribution of sand bodies following their origin line w i t h subdued channel
sands.
in the RhBne delta (from Oomkens, 1970). Example: Senegal delta.

6.6.2.5.4. Geometry of the bodies

The geometry of wave-dominated delta depo-
sits is quite different from those where wave
influence is low. Beach-ridge sands form linear
sand masses sub-parallel to the basin margin,
ideally forming a convex-seaward, arc-cusp-, or
chevron-shaped body (Fig. 6.6-26). Associated
fluvial sands will trend subperpendicular to the
basin margin. The classic delta - that of the Nile -is
a good example of a wave-dominated type delta.
Sand body geometries are strongly dependant
on river-wave relationships (Fig. 6.6-27), giving
cuspate to arcuate deltas.
6.6.2.5.5. Directional current flow model
Due to the wave action the current flow pattern
tends to be bimodal with large scattering. The
azimuth pattern may be mbdified because of
longshore current activity and this will be reflected
by the sand body geometry (Fig. 6.6-27).
Fig. 6.6-27. - Sand bodies in modern wave-dominated deltas
(from Coleman & Wright, 1975).
6.6.2.6. Tide-Dominated Deltas
Where the tidal range is high the reversing flow
that occurs in the distributary channels during
flood and ebb may become the principal source of
sediment dispersal energy. Within, and seaward of
the distributary mouths, the sediments can be
reworked into a series of parallel, linear or digitate
ridges parallel to the direction of tidal currents
(Fig. 6.6-28 and 6.6-29).
Deltas of this type may be difficult to recognize
in ancient sedimentary deposits. The coarser
sediments are dispersed by tidal currents into
offshore sand ridges parallel to the direction of the
tide with low littoral drift. In high littoral drift the
linear tidal ridges tend to parallel the shoreline

HIGH OESTRUCTI
\
Fig. 6.6-28. - Block diagram of a tide-dominated delta (from
Fisher et a/., 1969).
L, Tide dominated
Channel
Delta plain
Iron-tidal)
Delta plain
tidal flat
Tidal nand bar
Tidal channel-shelf
Tidal chennd deeps
Fig. 6.6-29. - Surface distribution of facies and subenviron-
ments in a modern tide-dominated delta : Gulf of Papua (from
Fisher et a/., 1969).
(Coleman & Prior, 1980). The subaerial part of the
delta consists largely of tidal flats comprising
mainly fine-grained deposits. The distributary may
contain well-sorted sands, and large quantities of
clay and silt will tend to be flushed into the delta
marsh environment by overbank flooding during
high tides. A typical modern tide-dominated delta
is that of the Klang-Langat Rivers in Malaysia
(Coleman e t a/., 1970).
6.6.2.6.1. Structure
Thin bedding, parallel t o oblique laminations,
small and large bidirectional (herringbone) and
unidirectional trough cross-bedding; flaser struc-
ture; small scours and scour-and-fill; slumps; algal
structures; intense bioturbation of sand tops and
shales; mudcracks in shales, are the main features
of these deltas (Fig. 6.6-30).
6.6.2.6.2. Boundaries
Due to permanent bidirectional flow, abrupt,
planar to scoured contacts dominate the sequen-
ces (Fig. 6.6-31).
271
Woody in sit" ood. thin shale stringers
Hlgh organic shales and coal; mtensely rootad with scattered
anma1 burrows: small sand4lt lilled tidal channel scours.
WaII.soned sand commonly having shorp base but not nacaasarllv
scoured; concentrations of heavy minarala i n zones; pa~alleland
Slightly inclined bsdding; normally rooted on top.
Allernatmg sends, silts. and shales. llasar struct. common:
~ntenseburrowing In zones; s8rpulid banks somatlmea presentr;
small.scala cross stratilicetion; algac zones common: ahell
concentrat!onr common, possible rooted zone or thin coal near top
Clean rand commonly having scoured base: bidirectional Cross
stratitication Common: high mica content: local thickening and
thinning: burrowing common at top 01 sand
Alternating sands. silts. and shales: small.uale cross laminations,
v i s i b l e small slump sttlucturea: Iaunal conlant d8creasas upward:
possible removal 01 entlre sequence by tidal channel scour.
Marine shale, scattered faunal remains: thin silt stringerr.
broken shells cpmmon, transponed organlcs common.
Clean well-soned sands. 1arge.scaIe cross Ceddlng; generally leatoon.
scoured base. possible scour and fill channels in sand. grades liner
upward.
Marina shale and silt; high faunal content. hlghly burrowed thln cross
laminations; a111 stringars.
Fig. 6.6-30. - Composite stratigraphic sequence of depositional
environments in the Klang-Langat Rivers delta (from Coleman
& Prior, 1980).
- -
Evaporaa depoaits and marbedded silt and shah layers.
ahalms mudcracked
Altamamg sand. silt, and ahbl. Iaysrs burrowing and
mud cracks abundant. thin u n d s disp1.y Y O U , b a u
Medium sonad sand displaying scoured bbsa. bidirmional
r - b d d m g common. Ixa1 Ibyws 01 ahala. highly root
burrowed at top
1 1 . * I Well . soned cross . bedded sands. abundant ~ o u and
channels. o~~asoonal thin clay layer bid#r.ctional
r till
cross-bedding common lanoon x-bedding wall dwal0p.d
'y 4-=
root burrovlng abundant at top 01 u n d
Alternating silts and shales. shale layers become
thinner near top acanarad shells burromng more
mtansa near base. small.scale cross laminations
are abundbnt
Mama ahale thin bedded. thin silt and u n d string
highly burrowed near basal Z0n.s. YlnerOd shale
Fig. 6.6-31. - Composite stratigraphic sequence of depositional
environments in the Ord River delta, Australia (from Coleman
& Prior, 1980).
6.6.2.6.3. Sequences
They tend t o show definite coarsening-upward,
followed eventually by fining-upward, without a
well defined boundary, depending on the position
in the delta (Fig. 6.6-31).
6.6.2.6.4. Geometry of the bodies
Relative thick, elongated sand bodies in the
direction of the tide, formed by tidal current ridge
272
TYPE 2
Conditions: low wave energy
high tidal range, normally
low littoral drift, narrow
basin.
Characteristics: finger-like
channel sands passing off-
shore into elongate, tidal
current ridgn sands.
Example: Qrd. Indus. Colorado.
Ganges. Brahmaputra deltas.
Fig. 65-32,- Sand distribution in a tide-dominated delta (from
Coleman & Wright, 1975).
Fig. 6.6-33. - Major physiographic areas, tides, and tidal
currents of the Klang-Langat Rivers delta. Tides refer to the
British Admiralty data for the Malacca Strait (from Coleman et
a/., 1970).
sands and shoals, comprising a complex of minor
channels and megaripple sands (Fig. 6.6-32), are
the main geometrical features observed in this
type of delta.
Average measurements of the Ord River ridges
gave 2 km long, 300 m wide and 10-22 m high.
6.6.2.6.5. Directional current flow pattern
Tidal streams play a dual role : flood and ebb
currents tend to generate bimodal distribution.
But, the influence of rivers, which renforce tidal
action, tends to generate ebb currents stronger
than flood, creating an umbalance in the distribu-
tion and allowing the system to prograde seaward
(Fig. 6.6-33).
6.6.2.7. Reservoir Characteristics
Deltaic sands have, generally, good reservoir
characteristics : porosity up to 35 %, permeability
up to thousands of millidarcys in mouth bar
deposits in relation to the good sorting. These
properties decrease seaward. In distributary chan-
nel sands, the porosity is lower due to poorer
sorting, but the permeability is still good in relation
to the coarser grains. Due to the general coarse-
ning up sequence the reservoir characteristics
(porosity and permeability) are better developed
towards the top of each marine deposited reser-
voir; on the contrary, in fluvial deposits they are
better developed a t the bottom of each fining up
sequence. They constitute a multitude of reser-
voirs of limited lateral and vert'ical extent. They
have the advantage of being in close proximity to
potential source rocks. In this environment, growth
faulting being common, tectonic and stratigraphic
traps are abundant.
6.6.3. WELL-LOG RESPONSES
AND CHARACTERISTICS
For more than thirty years, SP and resistivity log
shapes (bell, funnel and cylinder shapes) have
been used intensively by geologists to recognize
sedimentary facies in deltaic deposits. Coleman &
Prior (1982) have represented, by summary dia-
grams including SP and resistivity logs, the major
characteristics of the main deposits. They are
reproduced in Fig. 6.6-34 to 6.6-41. They can be
used to give a rough idea of the facies (by
combining curve shapes and thicknesses). Other
attemps have been made, earlier by Fisher (1969),
and, more recently, by Galloway & Hobday (1983).
Hereafter in more detail, actual well-log responses
and characteristics are described, as observed in
ancient deltas all around the world.
Sand body i i o p c h map.
SP R
Fig. 6.6-34. - Summary diagrams illustrating the major charac-
teristics of braided channel deposits (from Coleman & Prior,
1982).
 273

.
Block diaQram.
8s-

Sand b d y ilopach map

Sand body isopmh map.

Fig. 6.6-35. - Summary diagrams illustrating the major charac- Fig. 6.6-38. - Summary diagrams illustrating the major charac-
teristics of meandering point-bar deposits (from Coleman & teristics of abandoned distributary deposits (from Coleman &
Prior, 1982). Prior, 1982).

Blockdiagram

I
S m d bady iloPaCh mae.
Sand body tlopach map SP R

Fig. 6.6-36. - Summary diagrams illustrating the major charac- Fig. 6.6-39. - Summary diagrams illustrating the major charac-
teristics of lacustrine delta-fill deposits (from Coleman & Prior, teristics of the distributary-mouth bar deposits (from Coleman
1982). & Prior, 1982).

BAY FILL

Fig. 6.6-37. - Summary diagrams illustrating the major charac- Fig. 6.6-40. - Summary diagrams illustrating the major charac-
teristics of the bay-fill deposits (from Coleman & Prior, 1982). teristics of river-mouth tidal ridge deposits (from Coleman &
Prior, 1982).

6.6.3.1. Electro-Lithofacies shell fragments). The separation between those

The mineralogical composition is obtained by
log and crossplot analysis. For instance, very low
radioactive intervals can correspond to : (a) coarse
grained or well washed sands, (b) coal (peat or
lignite), or (c) limestone beds (accumulation of
facies is obtained with the help of the p b vs &
crossplot, or of the Pe or (Urn& values (Fig. 6.6-42).
Low to moderately radioactive intervals are
representative of medium to fine sands.
Radioactive intervals can correspond to : (a) silt
deposits rich in thorium bearing minerals (i.e.
274

NBUTRON

SUBAWEOUS SLUMPS

Sand body iropach map

Fig. 6.6-41. - Summary diagrams illustrating the major charac-

CALlER
11“)

teristics of slump deposits (from Coleman & Prior, 1982).

Fia. 6.6-44. - The analvsis of the gamma rav. ,. neutron, densitv
a i d resistivity curves indicates clearly two types of sand : the
deepest (d) is finer, a little radioactive due to small amount of
silt, well sorted (high porosity 35%); the sand above (e) is
coarser (low radioactivity), moderately sorted (qkP= 22 %).
;-
1-
This figure is an enlargement of an interval of Fig. 6.6-49 (see
below).
-1
I.
3 !
zircon), and often heavy minerals (i.e. siderite,
pyrite, micas), or (b) shales. The lithofacies reco-
gnition will be based on the p b vs qh crossplots
with SP, Pe, thorium (Th) and potassium (K)on 2
axis. In the example of Fig. 6.6-43 the silty bed,
well differentiated on the SP and neutron curves
(level c), is more radioactive than the surrounding
shales. Thorium and potassium help to define the
Q)ET Q maosnv predominant clay mineral type, and uranium corre-

:
lates with the percentage of organic material.
Textural information can be extracted from the
em1 I U T m rollDlnv porosity level and its evolution in combination with
gamma ray and SP analysis (Fig. 6.6-44). High
Fig. 6.6-42. - Location of facies on a P b vs I#+, crossplot (from
porosity (between 30 and 40%) suggests well
Rider & Laurier, 1979). sorted sand, the level of radioactivity and the
position on the p b vs qh crossplot indicating the
mean grain size (finer if more radioactive and
dense); medium porosity (from 15 to 25%) may
correspond to poorly to moderately sorted sand or
to quartz cemented sand if the representative
points fall on the sandstone or silstone line on a P b
vs qh crossplot with no change of Pe, or to a
calcareous cemented sand, if the representative
points move toward the limestone line and if the
Pe value increases.

6.6.3.2. Dip Patterns

o-rt
bhh
Fig. 6.6-43. - Example of silt more radioactive than the shale.
Silt beds are easily located on the SP and neutron curves
(levels c) (from Serra & Sulpice, 1975).
Several features can be observed in shale inter-
vals : no or few dips reflect homogeneous, or
heterogeneous, or bioturbated shales (Fig. 6.6-46b
between 1362 and 1372 m), whereas numerous
dips with approximately the same azimuth and
small changes in magnitude (Fig. 6.6-46b between
1301 and 1317 m) indicate laminated silty shales
without strong bioturbation, sometimes with small
scale ripple marks. Blue patterns characterize
foreset beds and can be used to define the
 275

-
6
...-CALIPER
150 1 6 5
- -PEL - - - -NEUTRON
.- .- ...- -.
16 160
DENSITY

- - --.
.- -SONIC
- - ...-
-- -
LLd
..- ......... .

-
LLS-

MSFL
-
-- .

11
.
RESISTIVITY

--- -
. ......-
..... DIPS
AZIMUTH
FREOUENCY
PLOT 1 RESISTIVITY CURVES
PADS 1 I
OTHER
OBSERVATIONS
ITERPRETATU

100 -

100 -

200 -

'300 -
I

Fig. 6.6-45. - Composite-log with GEODIP results and their interpretation, illustrating a deltaic environment.

direction of transport. They indicate progradation more or less the same azimuth and small changes
processes. Isolated red patterns above a sand bed in dip angle may correspond to ripple marks (Fig.
correspond to draping over the previous deposit 6.6-46b from 1296 to 1301 m).
(i.e. barrier bar). FMS images can be useful to recognize typical
In sandy intervals several dip patterns can be sedimentary features such as foresets, flaser and
recognized. No or scattered dips reflect bioturba- wavy beddings, slumps, burrows ... Those features
tion or cross-bedding. Blue patterns correspond to have been illustrated in the chapter on structure.
foreset beds (Fig. 6.6-46b from 1276 to 1278 m). Herringbone cross-bedding which can indicate
Red patterns can reflect filling of a channel (Fig. tidal influences can also be detected on FMS
6.6-45 from 7248 to 7273 m). Numerous dips with images as shown by Fig. 6.6-47.
 276

I I I I 0 0.25 I
%+ w
E

RESISTIVITY
-$INCREASE
>
c2
c Remarks
Interpretation

DIPS

Prodelta shale
Str. d. : 7' N 180"

Proximal
distributary
mouth bar

Prodelta shale

distributary channel

Crevasse splay

Interdistributary
bay deposits

Marsh

Proximal
distributary
mouth bar
d.tr. : s

Transgressive level

Interdistributary
bay deposits

Str. d. :7'N180°

Prodelta 1
shale

Str,d. :8"N160°

Fig. 6.6-46a. - Another example of a composite-log with its interpretation.

6.6.3.3.Boundaries
They are generally very well defined by dipme-
ter. Abrupt, sharp lower Contact is the rule as well Fig. 6.6-46b. - Another example of a composite-log with its b
as gradational contact toward the top. interpretation.
 277

S,+ E
Y
w RE SISTlVlTY 9 Remarks
-0
INCREASE E Interpretation

AT
240 Ivs/ttl 40

Str. d. : 3' N

Transgressive
sand
Crevasse channel
,minor mouth bar)
(minor mouth bar)
Proximal
distributary
h o u t h bar]-
d. tr. : NE
Distal distributary
mouth bar

prodelta shale

d. tr. : NNE
Transgressive
sand

lnterdistributary
bay deposits

Str. d. : 3' N 30'

Proximal
distributary
mouth bar

Lower
prodelta
shale

Interdistributary
bay deposits
(minor mouth bar
Str. d : 2' N 30'
Crevasse splay
Crevasse channel
Proximal
distributary
lmouth b a r r
Over bank floodin

Bioturbated
Drodelta - shales

lnterdistributary
bay deposits
Crevasse channel
(minor mouth bar)

lnterdistributary
bay deposits

Crevasse splay
278

GR Neutron Density 1

Fig. 6.6-47. - Example of herringbone cross-bedding as it can

be observed on a FMS image (courtesy of Schlumberger).

FACIES RECOONmON FROM 100s

TYPICAL OAMMA RAY LOQ SUAPE8
ROOD WSIN FOR DELTAK: RESERVMRS

t I
-5
9
DllTRWN

,/
IHTUDISlRlBUTARV AREA Will4 TIDAL CREEKS
UOOONS. MUDFUTS AND SWAMPS
I
Fig. 6.6-49. - Composite-log from a Nigerian well giving
another example of a deltaic environment (adapted from Serra
& Sulpice, 1975).

6.6.3.4. Electro-Sequences
Fig. 6.6-48. - Interpretation of gamma ray curve shapes in
terms of facies in deltaic deposits (from Schlumberger, Well They are well known and have been used inten-
Evaluation Conference. Nigeria, 1985). sively in Gulf Coast to recognize the nature of the
 279

GR RESISTIVITY
sand body (bell, funnel and cylinder shapes des-
0 API 100 5 10 1000 m 2 m cribed by SHELL geologists thirty years ago). They
are usually easily, and sometimes better, detected
on open-hole logs than on dipmeter curves except
when the elementary sequences are too thin, in
that case dipmeter curves allow a more precise
recognition of the polarity (fining or coarsening
upward). In many cases, the shape of the SP or
gamma ray curves can be directly interpreted in
terms of facies as illustrated in Fig. 6.6-48.
Funnel shape corresponds to coarsening up-
ward sequence and consequently to progradation
process and subaqueous delta plain deposits (cf.
Fig. 6.6-45 between 7130 and 7080ft, and Fig.
6.6-46b between 1290 and 1276m). Bell shape

4 Fig. 6.6-50. - Enlargement of the upper interval of Fig. 6.6-49,

illustrating bell shape (f) and cylinder shape (j) which may
correspond respectively t o meandering channel and braided
channel deposits (from Serra & Sulpice, 1975).

Fig. 6.6-51. - Enlargement of the middle interval of Fig. 6.6-49,

illustrating several funnel shapes and a succession of cylinder
shapes constituting a general bell shape (interval f toward the
top); this last interval may correspond t o tidal channel
lb FORMATION DENSITY 2 4
1
deposits intercalated with tidal flats (from Serra & Sulpice,
v 1975).

FACIES

'345678

FACIES 1 - FLOOD PLAIN - NATURAL LEVEE 5 - DELTA FRONT SANDS (BARRIER 0AR)

2 - CHANNEL - POINT B A R 6 - BARRIER FOOT

3 - TIDAL FLAT 7 - MARINE SHALE

4 - TIDAL CHANNEL 8 - TRANSQRESSIVE BEDS

280

NEUTRON
0 GRLAPll 150 451. 30% 151. 07. FACIES

Fig. 6.6-52. - Enlargement of the lower interval of Fig. 6.6-49, showing t w o cylinder shapes one at the bottom, the other at the top.
The deepest cylinder may correspond t o a tidal channel interbedded with tidal flat deposits (lignite beds). The top cylinder starts
with a very resistive and compact bed (i)which may correspond t o an accumulation of shell debris mixed with coarse sand, often
described at the bottom of tidal channels (from Serra & Sulpice, 1975).

Fig. 6.6-53. - Composite-log with LlTHO and GLOBAL results and a GEODlP arrow-plot at the same scale (from Schlumberger, Well
Evaluation Conference. India, 1983).
 281

corresponds t o fining upward sequence which can

GEODIP RESULTS,
be interpreted as distributary channel fill (Fig. I-

1
GEOLOGICAL
6.6-45 between 7283 and 7248ft, and Fig. 6.6-46a INTERPRETAIION
between 1160 and 1155.5 m), meandering channel
deposits, or transgressive level (Fig. 6.6-46b bet-
ween 1301 and 1296m). Cylinder shape, often
serrated, may correspond t o braided channel
deposits (Fig. 6.6-49 and Fig. 6.6-50), tidal channel
deposits (Fig. 6.6-51), subaqueous slump deposits. pro dana

Dip patterns and FMS images can help t o distin-

guish between those deposits.
Another typical log response in deltaic deposits
is given with its interpretation. It comes from the Diltrlbut8ly mouth
bar and tidabridge sanda
Jotana Formation, India (Fig. 6.6-53 and 6.6-54). It
illustrates several characteristic features which
can be observed both on open-hole logs and
dipmeter in deltaic environment.
Str. dip - 7' N 96"

L
Pro delta marine shale

Fig. 6.6-54. - Detailed GEODIP interpretation of the lower b

interval of Fig. 6.6-53 (1720-1690 m ) in a deltaic formation : Distributary mouth bai
and tidal-ridge sands
Jotana Formation, India (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation
Conference. India, 1983).
1-r Pro delta shale
I : lens dlr. tr. : direction o f p dir. (tr. : SSE
Warn : parallel transport

--
lamlnations str. dip : structural dip
Dlatributaly mouth bar 8nd
I-b : lenticular : sandy tldai-ridg* &nda
beddlng Ilmatone
1 i directlon of
fining -
(shell debris)
: rnarlne
TMaI shannal
: peat transgression
: coal fragment : erosional
_. arina ahaia wnh L m n a 01
web. : wavy bedding surface
b-r : blue and red 0 : sand and s i l t -b bmds of undv ahally
pattern. a : shale
Urnamone.
282

6.7. SHALLOW SlLlClCLASTlC SEA ENVIRONMENT

6.7.1. DEFINITION
2000~ 1000 500 250 125 621
Environments characterized by detrital deposits
in moderate water depth (10-200 m), or on nears-
hore continent (at the exclusion of deltas), under
tides, waves, wind, longshore currents, or storms
as dominant sediment-moving forces. They in-
clude deposits such as : estuarine, tidal ridges, 60'
tidal flats, sand waves, sand ribbons, intertidal 50'
sand bars, strand plains, barrier islands, beach 40-
ridges, cheniers, shorelines, storm deposits ("tem- 30-
pestites" as defined by Ager, 1974), offshore bars. 20 -
6.7.2. GEOLOGICAL FACIES MODEL
Fig. 6.7-1. - Example of grain size distribution curves from
North Sea tidal sand ridges (from Houbolt, 1968).
Because of the difficulties to recognize all of
these environments in ancient records, only three
main environments will be described and illustra-
ted hereafter.

6.7.2.1. Tidal sand Ridges

6.7.2.1. l . Definition
Tidal sand ridges are elongated sand bodies'
formed by tidal currents.

6.7.2.1-2. Composition
Detrital quartz is dominant and the sand is
mineralogically mature; argillaceous rock frag-
ments, skeletal shell debris can occur especially as
a basal lag conglomerate. Some glauconite and ' (postulated)
authigenic feldspar are mentioned. Peat, clay galls Relation of grain oriantation
and to r e n t al0p.a loburvsd from
and wood fragments are common. Detrital and coma from the ateep s l o p of tha ridgal

authigenic cement can be present.
6.7.2.1-3. Texture
Well-sorted (Fig. 6.7-l), medium-grained sand is
the dominant feature, with moderate to high
grain-matrix ratio. Grain size distribution across
the ridges is relatively uniform. Grain size may
decrease upward within a ridge, and on a regional
scale in the direction of net tidal current transport.
Fig. 6.7-2. - Schematic diagram of sedimentary features of a
tidal ridge in the North Sea (from Houbolt, 1968).
6.7.2.1.4. Structure
Tidal ridges are composed of large-scale fore-
set beds with flanks dipping at angle of repose
( ~ O O ) parallel
, to the steep ridge flank (Fig. 6.7-2).
These cross sets are commonly draped by clay

ENVIRONMENT:
: ..
Intertidal Sand Bar.
Fig. 6.7-3. - A fining upward sequence and its interpretation.
This sequence includes alternation of facies 1 and 2, compri-
sing tide-dominated shallow, subtidal sand body (massive
sandstone of interval A) with basal lag conglomerate, grading
into a low tidal sand flat or low tidal intertidal sand bar
(cross-stratified sandstone of interval B) which has been
reworked by late-stage. sheet-runoff tidal flow (sandstone of
interval C), draped by clay produced by mud suspension
settlement during slack water (interval D) occurring on top of
both intervals A and C. Interval E consists of mudstone and
silstone with lenticular bedding, tidal bedding, and burrowing
structures, all deposited in a high tidal flat environment
(adapted from Klein, 1970).
laminae (mud suspension settlement during slack
water: Fig. 6.7-3). Small foreset strata (sand
waves) on the gentle ridge slope overlie the large
cross sets. Asymmetricbl ripples overlie the sand
wave cross sets. Tracks, trails and burrows are
abundant. A strong vertical decrease in grain size
and bed thickness is generally observed.
6.7.2.1 .5. Boundaries
An abrupt, erosional lower contact is the rule.
Gradational contact toward the top is frequently
observed.
6.7.2.1.6. Sequences
Vertical sequences within a tidal sand ridge may
include (Spearing, 1971) : (1) a thin, basal lag
conglomerate, rich in shell fragments, separating
sand from underlying older marine clays; (2) large
scale cross sets composed of well sorted sand; (3)
thin, short silty-clay laminae draped over the cross
sets; (4) upward grain size reduction; (5) sand
wave cross sets near the top overlain by (6)
283
Fig. 6.7-4. - Sequence in facies 1 (see Fig. 6.7-3) showing
vertical change from cross-stratified sandstone (interval B)
into micro-cross-laminated sandstone with dips oriented at 900
to 1800 to underlying cross-stratification dip orientation (inter-
val C) and clay drape (interval D). Depositional processes are
indicated on the side (from Klein, 1970).
asymmetrical ripple stratification. Klein (1970) re-
cognizes sharp-based, fining upward sequences,
which he interprets as shallow subtidal, tide-do-
minated facies which grade upward into low-tidal
sand flat or low-tidal sand bar facies (Fig. 6.7-3 and
6.7-4).
6.7.2.1.7. Geometry of the bodies
Present day tidal sand ridges in the North Sea
(Fig. 6.7-5) are long and straight, up to 40 m high,
65 km long and 5 km wide. Ridges are asymmetric
in cross section with a steep lee slope and gentle
stoss slope (Fig. 6.7-2).
Other associated sand bodies may exist. They
are described hereafter.
Sand waves are much smaller and are oriented
normal to tidal current directions. They are bet-
ween 1 and 10 m high, asymmetrical, and spaced
a few hundred metres apart.
Sand ribbons are elongated bodies that run
parallel to the strongest tidal current flow. They
are up to 15 km long, 200 m wide and not greater
than 1 m thick.
lntertidal sand bars are linear, asymmetrical,
about 5 to 6 km long, 1 km wide, and 6 to 10 m
high. The steep slopes average 80 and gentle
slopes 20. Texture is fine to medium sand on steep
bar faces. Bed forms are dominantly current rip-
ples and dunes. Texture is medium to coarse sand
on gently sloping bar faces. Bed forms are simple
and complex dunes and sand waves.
284
Fig. 6.7-5. - Tidal sand ridges location in the southern North
Sea (from Houbolt, 1968).
6.7.2.1.8. Directional current flow
The long axis of tidal sand ridges is roughly
parallel to the tidal current directions (Fig. 6.7-2).
6.7.2.1.9. Surrounding facies
Tidal sand ridges and other associated sand
bodies (sand waves, sand ribbons and intertidal
sands) may be surrounded by marine muds, tidal-
flat silts and muds, barrier island, beach, or flu-
vial-estuarine deposits.
6.7.2.2. Clastic Shoreline, Barrier Island,
and Associated Systems
6.7.2.2.1. Definition
According to Reinson (1984) "wave-dominated
sandy shorelines in interdeltaic and non-deltaic
coastal regions are characterized by elongated,
shore-parallel sand deposits. These can occur as a
single mainland-attached beach, a broader
beach-ridge strand plain consisting of multiple
parallel beach ridges and intervening swale zones
or as barrier islands partially or wholly-separated
from the mainland by a lagoon, estuary or marsh
(Fig. 6.7-6)".
Considering a barrier island system three major
geomorphic elements can be recognized (Fig.
6.7-7) : (1) the sandy barrier island chain itself; (2)
the enclosed body of water behind it (lagoon or
estuary); (3) the channels which cut through the
A. MAINLAND-ATTACHED BEACH
6 . BEACH STRAND PLAIN
C. REGRESSIVE BARRIER ISLAND
D. TRANSGRESSIVE BARRIER ISLAND
Fig. 6.7-6. - Generalized diagram illustrating the morphological
relationship between beaches, strand plains and barrier is-
lands (from Reinson, 1984).
WASHOVER
TIDAL CHANNEL
Fig. 6.7-7. - Block diagram illustrating the various subenviron-
ments in a barrier-island system (from Reinson, 1979).
barrier and connect the lagoon to the open sea
(tidal inlets). They correspond to three major
subenvironments : (1) the sub-tidal to sub-aerial
barrier-beach complex; (2) the back-barrier region
or subtidal-intertidal lagoon; and (3) the subtidal-
intertidal delta and inlet-channel complex (Rein-
son, 1979). These subenvironments can in turn be
subdivided into several zones. Their main charac-
teristics (composition, texture, sedimentary featu-
res) are summarized in Fig. 6.7-8 and illustrated by
the vertical profiles of Fig. 6.7-9 to 6.7-1 1 .
 285

Swash
Shoaling Bre.)ler surl 6 Wind
A
_- --
zone
TIDAL
-

I
SHELF SHOREFACE BEACH
I
-- DUNES I_ WASHOVER FAN

.M n w t
- MLWL
-10 FAIR WEATHER
SEA WAVEBASE

-15
I
OFFSHORE OLDER DEPOSITS
DEPOSITS

Fig. 6.7-8. - Schematic cross-section through a barrier-island system with indications of the main characteristics

S A L T WATER
MARSH INTERBEDS
-FRESH W. MARSH PEAT
LAMINATED CLAY WITH SANDSTONE SILTSTONE
ARGILLACEOUS COAL LENSES
SHALE BROWN SILTY
FlSSlLE UP SECTION
MARSH-TIDAL
FLAT I
K
Y SANDSTONE FG, PLANAR b
CROSS LAMINATED BURROWED
BURROWED LAMINATED SAND SANDSTONE SILTY
REMNANT HORIZONTAL
e ARGILLACEOUS PLANT DEBRIS
00 LAMINATIONS. FEW TROUGH OYSTER COClUINA BED

2 CROSSBEDS. ABUNDANT
BURROWING
SHALE MEDIUM GRAY
FRIABLE OYSTERS

2
- w
-
K
SANDSTONE SILTSTONE
COAL LENSES
0 LAMINATED SAND erosional aurface
E 3 I GENTLY DIPPING. PLANAR
Ya LAMINATED BEDS. WELL
SORTED SAND
10 SANDSTONE F T O M G
BimLAR SMALL TO MEDIUM
SCALE TROUGH CROSSBEDS
2 9 ABUNDANT SOME PLANAR
CROSSBEDSb RARE HORIZONTAL
E PLANE BEDS ABUNDANT
INTERBEDDED SAND AND GRIT OMIOMORPHA BURROWS
MULTIDIRECTIONAL TROUGH
1 -..- -- -.
. _........
- -- PLANAR
CROSS.BEDS
LAMINATED BEDS. RARE
OPHIOMPRPHA

0
eromonal aurface
SANDSTONE FG PARALLEL
Fig. 6.7-9. - Generalized vertical profile in a barrier-island LAMINATIONS PLANE BEDS
system from observations made in the Upper Tertiary Cohan- OPHIOMORMA b ARENICOLITES
BURROWS
sey Sand of New Jersey (modified from Carter, 1978). SANDSTONE V F TO F G SILTY
PARALLEL LAMINATIONS
MIDDLE
MICROCROSSLAMINATIONS
BIOTURBATED FLASERS

6.7.2.2.2. Sequences
Fig. 6.7-10. - Composite stratigraphic section of the Upper
The general trend of barrier bar sands is coar- Cretaceous Blood Reserve - St. Mary River Formations,
sening upward. But following the subenvironments Alberta, illustrating a sequence of barrier beach, tidal inlet and
several more detailed lithologic, textural and se- lagoonal deposits (from Young & Reinson, 1975).
dimentary feature sequences have been described
in several papers from which are extracted Fig.
6.7-12 to 6.7-16. Those figures are sufficiently 6.7.2.2.3. Geometry of the bodies
explanatory to have not to develop sequence The geometries of the bodies are schematically
description by a long text. represented in the block diagram of Fig. 6.7-7.
 286

SWAMP COAL SEATROCK CLAVEV GRESSIVE (PROGRADING1 TRANSGRESSIVE

SILTSTONE WITH OUARTZOSE SANDSTONE FLASERS
TIDAL FLAT BARRIER MODEL BARRIER MODEL
CLAV SHALE WITH SIDERITE BANDS 10 10
BURROWED FOSSILIFEROUS
LAGOON
COAL SEATROCU CLAYEY 8 8
STORM SANDSTONE BUARTZOSE PLANAR ACCRETIONS BED
WASHOVERS
SHALE AND SILTSTONE COARSENING UPWARD 6 fie
BURROWED
E
SWAMP CLAY SHALE SIDERITE BANDS
=,
ou
LIMESTONE BURROWED FOSSILIFEROUS 4
LAGOON COAL SEATROCU CLAYEY
SANDSTONE QUARTLOSE FINING UPWARD
TIDAL CHANNEL RIPPLED ANDCROSS BEDDED
2
TIDAL FLAT SILTSTONE WITH SANDSTONE FLASERS LAGOON
SUBAQUEOUS
BURROWED SlDERlTlC SANDSTONE
LOO0 TIDAL DELTA 0
SANDSTONE QUARTLOSE CROSS BEDDED
SHALE AND SILTSTONE
LAGOON COARSENING UPWARD BURROWED BARRIER-INLET LEGEND
CLAV SHALE SIDERITE BANDS MODEL
BURROWED FOSSILIFEROUS o FLASERS
10 f BIOTURBATION. TRACE FOSSILS
F i g . 6.7-1 1. - G e n e r a l i z e d lagoonal sequence as illustrated by n SHELLS. SHELL DEBRIS
ROOTS. ORGANIC DEBRIS
C a r b o n i f e r o u s deposits of eastern Kentucky and southern 8 WELDED RIDGE
Virginia (from Horne & Ferm, 1978).
(SPIT PLATFORM) 0 SANDSTONE
UI
B e SHALLOW CHANNEL
0 SILTY. MUDDY
COAL LENSES
ZRiIE2;ZLR?TCE
SEIWARD SEOUENCE LANDWARD SEOUENCE
"*I, lNVllONMlNT DSSCIIIIIION 9 PLANEBEDS
DEEPCHANNEL y/ PLANAR CROSSBEDDING
2
TROUGH CROSSBEDDING

A*... RIPPLE LAMINAE

0

Fig. 6.7-14. - Three " e n d - m e m b e r " facies models of b a r r i e r

island stratigraphic sequences ( f r o m R e i n s o n , 1979).
A'
WASHOVER -

STRATIFICATION

Fig. 6.7-12. - Lithological sequences observed on the landward

'
1 81
and seaward edges of a Kiawah Island (South Carolina) beach SCOUR
ridge (from Barwis, 1 9 7 8 ) . ZONE , WASHOVER -
HORIZONTAL STRATIFICATION
QUARTZ
MEAN SIZE
.26 .12
DESCRIPTION
0-6 J
SAND. FINE-GRAINED: 1) NEWLY DEPOSITED WASHOVER 2) OLD WASHOVER 3)EOLIAN DEPOSITS
TROUGH CROSS-LAMINA-
TED: ROOTED, OLDER Fig. 6.7-15. - Two sequences of sedimentary structures through
PORTIONS STRUCTURE -
0 LESS AND EXTENSIVELY washover fans (from S c h w a r t z , 1973).
ROOTED.'

0.12
SAND, FINE-GRAINED:
PLANAR, LOW-ANGLE
CROSS-LAMINATED:
SOME MICROCROSS
LAMINATION.

12-31'
SAND, VERY FINE-GRAINED
SHELLY:
STRUCTURELESS TO
LAMINATED: BURROWED.
SOME SILT CLAY TOWARD
-6 rn BASE

(INCIPIENT BERM

31'47' MASS. L. MICH.

CLAYED SILT AND VERY
FINE-GRAINED SAND,
INTERBEDDED:
EXTENSIVELY BURROWED.
-10 rn
Fig. 6.7-16. - Transgressive sequence formed by the landward
migration of r i d g e - a n d - r u n n e l during beach construction
phase. Vertical sequence would be about 1 m thick (from
Davis et a/., 1972).

4 Fig. 6.7-13. - Sequences of sedimentary structures, t e x t u r e s

and lithology in a core through Galveston Island ( f r o m Davies
PLEISTOCENE et a/., 1971).
 287

6.7.2.3. Linear Submarine sand Bars 6.7.2.3.2. Composition

6.7.2.3.1. Definition
They correspond to isolated elongated sand
ridge, in a shallow marine environment (subtidal),
occurring a t some distance from, and extending
generally parallel with, the shoreline, built chiefly
by tidal, oceanic, storm- or wave-generated cur-
rents (Fig. 6.7-17).
Sand deposits of this environment are compo-
sed of quartz, shell debris, glauconite, chamosite
(iron silicate) associated with limonite (or haema-
tite) oolites or siderite, and phosphates.
6.7.2.3.3. Texture
The deposits have a textural maturity due to
long periods of transport with winnowing of fines.
Consequently the sands are well sorted.

6.7.2.3.4. Structure
Sedimentary structures are rarely environmen-
tally diagnostic. Lenticular, wavy and flaser bed-
ding, cross laminations, cross- and horizontal
bedding are described. Bioturbation is minor.

6.7.2.3.5. Boundaries
The lower contact of the sequence is abrupt.

Fig. 6.7-17. - Hypothetical palaeogeographic reconstruction
showing Shannon sand patches migrating south-southwest
parallel to t h e shoreline ( f r o m Spearing, 1976).
6.7.2.3.6. Sequence
The general sequence is coarsening upward
(Fig. 6.7-18). It is composed of bioturbated muds-
tone and silty sandstone a t the base, overlain by
ripple cross-laminated fine-grained sandstone,
capped by large-scale festoon cross-bedded,
medium-grained sandstone. Bioclastic rich units
form thin sheetlike units with erosional bases.

~~ ~

Unlts of lnterpretatlon of lnterpretatlon of

k r a . 1975 rhlckneaa Descrlption the Facis the Sequence
1 1.5-2.5m Bioturbatedmuds with Shelf muds with storm Sudden cessation of active
.eworked sand 8 granules deposited sand layers. sand transport. Shelf muds
14-
- Horizontal bedding 2lanket the linear sand bars.
-
0.
2 L30-1.O m Pebbly sandstone with chert Wave reworked sands.
S mudstone pebbles. Chert Related to wave processes
12- pebbles concentrated in top concentrated on bar crest.
layer.
3 1 .5-5.5m Cross bedded & flat bedded SE (?) migration of dunes in
sandstone. response to tidal currents,
Cross bed sets ca. 5-20 cm .possibly enhanced by
10- thick. storms. Gradual increase in wave 8
Numerous mudfakes 8 Abundant penecontem- current activity in response
occasional mud-drapes. poraneous erosion of mud. to a prograding linear tidal
Rare cross-laminated Sands deposited on upper (?) sand body. Elongate
sands. bar flanks. geometry of several sand
8< bodies parallel to shoreline
4 1.8-5.0m Cross laminated fine grained Deposition by current ripples 8 to current transport path
sandstone with numerous in response to tidal (?) suggests they may
mud-drapes. currents. represent linear tidal (?)
Occasional mudflakes 8 Currents of fluctuating sand ridges which formed
6- cross-bed sets. strength. topographic highs.
Minor bioturbation. Abundant fine grained Coarsening upward
suspended sediment. sequence reflects both
Deposition on lower bar progradation B preferential
4- flanks 8 troughs. reworking of bar crest 8
5 0.9-4.0 m Muds with rippled sandstone Suspension deposition of flanks.
lenses & sandstone muds alternating with
interbeds 1-5 cm thick. periodic sand influxes
2- Minor bioturbation. (?distal storm layers).
Deposition downcurrent of
the sand bars.
~~

Massive marine muds but Shelf muds.

with little bioturbation.
0

Fig. 6.7-18. - Description and interpretation of t h e U p p e r Cretaceous Sussex Sandstone, W y o m i n g ( f r o m Berg, 1975)
6.7.2.3.7. Geometry of the body
The sandstone bodies are elongate, between
3-30 m thick, 4-60 km wide and up to 160 km long,
have planar bases and convex-upward tops.
6.7.2.3.8. Direction of current transport
The current is generally unidirectional parallel to
the bar crest.
6.7.2.3.9. Surrounding facies
The linear sand bars are either surrounded by,
or interfinger with, marine muds.

6.7.2.4. Reservoir Characteristics

Sand bodies have, generally, good reservoir
characteristics but their volume is limited.

6.7.3. WELL-LOG RESPONSES

AND CHARACTERlSTlCS

It is not always easy to distinguish between the

shallow siliciclastic and the deltaic environments.
Consequently, only some of the previously descri-
bed deposits will be illustrated by examples of
composite-logs and dipmeter results.
The first example is taken in the Muddy Forma-
tion, Granerous Group, Powder River Basin, Wyo- Fig. 6.7-19. - Two composite-logs of the Muddy Formation,
ming. This formation is sometimes and somew-
here (Bell Creek Field, Montana) described as a
typical ancient barrier island (Davies et a/., 1971).
The composite-log (including gamma ray, neutron
and density logs) of one well (no location refe-
rence) is given in Fig. 6.7-19b. From the shape of
traditional open-hole logs a coarsening upward
sequence followed by a fining upward seems quite
evident. Now, by looking a t in detail the LOCDIP
arrow-plot (obtained from SHDT, Fig. 6.7-20b),
several abrupt lower contacts followed by fining
upward sequences appear clearly. An interpreta-
tion of the dipmeter has been done following the
barrier island hypothesis. But some of the observa-
tions which can be done on the dipmeter (abrupt
lower contacts, fining upward sequences, thin
shale drapes) do not fit completely with the
general continuous coarsening upward trend des-
cribed in barrier island. Consequently, another
interpretation, based on a tidal sand ridge hypo-
thesis (Klein, 1970), can be proposed (compare
with Fig. 6.7-3).
A second example is from the Shannon Sands- Fig. 6.7-20a. - GEODIP arrow-plot of the Muddy Formation in
tone in the Hartzog Draw Field, Powder River the well represented by the composite-log 6.7-19a. and its
Basin, Wyoming. The composite-log (including SP, interpretation in terms of facies and environment.
gamma ray, neutron, density, sonic, DIL-SFL and
GEODIP arrow-plot) is reproduced in Fig. 6.7-21
alongside the core description and the interpreta- siderite and glauconite (confirmed by core analy-
tion in terms of facies and subenvironments. A sis). The analysis of the GEODIP arrow-plot (low
general coarsening upward sequence is observed sand character option) at an expanded scale (Fig.
as expected in a linear submarine sand bar. Low 6.7-22 to 6.7-24) permits a more detailed observa-
peaks (9387, 9395 ft) correspond to levels richer in tion. The lower interval (9443-9412.5ft) is very
 289

Interpretations
Barrler Is land
hypotbsls Tldal
h yM
pno dt hrldge
ll
(Davks.1 al, 1971) (Khln model)
I

laminated and Lagoon? E High tldal flat

bloturbated
mudstone-oilstone

Planar X-lamlnaied IWtIdal nand flat

-
Sllty M n d
dir. transp. : ENE
Wa*hover or
IntNtMal Mnd
elongatlon : WSW-ENE
shah Lagoon? - E= bar
clay drape
maaalve M n d
(structureless In SHDT Buch Durn and
duelo hlgh realsllvlty, M n d WaW
gas Influence)

fore shorn
--. BB -I

cross atratlned
mnd upp.rsh0nt.a
Tld.-doml-
maaslva M n d shallow suMldaI
middleahonha A M n d bOdY
#C

IC -erosion

bloturbated shale 8h.n mud

Str dlp : P E
AC = abrupt contact
? = dlmctlon ot
fining

Fig. 6.7-20b. - LOCDIP arrow-plot of the Muddy Formation in the well represented by the composite-log 6.7-19b, and its
interpretation in terms of facies and environment.

I INTERBAR I

1 CENTRALBAR
~

LOW ENERGV BAR MARGiN

INTERBAR

SHE1F.MUD
i
Fig. 6.7-21. - Composite-log of the Shannon Sandstone in the Hartzog Draw Field.

laminated on the HDT resistivity curves (a lot of
very thin events) a t a medium resistivity level,
generating a lot of dips with scattered azimuth
(observe the azimuth frequency plots), with low SP
deflection, moderate radioactivity. In some places
an erratic aspect of the curves can be observed. It
could reflect some bioturbations. All these obser-
vations suggest a very thinly laminated, sometimes
bioturbated interval, with small lenses (uncorrela-
ted events seen only on one or two curves), with
a relatively high clay percentage. Consequently
one can deduce numerous intercalations of thin
silt or sand beds (corresponding to more resistive
continuous events) in the shale. This is confirmed
by core photographs (Fig. 6.7-22). The following
interval (9413-9400 ft) is more resistive, with a
higher SP deflection (lower shale content), and
slightly less radioactivity. On the dipmeter resisti-
290

DIPS CORRELATIONS
N

I I I S I CURVES
I

Fig. 6.7-22. - GEODIP arrow plot (with the low sand character
option) on the lower interval and comparison with core
photograph on the same interval.
 29 1

HOLE
DRIFT -
#.--

8-.
RESISTIVITY

--
CALIPER 2
.H"

-*'.
CALIPER 1
DIPS CORRELATIONS

RESISTIVITY
INCREASES
w+

Fig. 6.7-23.- GEODIP arrow plot (with the low sand character
option) on the middle interval and comparison with core
photograph on the same interval.
292

Fig. 6.7-24. - GEODIP arrow plot (with the low sand character
option) on the upper interval and comparison with core
photograph on the same interval.
 293

str dip : =2' W30'N

Tidal sand bar

1 I Shelf mud

I I mud

A
Fig. 6.7-25. - Composite-log of three submarine sand bars in
BEODIP REWLrS the Godavari Basin, India, and its interpretation (from Schlum-
DIPS CORRELRTIONS berger, Well Evaluation Conference. India, 1983).
N R E S I S T I V I T Y IKRERSES I

I '. -- S I
4 Fig. 6.7-26.
- GEODIP arrow plot of the lower sand at an
expanded scale (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Confe-
rence. India, 1983).

Fig. 6.7-27. - Crossplot pb vs @,,showing the shale-silt-sand

trend (boomerang shape) and the sandstones rich in shell
fragments (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference.
v India, 1983).
294
Fig. 6.7-28. - Interpretation of the studied sequences from LITHO, LOCDIP and SYNDIP results (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation
Conference. Nigeria, 1985).
vity curves, resistive beds are thicker and more
continuous, with very thin conductive levels (shale
laminae), which, when they are correlated, gene-
rate dips with variable magnitude (between 00 and
140) and scattered azimuth, suggesting wavy
bedding and sometimes flaser bedding when
events are not seen on all curves (Fig. 6.7-23).
Some blue and red patterns occur which can
correspond to foresets or cut and fill features. The
overlying interval (9400-9372 ft) is characterized by
thicker resistive beds, with less frequent conduc-
tive levels, high SP deflection and lower radioacti-
vity (Fig. 6.7-24). The top interval is more resistive
(cemented) and is overlapped by gradually less
resistive thin levels. The dips suggest a draping of
the previous deposit (bar).
Another example is extracted from the Godavari
Basin (India) and represented by the composite-
log of Fig. 6.7-25 (GR-LDT-CNL-BHC-DLL-
MSFL-SP and GEODIP at 1/200 scale), and the
enlarged GEODIP arrow-plot on the lower interval
(Fig. 6.7-26). Log evolutions suggest three coarse-
ning upward sequences from shale to sand as
interpreted from the p b vs &.I crossplot (Fig.
6.7-27). The thickness of each sequence is roughly
17 to 18 metres. Some thin limestone beds are
present and confirmed by Pe values. They may
correspond to sandstones very rich in shell frag-
ments. The top of the two upper sand bodies is
gas bearing. The direction of transport, as interpre-
ted from the blue patterns, is N to NNW, giving the
long axis orientation of the submarine bar.
The last example is from Nigeria. LOCDIP,
SYNDIP and LITHO programs have been proces-
sed on one well on which a core description was
available. The typical features of barrier bar can
easily be observed (Fig. 6.7-28).
 295

6.8. SHALLOW WATER CARBONATE ENVIRONMENT

6.8.1. DEFINITION environments are summarized in the scheme and

the table of Fig. 6.8-2 adapted from Wilson (1975).
Environments characterized by carbonate depo-
sits generated by biochemical processes in shal- 6.8.2.2. Lithology
low water ( < 100 m), but sometimes resulting
from reworking and redistribution of those sedi- Two parameters must be considered separately.
ments by currents. According to Sellwood (in
Reading, 1978), five major environmental zones Supratidal Shore
can be recognized in shallow water carbonate
environments : Supratidal Zone; Shore Zone;
Marine Platform; Reef Belt; and Shelf Slope. They 7
are located in the schematic block diagram (Fig.
6.8-1). Each of these zones can in turn be subdivi-
ded in subenvironments.

6.8.2. GEOLOGICAL FACIES MODEL

Lagoon

6.8.2.1. Generalities Subtidal zone

Lithology, depositional texture, bedding and Fig. 6.8-1. - Schematic block diagram illustrating the location
sedimentary structures observed in the various of shallow water carbonate environments.

Fig. 6.8-2. - The scheme of standard facies belts (adapted from Wilson, 1975).
296

6.8.2.2.1. Composition
The dominant mineral is calcite, but dolomite,
gypsum and anhydrite can be present and abun-
dant in intertidal and supratidal zones. Terrigenous
clastic materials may be interbedded with previous
deposits, if the platform is connected to a conti- SUBTIDAL
nent, or if they are transported by wind storms.
OPEN MIRINE
Iron-oolites and sideritic ironstones may be pre-
sent on shoal (swell) areas. Phosphates and LAGOON

glauconite may occur.

6.8.2.2.2 Texture
~

Depositional textures (following the Dunham

classification) are typical of the facies within the
environment and are described in Fig. 6.8-2, but
they can be obscured by diagenesis.
Fig. 6.8-3.- The five divisions of the shallowing-upward
sequence model for carbonate (from James, in Walker, 1979).
6.8.2.3. Structure
As texture, sedimentary structures generally
define clearly the environment and are listed in
Fig. 6.8-2.

6.8.2.4. Boundaries
\i/
Due to the general sequential evolution (both
vertical and lateral) the boundaries are often not
well marked.

6.8.2.5. Sequences
The most frequent sequence type observed is a
shallowing-upward sequence. James (1979) stated Fig. 6.8-4. - A flow diagram indicating the various possible
that "this is because carbonate sediments are environmental transitions present in a carbonate shallowing-
produced mainly in the environment of deposition upward sequence (from James, in Walker, 1979).
- especially in shallow water where conditions for
the biological and physicochemical fixation of
carbonate are optimum - . As a result, carbonate
accumulations repeatedly build up to sea level and
above, resulting in a characteristic sequence of
deposits, in which each unit is deposited in
progressively shallower water. This shallowing-
upward sequence is repeated ,many times in a
succession of shallow water deposits" (in Walker,
1979). The units composing the sequence are
illustrated in Fig. 6.8-3.
As indicated by the flow diagram of Fig. 6.8-4,
various possible environmental transitions may be
present in a carbonate shallowing-upward se- Fig. 6.8-5. - Block diagrams showing the major morphological
quence. elements of a tidal flat; (a) a hypersaline tidal flat with few
Block diagrams of Fig. 6.8-5, adapted from tidal channels bordering a very arid desert; (b) a normal
marine tidal flat with many tidal channels and ponds bordering
James, in Walker (1979), show the location of sub-, an elevated well-drained area of low swamp algal marsh in a
inter- and supra-tidal zones in two typical condi- humid climate (from James, in Walker, 1979).
tions: very arid desert (similar to the modern
Persian Gulf), and humid climate (similar to the
modern Bahamas).
Several theoretical sequences corresponding to Deepening-upward sequences can also exist.
the various possible transitions are shown in Fig. They correspond to a transgressive phase related
6.8-6. Letters on the side refer to the subenviron- either to subsidence or to eustatic changes. Fig.
ments of Fig. 6.8-3. 6.8-7 shows two examples of such cycles.
 297

~~ ~

MUDDY BRAINY
SEOUENCE SEQUENCE Loferites as B
AB --? v__

Weathered zone
. ... ' ,.

Massive calcarenite with rich

marine biota megalodonts
and other molluscs
echinoderms oncolites
brachiopods corals

'f
?
STROMATTOLITE E
SEQUENCE

B E
-_ _ . .
- - ~

k+.,<
Dolomitic lolerites and
calcilutites. algal mats. mud
cracks very restricted biota
-.-. Basal conglomerate with red
A 5-v or green matrix
---. DISCONFORMITY _N_

Weathered zone with veins

tilled with red and green
C matrix
$ 0 4

[ Subtidal

CARBONATE-EVAPORITE
I Erosion
1, Regressive supratidal

Regressive intertidal
\
'B - -
CARBONATE- EVAPORITE (normally missing)
SEPUENCE
SEQUENCE
~

,
LEACHED BY
FRESH WNER

Subtidal
(mostly micritesl

lm
Erosion 7

+
6
8
Pellets
Fossils
Aggregate grains
-6
a
Gastropods
Mudcracks
Lithoclasts
-- Shaly units
Fig. 6.8-6. - Theoretical sequences in different transitions from t
a Algal balls
-

sub- t o supra-tidal subenvironments (from James, in Walker, Stromatolites @ Pisolites

1979). li Small-scale cross lamination f Bioturbation

Fig. 6.8-7. - Two examples of deepening-upward sequences :

6.8.2.6. Geometry of the Bodies
Facies related to shallow water carbonate envi-
ronments can be distributed as successive belts,
parallel to the coast line, or as atolls or pinacles
(reef facies). Associated channel deposits (chan-
nel fill, levees) are present in inter- and supra-tidal
zones.
6.8.2.7. Reservoir Characteristics
Carbonate rocks can have good res'ervoir cha-
racteristics depending on the importance of dia-
genetic effects. When dissolution has occurred,
the porosity and the permeability are very high.
(a) an idealized Lofer cyclothem (after Fisher, 1964, 1975); an
idealized cycle for the Calcare Massiccio, Italy (after Colacic-
chi ef a/., 1975).
Other diagenetic effects reduce the porosity. The
permeability is often related to the presence of
fractures which occur frequently in such rocks.
Carbonate reservoirs can be very thick and have a
large extension. Source rocks are often close to
the reservoir rocks. Cap rocks are composed of
either shale or anhydrite beds.
298

Fig. 6.8-8. - Composite-log combining open-hole logs, GLOBAL results and GEODIP (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation
Conference, EmiratesDatar, 1981).

6.8.3. WELL-LOG RESPONSES and uranium curves will deflect, or if organic

AND CHARACTERISTICS
6.8.3.1. Electro-Lithofacies
Typical log responses are represented by the
composite-log from the Khuff Formation in the
southern Persian Gulf (Fig. 6.8-8). Representative
points plot on, or below, the limestone line on the
p b vs qh crossplot (Fig. 6.8-9a), - if the formation is
not gas bearing - following the calcite, dolomite,
anhydrite, heavy mineral (pyrite or siderite), or
shale content. Radioactivity is generally low ex-
cept in shaly intervals in which thorium, potassium
matter or phosphates are present in the formation.
In that case only uranium will deflect significantly.
Use of the Pe curve (Fig. 6.8-9b), or better still the
derived (P,,,~)~ vs (U,,,a)a crossplot (Fig. 6.8-9c),
allows definition of mineral composition.
6.8.3.2. Dipmeter curve Shape
and Dip Patterns
As previously mentioned the dipmeter reflects
essentially the texture, and sometimes the struc-
ture, of the limestone. Several resistivity features
 299

I 1 I
JBSERVATIONS

RACKREEF
QUIET
LAGOON

Density vs. Neutron

.
,..........
, ,,o,),1,,,*121
,,1
.....................
,,,I ,*,.,,,,,,,.,,~,~;~;:~,:~~;:l.,~l'I'
BACKREEF
TAWS
i i
.................................................. !:A i . I

o:.........:.........:...
2.0 22 2.4
............................
2.6 2.8 3.0
t

Photoelectric factor vs. Density NEAREEF

DEBRIS

!'
I
!*!......
,,,. .........get,
,fa,, I,, I,,,*.,),,)( ,.),I I,,
..!.!!I"')'.! .i .
t . ' Y 1'2)
. I

Fig. 6.8-10. - Typical GEODIP responses in reef, backreef and

lagoon subenvironments (from Theys et a/., 1983).

2.8; .........:., ..... .!

1 1 4
: DOLOMITE, I
z.s:........,:.. ....... which corresponds to backreef-lagoonal deposits
(Fig. 6.8-10).
- Dipmeter resistivity curves show no events in
3.0:
0
.........: .........
4
a very high resistivity level. This corresponds to a
tight limestone or dolomite, or anhydrite. The
Fig. 6.8-9. - Crossplots (a) : density-neutron; (b) : photoelectric
open-hole logs will indicate the lithology (6.8-11 ) .
factor-density; (c) : (p,.), - (Urn& (from Schlumberger, Well - Dipmeter resistivity curves show low to
Evaluation Conference, Emirates/Qatar, 1981). medium activity with small and thin events, not
always easily correlated from pad to pad but well
correlated from button to button (Fig. 6.8-12). This
kind of feature can be interpreted as grainstone to
packstone. Sometimes dips show blue patterns
and dip patterns can be observed. They will be (Fig. 6.8-11 to 6.8-13), which can be interpreted as
illustrated by GEODIP or LOCDIP examples co- foreset beds on a backreef talus, or in a tidal
ming from Arab Formation, Abu Dhabi. channel point bar; or red patterns which can
- Dipmeter resistivity curves show no events in correspond to tidal channel fill deposits.
a medium to high resistivity range recognized on - Dipmeter resistivity curves show medium to
the other open-hole logs as a limestone. This type high activity with events often uncorrelated, or
of response can be interpreted as a mudstone wrongly correlated, and so generating few dips.
300

CORRELATIONS

RESISTIVITY
RESlSTiYITI

* C---___,
ALIPER 2
INCREASES

/
CALIPER I

I
CURVES

10' 20' 30' 40' 50' 6 0 ' 7 0 8 0 ' 9 U

Fig. 6.8-11. - Interpretation of GEODIP in terms of facies and , T

subenvironments according to the curve activity and the dip
patterns.

This kind of response corresponds to wackestone
or boundstone, often vuggy, if the open-hole logs
indicate limestone or dolomite (Fig. 6.8-14). or to
dolomite with nodules of anhydrite (Fig. 6.8-15).
- Dips consistent in magnitude and azimuth
reflect either laminations of shaly limestone, or
even of shale, if the thorium and potassium curves
deflect, or intercalations of mudstone with grains-
tone or packstone if the thorium and potassium
contents are very low (Fig. 6.8-16).
Another example, coming from Desert Creek,
Paradox Basin, illustrates the same kind of envi-
ronment. The composite-log (including gamma
ray, neutron and density tools) is shown in Fig.
Fig. 6.8-12. - Interpretation of LOCDIP in terms of facies and b
subenvironments according to the curve activity and the dip
patterns.

-
RtSlSTlVITY

CALIPER 2
0 -
CALIPER I
I.-- -W
, ,
Fig. 6.8-13. - Another example of GEODIP and its interpreta-
tion. The blue patterns indicate a direction of transport toward

0' lo.
ESE.

.iEs
-
DIPS

-
20' 30'4450'66768690. 1
CORRELATIONS

RESlSllViTY
lNCREASES

CURVES

2 3 4
v

1
302

Fig. 6.8-15. - Typical curve activity in anhydritic dolomite to

dolomitic anhydrite (nodules of anhydrite in dolomite).
b RESISTIVITY
___)

4
4
CALIPER 2

C!??! 1 20
20

0 - 10' 20'30"
.+
DIPS

40°
5
60" SOD 1
CORRELATIONS

RESISTIVITY INCREASES

1
CURVES
3 4
t

Fig. 6.8-14. - Three types of curve activity reflecting three main

limestone textures and facies; (a) : mudstone to wackestone;
(b) : boundstone (reef build up); (c) : packstone to grainstone
(from Theys e t a / . , 1983). v
I DIPS CORRELATIONS
I

\
 303

Fig. 6.8-16. - Example of very thin laminations, sometimes shaly, in a limestone-dolomite formation, a ) Composite-log (from
Schlumberger, Evaluacion de formaciones en Mexico, 1984).
304

-
DIPS CORREIATION CURVES

RESISTIVITY
INCREASE
IESISTIVITY s

Fig. 6.8-16. - Example of very thin laminations, sometimes shaly, in a limestone-dolomite formation, b) GEODIP display on a short
interval (from Schlumberger, Evaluacion de formaciones en Mexico, 1984).
 305

.......... m
% lL,rnl
0 0 -XI H
..... .%ia. ......... .........~i
0 I"tHp,".tlO,
5
i

2.0
1 I I

'p
5.0.
b' 10 .Yo 4a

Fig. 6.8-17. - a) Composite-log, b) Crossplot pb vs #N on Desert

Creek Formation, Paradox Basin. Fig. 6.8-19. - Example of FMS image in a vuggy limestone
(courtesy of Schlumberger).

4 Fig. 6.8-18. - LOCDIP on the same interva! and its interpreta-

tion.
306

Fig. 6.8-20. - Example of anhydritic nodules clearly observed on a FMS image (courtesy of Schlumberger).

Fig. 6.8-21. - Example of stylolites recognized on a FMS image

(courtesy of Schlumberger).

Fig. 6.8-22. - Example of fractures detected on a FMS image.

One can separate between open and healed fractures (cour-
tesy of Schlumberger).
 307

6.8-17, and the interpreted LOCDIP in Fig. 6.8-18.

FMS images are very useful to identify typical
diagenetic features such as vuggy porosity (Fig.
6.8-19), anhydrite nodules (Fig. 6.8-20), and styloli-
tes (Fig. 6.8-21), or fractures (Fig. 6.8-22).

6.8.3.3. Boundaries
They are not easily detected except when they
correspond to an abrupt change of lithology.

6.8.3.4. Electro-Sequences
Sequential evolution in composition and in
sedimentary features can be observed, as well as
a "bell" or "funnel" shape on the dipmeter resisti-
vity curves (Fig. 6.8-23), which permit the interpre-
tation of the interval in terms of sequences and
depositional environments (see previous figures).

4 Fig. 6.8-23. - Example of resistivity evolution in carbonate

formation (from Theys et a/., 1983).
308

6.9. DEEP-SEA CLASTIC ENVIRONMENT

6.9.1. DEFINITION 6.9.2. GEOLOGICAL FACIES MODEL

Environments characterized by sediments de- 6.9.2.1. Lithology

posited in a large body of water below the action
of waves, resulting from sediment gravity flow
mechanisms. They are illustrated in the block
diagram of Fig. 6.9-1. A theoretical vertical cross-
section in a submarine fan sequence is reproduced
Fig. 6.9-2.
Flow dlreclion
(Ease 01 I slope
+ Channel llow
Two parameters must be considered separately.
6.9.2.1.1. Composition
Generally, the main minerals are quartz, potas-
sium feldspars, plagioclases, and micas. Rock
fragments are also present. Consequently the
sandstones range from subgraywackes to gray-
wackes. But, depending on the source of the
feeder sediments, they also can be made up of
pure quartz (orthoquartzite sands), of pure carbo-
nates, or even of volcanic debris sands. Skeletal
debris are present and can generate concretions

INTERPRETATION

I/ currents
Channel wall. INNER FAN
slumps. debris flows
CHANNEL FILL
TURElOlrY CURRENT MODE1

Sands and gravels

Sands
I
HANNELLED I
slits and sands
.....
- . ..
ORTION

acB.Ease 01 slope deposit

TIAECDEI
w
Fig. 6.9-1. - Theoretical illustration of a deep-sea clastic
environment showing bimodal channel and overbank deposi-
tion by turbidity currents across a turbidite fan. The model is
largely based on the Astoria Fan (from Nelson & Kulm, 1973).
Letters refer to the divisions of the Bouma sequence.
SUPRAFAN
LOBES

Fig. 6.9-2. - Vertical cross-section showing a hypothetical b

submarine fan stratigraphic sequence produced by fan pro-
gradation. C.T. = classical turbidite. M.S. = massive sands- OUTER FAN
tone. P.S. = pebbly sandstone. D.F. = debris flow. Arrows
show thickening- (T.U.) and coarsening-upward sequences
(C.U.) and thinning- (Th.U.) and fining-upward sequences
(F.U.). (Adapted from Walker, 1975).
 309

6.9.2.4. Sequences
Vertical and lateral grain size sequence of one
flow is fundamentally fining. Sequences can be
also recognized in sorting, sedimentary structures,
and thickness variations. This is illustrated by the
Bouma sequence, (1962), which applies to the
typical turbidite (Fig. 6.9-4).
With regard to the proximity of the feeder
channel, different vertical and lateral sequences
-incomplete and truncated, compared to the
Bouma sequence - can be described (Fig. 6.9-5
- 2 - 1 O t t 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 9 106 and 6.9-6).
4 2 I .5 .25 .It5 .C6t 0 3 1 .a55 . 0 0 7 ? l y l f d .oaO mn.
VFC VCS CS US FS VFI GRAIN S I Z E This bed thickness evolution is noticeable by
comparing proximal and distal deposits (Table
6.9-1).
Depending on the main active process, the
sequence can be modified as shown in Fig. 6.9-7.

Fig. 6.9-3. - Log-probability plots of grain size distribution of I

representative sediment types of Astoria Fan. Massive clean
sands and gravels, and massive muddy sands and gravels are sin Structures Interpretation
from upper fan valleys. Bouma AB and CD sands are from the
middle and lower fan, and hemipelagic muds are from throug- Pelagic
hout the fan. (From Nelson & Kulm, 1973).

I \ I l l I 1 current deoosition

(or cemented balls or nodules) by dissolution,

diffusion and reprecipitation of calcite in the pore
space. Carbonaceous fragments and shale clasts
are also present. Clay is the principal matrix and
cement. Glauconite, if available, may be present. and quick bed (7)

Erosive contact

Fig. 6.9-4. - The Bouma sequence of structural divisions in a

6.9.2.1.2. Texture turbidite bed and its flow regime interpretation (modified from
Middleton 81 Hampton, 1976).
Grain size can vary between gravel to clay
range. Sorting is very poor to fair (Fig. 6.9-3). Low
grain-matrix ratio. lntraformational conglomerates
are present due to reworking of previous deposits
by the new sediment flow. Grain size decreases
from the proximal to the distal ends of turbidite
deposits. DEEP-WATER DEEPWATER
DEEP DEPOSITS
SLOPE -WATER FAN DEPOSITS R A I N DEPOSITS

6.9.2.2. Structure
Graded beds are rhythmically interbedded with
shale. Absence of large-scale cross-beds. Sole
marks, asymmetrical ripple marks, laminated and
convoluted beds are common. Trails and tracks are
generally present (Pettijohn et a/., 1972).

6.9.2.3. Boundaries CO"lilUI1V

Sharp, sometimes erosional, lower contact is

observed; the upper contact is gradational toward Fig. 6.9-5a. - Sequences characteristic of slope, fan and basin
the top and the outer fan. plain deposits (from Mutti & Ricci-Lucchi, 1972).
310

'*..*

.*
!*;.I3
zE
*.*:
..a**.* *..a
..a. aoo...

PROXIMAL CANYON MID -FAN/SLOPE DISTRIBUTARY MUD-FILLED

OR C W N E L CHANNELS CHANNELS CHANNELS

p!%)
R \
n

.. . .

BI
DEBRIS-SLUMP
MASSES
CONTOURITE
MOUND
SANDY
LOBE
I SILTY-SANDY
DISTAL LOBES
U

PROXIMAL
MUD LOBE
DISTAL SILT-
MUD L O B E

Bl
turbidites
mud

thin
turbidites
silt

...,.
r
%fdites
0
pebbly sand

I=+
.- .c
u u debrites
PROXIMAL LEVEE DISTAL LEVEE INTERCHANNEL OPEN SLOPE

r--r\ black shales

pelagites
1 1 +
hemipelagites

LEGEND

BASE-OF-SLOPE OVER-SUPPLIED UNDER-SUPPLIED RESTRICTED

OR BASIN WEDGE BASIN BASIN BASIN

Fig. 6.9-5b. - Typical vertical sequences of turbidite and associated sediments from various morphological elements in the different
deep-sea environments. Fining-upward, coarsening-upward, blocky, symmetrical and irregular sequence types are indicated by the
lines t o the right of lithological columns (from Stow, 1985).
 31 1

Table 6.9-1
Comparison of proximal and distal turbidite se-
quences
(from Walker, 1967).

I PROXIMAL I DISTAL I SLOPE INTO BASIN

A 1 Beds thick
~ ~~
1 Beds thin I
B Beds coarse grained Beds fine grained
C Individual sandstones often Individual sandstones rarely
amalgamate to form amalgamate
thick beds
D Beds irregular in thickness Beds parallel-sided regularly
bedded
E Scours, washouts and Few small scours, no channels
channels common

\&-
F Mudstone partings between Mudstone layers between -
NEW SUPOAFAM
sandstones poorly sandstones well developed.
developed or absent. Sand/mud ratio low BASIN LOWER FAN/
Sandmud ratio high PLAIN
G Beds ungraded or crudely Beds well graded
graded
H Base of sand always sharp, Base of sand always sharp, top Fig. 6.9-8. - Subaqueous fan environmental model (from
top often sharp, many A€ grades into finer sediment, Walker, 1975).
sequences AE sequences rare
I Laminations and ripples Laminations and ripples very
occur infrequently common
J Scour marks occur more Tool marks occur more
frequently than tool marks frequently than scour marks
6.9.2.5. Geometry of the Body
Turbidite bodies can be separated into three
main groups (Fig. 6.9-8 to 6.9-10).
- Channel or subaqueous canyon deposits:
Sediment transport
h they are elongate fills up to several miles long,
I truncating subjacent strata. They occur on the
V upper slopes, close to canyon mouths (upper fan
and upper mid fan). Although they can be fairly
straight, they may also be dendritic and bifurca-
ting.
- Subaqueous fan deposits: they tend to be
more sheetlike. They show a broad radial sedimen-
Fig. 6.9-6. - Schematic illustration of the downcurrent decrease tation pattern (fan shaped) and occur in the lower
of bed thickness, grain size and sand-shale ratio in a turbidite mid fan and lower fan.
sequence (from Einsele, 1963).
- Basin floor deposits : They are thin sheet-type
deposits, covering a large area compared to the
first two groups.
Each elementary sequence thickness ranges
TURBIDITY CURRENT FLUIDIZED/LIOUEFIED FLOW from a few centimetres to more than 3 metres. A
Rippled or flat top
Ripple drift micro
Sand volcanoes or llat lop megasequence is composed of 10 to more than
Convolute !amination
I lammation
Flutd escape 'pipes' 100 elementary sequences. It can be subdivided in
Laminated
Dish struclure,
several mesosequences marked by successive
Good gradlng
I distrtbution Poor grading thickening up sequences. The growth of the
grading I I coarse ta8l grading"1 megasequence is due to both progradation and
Flutes tool marks
on base
7 Grooves Flame and load
stria1#Ons structures
lateral avulsion of active suprafan lobes and
I I on base
channels (Fig. 6.9-11).
GRAIN FLOW DEBRIS FLOW
Irregular top
Flat too llarge grains prolecting)

. :.. . .

near base, 4 Fig. 6.9-7. - Structures and textures of deposits from single
Scours inlection Broad 'scours'
Structures 7 Striations at base
mechanism mass-gravity flows. No vertical scale is implied
(from Middleton & Hampton, 1976).
31 2

I Basin plain

r Mainly clay/marl
Inner fan

Middle fan . .. 1Main send accumulation

I Outer fan Claylmarl + sand

I Pelagic deposits 0 Mainly clay/marl

Fig. 6.9-11. - Model of fan growth by progradation and lateral

avulsion of an active, major fan lobe (from Kruit e t a / . , 1975).
Bash floor hron Slone I
0obe c k y SB Grey SIR a Flne grey sand 4 Fig. 6.9-9. - Cross-section showing the basin margins (canyon-
fan and slope-apron) and basin floor relationship (from
Medium grey sand Slumped sill Gorsline & Emery, 1959).

Slope trough
I--,Slope trough levee

stal slope
nds

A PROXIMAL SLOPE WEDGE A'

Migrating
Fan plain slope troughs
\ I \ / fan

B INTERMEDIATE SLOPE WEDGE B'

C DISTAL SLOPE WEDGE C'

I exaggeration

Fig. 6.9-10. - Fan model for the Upper Pennsylvanian Cisco Group, north-central Texas (from Galioway & Brown, 1973).

6.9.2.6. Directional Current flow Model
The flow is generated by gravity and is down-
slope. Different processes (Fig. 6.9-12) may occur
producing different types of deposits. In a turbidity
current different flow paths and velocity profiles
can be recognized (Fig. 6.9-13) in relation to the
cohesiveness of the supporting bed (Fig. 6.9-14).
In mass flow, when the gravity motion starts,
the whole flow compresses the water mass which
 31 3

ROCESS DEPOSITS

- Rolling or freetail of individual CIastS.

- Sand to boulder-sizedclasts.
-
-
ock fill Depositional units usually show distinct boundaries.

4 -
Poor sorting, no grading.
lnterclast porosity.
I
I - Transport distance short across steep angles.
I
I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I
'I - Displacement of coherent masses. I Ollatholith
Sliding

A - Movement along discrete shear planes.

- Little or no internal flow.
- Local folds and faults.
planer

V - Displacement of mass. k - 4
- Mouvernent along shear planes.
-- Overturned folds.
Reversefaults.

- Depositional units show distinct

- boundaries.
Planar base and top or planar base and

a.
I -- hummocky top.
Poor sorting, normal grading rare.
obrh flow
c
.P I
- Usually has a mud matrix.
Clasts jumbled together during movement
and SUpFOrted by sornme type of non

91
- turbulent mechanism.
Transport distance intermediate across
low angle slopes.
"I
- Depositional units usually show distinct
- boundaries.
Planar base and top, or channeled base

-
and planar top.
Suspendon malnly
Turbidtty Variable sorting; normal grading and other
Current
- Bouma sequences common.

-
May or may not have a mud matrix.
Clasts jumbled together during movement

-
and supported by turbulent suspension.
Transport distance for across low
angle slopes.

Fig. 6.9-12. - Major types of gravity transport processes (adapted from Dott, 1963).

in turn reacts generating an oscillatory wave which
decays in energy with time (dispersive pressure).
With respect to its decreasing energy this wave
generates (Fig. 6.9-4) : parallel laminae (B unit of
the Bouma's sequence), ripples (C unit), and fine
upper parallel laminae (D unit). An interpretation
of the interrelation of different processes which
occur in a single event of mass-gravity transport is
shown in Fig. 6.9-15.
314

Y
Sediment gravity flows

Specific Turbidity Fluidized Grain Debris

term current sediment flow flow flow
Sediment I Upward
support I intergranular Grain Matrix
mechanism1 Turbulence flow interaction strength

Grab in
suspension

Coheslonless
grain bed
Fig. 6.9-14. - Classification of sediment gravity flow based on
u -
the mechanism of wain S U. D. D O ~(from
~ Middleton & Hamoton.
1973):

4 Deooslt

--- Schematk grain vebctties

Fig. 6.9-13. - Different turbidity current motions following the

cohesiveness of the underlying bed (from Friedman & San-
ders, 1978).

Fig. 6.9-15. - Interrelation of different processes in a single b

event of mass-gravity transport (adapted from Middleton & Time andlor space
Hampton, 1973).

Cnl FDC

I
-'lo-+ 20 0
rnV C2.m
SP ML
O 70

Fig. 6.9-16. - Composite-log in a flysch and turbidite deposit (from Payre & Serra, 1979). From that it is not obvious that it
corresponds to a turbidite. Only dipmeter shows evidence of turbidite deposit (see Fig. 6.9-22).
 31 5

1 0.1000
1*11( >
1OOO.O
.______..
rm~mn.2.....__.
0.000 40.00

hLm.
NeutronPorwy I n a x (pu)
(*pp.mumnx*pomMII

Fig. 6.9-17. - Density-neutron crossplot showing the position of

some of the readings from Fig. 6.9-16 (from Payre & Serra,
1979).

6.9.2.7. Reservoir Characteristics

Due to the general immaturity of the sands,
their characteristics are often moderate to poor.
The permeability increases from distal to proximal
fans. Distal sands constitute numerous sheet-like
beds with no vertical permeability. Proximal sands
can be thick, with good vertical permeability, with
a shoestring shape. Overpressures are often ob-
sewed.

6.9.3. WELL-LOG RESPONSES

AND CHARACTERISTIC

6.9.3.1. Electro-Lithofacies
Following the type of turbidites (siliciclastic or
bioclastic) two kinds of well-log responses must
be considered.
6.9.3.1.1. Composition
- Siliciclastic turbidites
Thorium and potassium content, and hence the
level of radioactivity can vary considerably in
turbidite deposits, depending on the mineralogical
maturity of the materials extracted from the parent
-
Fig. 6.9-18. NGS log over the sandstone formations of North
Palk Bay, India (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Confe-
source rocks. Fig. 6.9-16 gives an example of rence. India, 1983).
mature material with relatively low radioactivity (20
to 35 API). Fig. 6.9-18, on the contrary, shows a points fall between the quartz sand and the limes-
very high radioactivity reflecting an immature tone lines, generally closer to the latter (Fig. 6.9-17
material rich in potassium feldspar and micas as and 6.9-19). Some points, close to the shale region,
pointed out from interpretation of crossplots of correspond to pelagic shale deposits (E unit of the
Fig. 6.9-19. On p b vs N$I crossplot representative Bouma sequence).
316

Fig. 6.9-19. - Set of crossplots showing the mineralogy of the

formations of Fig. 6.9-18 (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation
Conference. India, 1983).

Fig. 6.9-20.- Composite-log in a carbonate turbidite (from

Payre & Serra, 1979). The well-log responses do not indicate
a turbidite deposit. Interpretation of the GEODIP display (see
Fig. 6.9-26) will show the sequences and other features which
'I will indicate the origin of the deposit.

Cal FDC
6" 16" 2.45 g/cm3 2.95

0 50
API 10 R-rn 0 1 R-m 10 10 R-m 100 15 % 0 85 p / f t 55
GR ML MLL DLL - MSFL CNL SL

Sha
llrom core)
Fig. 6.9-21. - Example of relationship between dipmeter resis-
tivity curve on the one hand, and grain size and permeability
on the other hand.
2112
Fig. 6.9-22. - A Bouma sequence as seen by the dipmeter (a)
and its interpretation; (b) core photograph of the same
interval (from Payre & Serra, 1979).
31 7
- Bioclastic (carbonate) turbidites
Radioactivity is generally low (less than 10 API
in the example of Fig. 6.9-20) in relation to a very
low thorium and potassium content. Potassium
content may be higher in pelagic muds. On a p b vs
& crossplot, representative points are very close
t o the limestone line. Pe values indicate calcite as
the main mineral.
6.9.3.1.2. Texture
In siliciclastic turbidites an idea of the relative
grain size can be obtained from the study of
crossplots (Fig. 6.9-19), or, better, from the dipme-
ter resistivity evolution, after calibration from core
analysis (Fig. 6.9-21). In carbonate turbidite the
shape of dipmeter resistivity curves may help in
recognizing mudstone, grainstone or boundstone
or breccia.
6.9.3.2. Dip Patterns
As illustrated by Fig. 6.9-22, in case of a proxi-
mal fan, amplitudes of variations in dip magnitude
and changes in azimuth reflect the relative posi-
31 8

Fig. 6.9-23. - Isolated resistive events in a massive sandstone corresponding to cemented balls as seen by LOCDIP (a), confirmed
by photograph of core (b) (from Delhomme & Serra, 1984).

'ORE
DIPS CORRELATIONS
DESC R IPTION RESISTIVITY CURVES
DIPS INTERPRETATION
RESISTIVITY

b-1I

'00 1 2 3 4 1

Fig. 6.9-24b. - Enlargement of one sequence of the previous

example.

tion in the Bouma sequence : scattered dips or no

dip in the A unit; none or low variations (green
pattern) in the B or D units; higher variations with
changes in azimuth in the C unit. Isolated thin
conductive events in the massive sands (A unit)
may correspond to flat shale clasts. Isolated resis-
tive events in the massive sands can correspond to
cemented balls created by dissolution of bioclasts
and reprecipitation of the calcite as cement in the
surrounding pore space (Fig. 6.9-23). Such events
indicate diagenetic effects.
Several isolated resistive events on diprneter
resistivity curves reflect matrix supported conglo-
merates, if they are observed a t the bottom of a

~~~ ~ ~

4 Fig. 6.9-24a. - Example of several turbidite sequences detected

by the dipmeter. Resistivity evolutions allow detection of
fining and coarsening upward sequences as well as thickening
or thinning upward megasequences.
 319

HOLE 0
1 RESISTIVITY I DIP ANGLE AND

1-
DIRECTION
I I +LOC RESULTS
-E
RESlSTlVlTV CALIPER 1 Pads

1 2 3 4
' 90

Fig. 6.9-25a. - Example of dipmeter responses in distal turbidi-

tes (GEODIP arrow-plot).

sequence. They can correspond t o an erosion of

the top of the previous deposit by the front of the
turbidite flow and mixing of D or C unit sandstones
with E unit pelagic shales. When the isolated
resistive events are observed anywhere in a
massive sand they correspond, generally, t o ce-
mented balls. Some blue patterns can be obser-
ved, they possibly reflect progradation of the fan.
Red patterns may be present and could corres-
pond to draping of previous deposits or filling of
channels (Fig. 6.9-24b). Azimuth variations obser-
ved on a long interval, including several sequen-
ces, can give an idea of the broad shape of the fan
due to lateral avulsion.
In mid fan (Fig. 6.9-24a) and distal fan LFig.
6.9-25) dips are more consistent in magnitude and
azimuth. Fig. 6.9-25b. - Example of dipmeter responses in distal turbidi-
In mass flow deposits (Fig. 6.9-26) very few tes (LOCDIP arrow-plot). This last example shows a lot of blue
and red patterns which suggest fan progradation with direc-
correlations are found generating scarce dips with tion of transport towards NE, and draping of the previous fan
random azimuth. by the following one.
320

Fig. 6.9-26. - Example of dipmeter response in mass flow deposit (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference. India, 1983)
 321

In this kind of environment FMS images enable

the recognition of several features such as load
casts, clay galls, slumps. Of course, thin lamina-
tions, planar or wavy, can easily be observed (Fig.
6.9-27and 6.9-28).

6.9.3.3.Boundaries
One generally observes abrupt, sharp lower
contacts, that are better seen on dipmeter resisti-
vity curves. The lower contact appears to be
sometimes non planar (4 dip computation in
GEODIP display; wavy symbol in LOCDIP or
SYNDIP presentation). The upper boundary may
be gradational in the mid fan, or abrupt in the
distal fan. Limits between consecutive sequences
are not always easy to detect in mass flow
deposits.
Comparison of dip patterns with oriented core
measurements (Fig. 6.9-29)shows that LOCDIP
and CSB give correct answers which can be
interpreted.

4 Fig. 6.9-27. - FMS traces and images showing all the typical
features encountered in turbidite deposits : loading features,
thin laminations, graded bedding, clay clasts (courtesy of
Schlumberger).
Fig. 6.9-28. - Very thin laminations detected on FMS traces and
images in a distal turbidite (courtesy of Schlumberger).
v

THINLY LAMINATED AND GRADED

BEDDING TEXTURE CAN BE SEEN
O N THE RESISTIVITY TRACES AND
O N THE IMAGES.

THE DEGREE OF RESOLUTION

O N THE IMAGEWRACES
CAN BE SEEN TO BE IN
THE ORDER OF 1 CENTIMETER.

DARK GREY - CONDUCTIVE, CLAY

LIGHT GREY - RESISTIVE, SAND

GREY LEVEL VARIATION REPRESENTS

A CHANGE IN THE RELATIVE
PROPORTION OF SANDKLAY IN
THE FINING UPWARDS CYCLES

'THESE FEATURES ON THE CORE ARE SCRATCHES

FROM THE CUTTER WHEN IT W A S SLABBED
322

Fig. 6.9-29. - Comparison of LOCDIP and CSB arrow plots with oriented core measurement illustrating the very good fit between
the two types of information.

6.9.3.4. Electro-Sequences evolutions which reflect, most of the time, fining

upward sequences. But coarsening upward se-
Numerous similar sequences can be observed quences may be present too. Megacoarsening and
(Fig. 6.9-25). Dipmeter resistivity curves (Fig. thickening upward sequences are easily detected
6.9-24a and 6.9-30) very often show continuous (Fig. 6.9-24a and 6.9-31).
 323

SHALE SAND
550

"\
555

Fig. 6.9-30. - Example of dipmeter response in carbonate

turbidite (from Payre & Serra, 1979).
/

5 60

Fig. 6.9-31. - Thickness evolution of shale and sand beds of Fig. b

6.9-26.
/
THINNING UP( ID
I/
THICKENING UPWARD

6.9.3.5.Thickness The interval, shown in Fig. 6.9-33,illustrates a

The thickness of individual sequences can vary
between a few decimetres to 3-4 metres. A
general thickening upward is observed (Fig. 6.9-31
and 6.9-32).
megasequence in a turbidite environment.. The
lower section corresponds to the distal fan with
thin sands and shales (the interval is recognized as
shaly sands by LITHO). The intermediate section
corresponds to the mid fan. One can observe that
324

-
REsisiivirY
DIPS
CORRELATIONS

RESISTIVITY
P
INCREASES
CURVES

Fig. 6.9-33.- LITHO, SYNDIP. and azimuth frequency plots in

a turbidite environment, with their interpretation.

the sands are thicker and "cleaner". The upper

section corresponds to the upper fan. The sands
'are stacked, and constitute a very thick bed. One
can conclude that, in this example, the grain size
and the bed thickness increase from bottom to
top. The interpretation of the azimuth frequency
plots in sands and in shales indicates the general
direction of transport and the draping of the lobes
by shale deposits.

4 Fig. 6.9-32.- Another example of dipmeter responses in a

carbonate turbidite. Observe the rhythmic sedimentation and
the thickness of each sequence.
 325

6.10. "DEEP" WATER EVAPORlTlC ENVIRONMENT

6.10.1. DEFINITION

Environment characterized by precipitation of

minerals by evaporation of a body of water (saline
brine), and density segregation within this body
continuously or periodically maintained by sea
water (marine inflow) entering across a shallow
barrier into a restricted, enclosed or confined
basin, not necessarily very deep (Fig. 6.10-1).

6.10.2. GEOLOGICAL FACIES MODEL

6.10.2.1. Composition
The main minerals present in this environment
are sulphates (predominantly gypsum or anhy-
drite; secondarily polyhalite or langbeinite), chlo-
rures (predominantly halite; secondarily carnallite,

t t t '

I TERMINAL STAGE \\ 3 A'\\

Fig. 6.10-2. - Example of carbonate-anhydrite laminae which

can be correlated over several kilometres (from Kendal, 1984).

4 Fig. 6.10-1. - A model for deep-water evaporite deposition

(after Schmalz, 1969).
326

Potuh5.R 0 Rocfb.de

Polyhaiite 1001 Cole elgu (ukimome)

neine Pleoliths

Anhydrite Oolltlc and pll.told u n d e

0
DoiOmit. 9kai.t.i grains

Llnnrtorw Rwt

NNE
Viking

.....
<....*.. ._
. ..~.. .(. .. ~ . l p - , .. . -

b Fig. 6.10-3. - Generalized cross-section through the Zechstein

Basin in North Sea showing the cycles (from Taylor & Colter,
1975) with repartition of the facies (from Borchert & Muir,
1964).

A
4 Fig. 6.10-4. - Several crossplots showing the position of the
main evaporite minerals.
 327

0 GR 751 Description

1350

1400

Fig. 6.10-5. - (a) Sonic-

gamma ray crossplots
showing the main mine-
rals present in the interval
(halite, anhydrite and po-
lyhalite) and to compute
their percentage. (b) The
corresponding compo-
site-log from the Lower
Zechstein in North Sea
(from Serra, 1980).
328

--
1.500

GL0
?&!;1775 00
s-=1630 00
1.750 - - - _ _' 7- 6
7677
5 5 4666

_______
1
3454666
3 4 4 455
I2000 4 a

2 250

I I lN-A I I
1650

Z
1 12.00

9000
E
C
u:bPb 6.000
H
3.000 S
0 T
E
I
N
750 Z
E
0 I- - - - - -I- - - - - I- - - - - -I- - - - - -I - - I
111
5.000 9.000 23.00 37.00 51.00 65.00

J%

Fig. 6.10-6. - Several crossplots showing the presence of

halite, carnallite, bischofite and kieserite in the Upper Zechs-
tein (23) in northern Netherlands (from Haile & Blunden, 1984).

800
sylvite, tachydrite, or bischofite); and sometimes,
in small amount, carbonates, clays, organic matter, a
and quartz.
Fig. 6.10-7. - Results of the mineral percentage computation by
Original textures and structures are not well the GLOBAL program and comparison with core analysis
known because early diagenetic processes of results (from Haile & Blunden, 1984).
crystallization, dissolution, re-crystallization occur
masking them. However a t least three main facies
are described for halite : detrital halite, crustal or
chevron haIite, d isplacive haIite cubes.
localized bitterns. This kind of sequence is toward
6.10.2.2. Sequences more restricted or confined conditions.

Anhydrite-carbonate laminae are often present 6.10.2.3. Goemetry of Bodies

in halite (Fig. 6.10-2), as well as clay or silty quartz
This type of evaporites can constitute very thick
bands, generating thin cycles or sequences reflec-
deposits up to 1200 m with very wide extension
ting "regression" or "transgression" conditions
(Fig. 6.10-3).
(more or less confined, decreased or increased
brine-recharge).
On a larger scale cycles have been described 6.10.3. WELL-LOG RESPONSES
(North Sea Zechstein Fig. 6.10-3, Prairie or Muskeg AND CHARACTERISTICS
in Saskatchewan-Alberta) starting with dolomites,
anhydrite, sometimes with polyhalite, halite and It is well known that the well-logs can be used
potash deposits as the final precipitates in more to identify the evaporitic minerals. This is due to

Halite
Bischofitr
Kisser it@
Carnrllite
Svlvite
b
the fact that those minerals have the same general
composition and are non-porous. Consequently
each of them has the same characteristic set of
log responses, worldwide, which allows their iden-
tification on any type of crossplot.
6.10.3.1. Electro-Lithofacies
The mineral identification can be realized by
analysing crossplots (Fig. 6.10-4). If only one pure
mineral is present (halite or anhydrite) representa-
tive points fall close to the ideal position. If the
rock is made up of two or more minerals the
329
Fig. 6.10-8. - Example of SHDT response in evaporite (mainly
halite) illustrating very thin laminations of carbonates-anhy-
drite mixtures or even shale with organic matter.
representative points will fall on or near the line
joining the representative points of the two pure
minerals, or inside the surface or volume delimited
by the representative points of the minerals pre-
sent in the mixture (Fig. 6.10-5). A quantitative
interpretation using the GLOBAL program can be
used to compute the percentage of each mineral
(Fig. 6.10-6 and 6.10-7). Potassium evaporites are
recognized by their very high radioactivity, or by
their potassium content, obtained by a NGS tool.
Shale layers are differentiated by their thorium
and uranium content.
6.10.3.2. Dipmeter curve Shape
and Dip Patterns
The resistivity of the evaporites is very high but
with the SHDT tool and the automatic EMEX
control the curves show variations with sufficient
contrast to reflect some thin laminations of more
conductive materials (carbonates, shales), and
hence allow computation of dips (Fig. 6.10-8).
330
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series 1, published by Geol. Assoc. Canada.
WALKER, R.G., & MUlTI, E. (1973). - Turbidite
facies and facies association. SEPM, Pacific
Section, Short Course, Anaheim.
WALKER, T.R., & HARMS, J.C. (1972). - Eolian
origin of Flagstone beds, Lyons sandstone
(Permian), type area, Boulder County, Colorado.
Mountain Geologist, 9, p. 279-288.
WEBER, K.L. (1971). - Sedimentological aspects of
oil fields in the Niger delta. Amer. Assoc.
Petroleum Geol. Bull., 49, 6.
WEIMER, R.J. (1976). - Deltaic and shallow Marine
sandstones. Sedimentation, tectonics and Pe-
t ro leum occurrences. Amer. Assoc. Petroleum
Geol., Continuing Education Course Note Series
2.
WIDDICOMBE, R.E., & NOON, P. (1984). -Multiwell
FACIOLOG evaluation, Hartzog Draw Field,
Powder River Basin, Wyoming. SPWLA, 25th
Ann. Log. Symp. Trans., New Orleans.

WILLIAMS, P.F., & RUST, B.R. (1969). - The sedi-
mentology of a braided river. J. sediment.
Petrol., 39, 2, p. 649-679.
WILSON, J.L. (1975). - Carbonate Facies in Geolo-
gic History. Springer, New York.
WILSON, J.L., & JORDAN, C. (1983). - Middle
Shelf Environment. I n : Scholle, P.A. et al.,
(eds.) : Carbonate Depositional Environments;
Amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geol., Mem. 33.
WRIGHT, L.D., & COLEMAN, J.M. (1972). - River
delta morphology, wave climate, and the role of
the subaqueous profile. Science, 176, p.
284-288.
WRIGHT, L.D., & COLEMAN, J.M. (1973). -Varia-
tions in morphology of major river deltas as
functions of ocean wave and river discharge
339
regimes. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geol., 57,
p. 370-398.
WRIGHT, L.D., & COLEMAN, J.M. (1974). -Missis-
sippi River mouth processes : effluent dynamics
and morphologic development. J. Geol., 82, p.
751- 778.
YOUNG, F.G., & REINSON, G.E. (1975). - Sedimen-
tology of Blood Reserve and adjacent forma-
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western Alberta, Canada. Can. SOC. Petroleum
Geol., Field Conference.
ZOBELL, C.E. (1942). - Changes produced by
Microorganisms in Sediments after Deposition.
J. sediment. Petrol., 12, p. 127-136.
 Chapter 7

INFORMATION ON DIAGENESIS
(Transformation of rocks and sediments)

7.1. DEFINITION Both the size and composition of the minerals

AND REVIEW OF DIAGENESIS have a bearing on the process. In fact, the percen-
tage of certain minerals depends on grain size (Fig.
7-1). Thus, phyllitic minerals and organic matter
Diagenesis is defined as "the sum of physical, are more abundant in the fine than in the coarse
chemical and biochemical changes that affect a fraction. Besides, some minerals are more unsta-
sediment after it has been deposited and during or ble or more soluble than others, and will be easily
after its lithification" (Glossary of Geology). It transformed or dissolved.
includes all the post-depositional processes, with The size of the grains or crystals also controls
the exception of metamorphism and surface both the area of solid-fluid contact, and the
weathering. permeability and consequently the possibility of
Several studies have been made of this pheno- the fluids circulating. Grain sorting will also control
menon, and the associated publications are listed the localization of the interactions.
in the bibliography. We now extract the some key The fluids will react according to their nature
points from these publications. (water, air, gas, .,.) and their composition (salt and
dissolved gas content). We introduce the concept
7.1.1. Materials Present of diagenetic environment to describe how the
fluids may evolve with time as a result of hydrody-
According to Krumbein (1942), the raw materials namic phenomena, or under the influence of
of diagenesis consist of organic or inorganic temperature and pressure.
sediments and of interstitial fluids. The sediments mn
may be either allochthonous or autochthonous and 1
8
1
4
,
2
I
1
I
li2 114 118 11161/321/64 lil2811256
I 1 1 I I I I I y 8
Sca
'

will have been deposited on the interface between

the pre-existing formations and the new deposi-
tional environment. The fluids will represent about
45% of the volume of sands, 50 to 6 5 % of the
volume of silts, 80 to 9 0 % of the volume of
argillaceous muds, and 9 8 % of the volume of
colloids a t the moment of deposition. Materials
which are subsequently introduced or formed are
included in the classification of "raw materials".
The various minerals, materials and fluids
making up the sediment constitute a complex
chemical mixture which is generally not in an Fig. 7-1. - Relationship between grain size and composition of
equilibrium state, and the resulting interactions the detrital fraction in clastic silicate rocks (from Blatt et a/.,
lead to a transformation of the sediment. 1980).
342

7.1.2. Diagenetic Environment

A diagenetic environment may be defined as a

certain volume of rock in which a series of trans-
formations takes place. The nature of these trans-
formations depends on the original composition of
the sediment, on the temperature and pressure
and therefore the burial depth, and on the possible
circulation of fluids by hydrodynamic or hydro-
thermic phenomena.
The original fluids occupying the pore space of
the rock a t the moment of deposition are charac-
terized by their nature (water, air or gas), and
possibly by their content of salt and dissolved
gases. The composition of the fluids will be
modified very rapidly by burial. Interactions with
the minerals and the action of bacteria lead to a
change in pH and in oxidation/reduction potential,
Eh, (Fig. 7-2). Thereafter the diagenetic environ-
ment changes with depth, but not necessarily in a
uniform way, because again size and composition,
or the formation of new (authigenetic) minerals
may create a permeability barrier, preventing any
further circulation of fluid. This is why the diagene-
tic environment depends mainly on the original
facies, and consequently on the initial environment
(Fig. 7-3).

Fig. 7-2.- Diagram showing the limits on values of pH and Eh

found in natural environments, in particular in syndiagenetic, Fig. 7-3.- Schematic cross-sections showing diagenetic textu-
anadiagenetic and epidiagenetic zones (based on Becking & res in carbonates which have been developed in diagenetic
Garrels) (from Fairbridge, 1967). environments close t o the surface. (from Longman, 1980).

7.1.3. Factors Affecting Diagenesis
According to Wolf & Chilingarian (1976), there
are twelve factors which control the diagenetic
process :
- geographic (climate + humidity + rainfall -+
type of terrestrial weatherina -+ surface water
chemistry) ;
- geotectonism (rate of erosion and accumula-
tion, coastal morphology, emergence and subsi-
dence, whether eugeosynclinal or miogeosyncli-
nal);
- geomorphologic position (basinal versus la-
goonal sediments, current velocity + grain size +
sorting, flushing of sediments);
- geochemical factors in a regional sense (su-
persaline versus marine water, volcanic fluids and
gases) ;
- rate of sediment accumulation (halmyrolysis
+ ion transfer + preservation of organic matter +
biochemical zonation);
- initial composition of the sediments (arago-
nite versus high-Mg and low-Mg calcite and isoto-
pes and trace-elements content);
- grain size (content’of organic matter -+
number of bacteria + rates of diffusion);
- purityof the sediment (percentage of clay and
organic matter + basic exchange of clays altering
interstitial fluids);
- accessibility of rock framework to surface
(cavity systems permit replacements);
- interstitial fluids and gases (composition, rate
of flow, and exchange of ions);
- physico-chemical conditions (pH, oxidation/
reduction Eh, partial pressures and C 0 2 content);
- previous diagenetic history of the sediment
(previous expulsion of trace elements will deter-
mine subsequent diagenesis).
These factors influence the local environments
which, in turn, influence the micro-environments.
The factors interact and overlap : the climate
influences the geomorphology which in turn
controls the grain size and hence the type of
bacteria, rate of diagenesis, pH and oxidation/
reduction potentials, and finally the type of repla-
cement which takes place.
7.1.4. The Fundamental Processes
There are three types of process involved :
- Physical Processes
The mechanical constraints of burial initially
result in a rearrangement of the grains of the
sediment which tends to produce compaction, and
at a later stage may cause fracturing.
Dessication will result in contraction, fissuring,
penecontemporaneous internal deformation and
internal mechanical sedimentation.
Pressure and temperature will both increase
with depth and will modify the chemical equili-
brium. They will also cause rocks which are
normally elastic to become plastic or even viscous.
343
The combined effects of temperature and pres-
sure will also affect the solubility of the minerals,
which may result in either increased dissolution or
increased precipitation of salts in the pore space.
- Chemical Processes
The interactions between the solids and the
fluids will tend to establish a chemical equilibrium.
This may result in dissolution, alteration, oxidation
or reduction. It may also cause the growth of
crystals, or indeed their replacement with new
types.
- Biochemical and Organic Processes
All organisms, and particularly bacteria, can
modify the pH and the oxidation/reduction poten-
tial. The modification is particularly rapid within a
few centimetres or tens of centimetres of the
surface (Zobell 1942), and produces major changes
within the sediments, such as reduction of sulpha-
tes and conversion of organic matter (Fig. 7-2). In
addition, there may be a reduction of grain size,
mixing of grains (bioturbation), corrosion of grains
and creation of gas bubbles.
7.1.5. Diagenetic Changes
As we have already seen, the main factors
controlling diagenesis are mineralogical composi-
tion, grain size, fluid content and organic matter on
the one hand, and temperature, pressure and
ambient chemical conditions on the other. As a
result, there are many different types of diagenetic
changes. Krumbein (1942) has listed some thirty of
these. They may be classified as indicated in Fig.
7-4 (after Press & Siever, 1978).
- Compaction
This is a mechanical rearrangement of grains
under the weight of sediments above during the
burial process. The result is a reduction in volume
a t the expense of the original void spaces, in other
words, a reduction in the initial porosity.
The amount of compaction depends on the
initial porosity and on the size, shape and sorting
of the grains. It also depends on the rate of
sedimentation and passage of time. Compaction is
particularly marked in detrital sediments.
- Cementation
This is one of the most common diagenetic
phenomena. It is the deposition of minerals within
the pore space. The minerals may be derived from
the sediment itself by leaching and re-deposition.
They may also be derived from salts dissolved in
interstitial or circulating water, and may be a
single type or a mixture of several types.
Cementation may occur quickly or over a long
period. The most common cements are calcite,
dolomite, silica, clay minerals and less frequently
anhydrite, halite, pyrite, siderite or haematite.
Cementation results in a reduction of porosity, and
the quantity of cement cannot exceed the initial
porosity (in detrital deposits).
344

Mud c Shale the phenomena of dolomitization, phosphatization,

Lithification
includes individual
Sand * Sandstone pyritization and silicification, along with the trans-
Drocesses below Gravel * Conglomerate formation of gypsum into anhydrite and montmo-
Lime muds,
L
Limestone rillonite into illite. Dapples (1962) gives a list of
sands, oozes and dolomite
diagenetic reactions divided into three stages
(Table 7-1).
Pressure
squeezes
Compaction
out pore Table 7-1
water
primarily ___c Characteristic diagenetic reactions
of muds
(from Dapples, 1972).
50-60% water 10-20% water
Redoxomorphic stage (re Locomorphic stage (replace Phyllomorphic stage (unidiree.
versible reactions) ment reactions) t i o n d reactions)

Finely detailed Coarse mosaic of

structure crystals obscures FZ' * Fe*l aragoniIe b y calcite "clay minerals" S muscovite
or biotite
much detail
Hematite + calcite * sider. calcite b y dolomite montmoritlonitc + chlorite
ite
Recrystall ization Hematite + calcite Mg" carbonates b y quartz or "clay mincrala" +chlorite
f siderite + ferrodolo. chert
01 unstable c
m i t e + dolomite
minerals
Hematite + clay minerals + quartz or chert b y csrbonater"clay mincrds" + Fe*l + bio.
silica *chlorite + peena. titc
lite + stilpnomelane ( 7 )
Hematite + chlorite *charno. feldspar b y carbonates "clay minerals" + chert chlo-
Aragonite Calcite +

site (?) rite

Hematite + illite * glsucon. quartz, chert. clay minerals "clay minerals" + quartz +
ite b y carbonates sericitc

Mixed carbonate- Ouartz sandstone

"Bauxite" + silica * kaoli. opal b y chert or quartz kaulinite + (Iauconite or
nitc illite + Mf.' +chlorite +
quartz sand K'
Dissolution of eilica solution * chert or glauconite + fcldapai
quartz
more insoluble
minerals Dinspore or boehmite + silica illite or gtauconitc +chlorite
*clay minerals + muscovite
Diaapore ( ? ) + silica + K' kaolinite + illite + glauconite
*clay m i n e r d s (glsueon- + calcite + M f 2 + musco.
itel vite + biotite i feldspar +
dolomite + chlorite
Bauxite + hemmtitc + silica illite or (Iauconitc + calcite +
New crystal faces of *
( m i n o r ) clay minerals M C * ~+ micaa + feldspar +
quartz precipitated + pyrite dolomite
on rounded surface Kaolinite t K* f illite lddrpar + r r i e i t e
h * glauconite

@-
Biotite plagioelase +chlorite + chert
Precipitation Feldspar * c l a y minerals +
of new minerals chert
or additions to Glass + montmorillonite +
existing ones chert

New kaolinite crystals

grown in pore space
Loose, rounded
sand Cemented sandstone
Fig. 7-4. - Changes in composition and texture resulting from
diagenetic processes. Most of the changes tend to transform
a soft and friable sediment into a hard, consolidated sedimen-
tary rock (from Press & Siever, 1978).
- Recrystallization
This is the process by which the crystalline
texture of the rock changes as a result of the finer
crystals dissolving and then growing again in
different forms. The phenomenon is more com-
mon in chemical or biochemical rocks than in
detrital rocks and increases with burial.
- Transformation
This is the replacement of a mineral by its
polymorph, the commonest example being the
transformation of aragonite to calcite.
- Mineralogical Replacement
In this case a new mineral replaces a previously
existing one (Fig. 7-5). Included in this category are
- Selective Leaching
Leaching is quite a widespread phenomenon,
and is often associated with other phenomena
such as compaction (the solubility increases a t the
points of contact between grains with increasing
pressure), recrystallization, cementation and re-
placement. Selective leaching, however, must be
considered separately. It affects only certain
constituents of the rock which have increased
solubility under certain conditions of temperature,
pressure and concentration of salt or dissolved
gas in the interstitial fluids. Of particular impor-
tance is the leaching associated with acidic waters
of meteoric origin which are rich in COZ.They can
create vugs and even caverns in the rock which
can make a significant contribution to its porosity
(Fig. 7-6).
- Authigenesis
This phenomenon results in the appearance of
new minerals, either by direct introduction or,
more frequently, by alteration of pre-existing
 345

Fig. 7-5.- Diagrams showing the diagenetic history of a limestone (from Evamy, 1967)

minerals. It is very similar to the process of - Stylolitization

cementation in terms of the end effect. An exam-
ple would be the formation of kaolinite by the This is a pressure-controlled solution phenome-
alteration of feldspars. non which gives rise to stylolites (Fig. 7-7).
 346

Photo a : horizontal and subvertical stylolite

b: horizontal stylolite with associated tension joints
1: sherne of a stylolite seen on a core
2: detail of a stylolitic cone : (11 = Maximum principal stress

A = Stylolitic cone axis

Fig. 7-7. - Photographs of stylolites: (a) subvertical and

horizontal stylolitic joints; (b) horizontal stylolite showing
associated tensional fissures; (1) : Schematic of a sytlolitic
Fig. 7-6. - Photograph of a microvug detected using a scanning joint seen on a core; (2) : Detail of a stylolite cone. 0,= prin-
electron microscope. cipal stress axis; A = axis of stylolite cone.

Table 7-2
Various stages of diagenesis according to different authors (from Dunoyer de Segonzac, 1968).

(1904)
1 KRUMBEIN
V A N HISE ~TWENHOFEL11942 1 9 4 7 ) PETTIJOHN
l(1926 1 9 3 9 . 1 9 ~ j Kand SLOSS ( 1 9 ~ 91957)
'1
1
TURNER
GILBERT
~

1
PACKHAM
CROOK
(1964)
/OLF, CONOLL
(1965)
1 (1963) 1 (1954) , (1960)
T h e detritol particles I
I st111in movement
-----cx
in the water

Particles immobilized
in 0 sediment with a

!-! high water content

but 6olated from Ihe p,rccmentrm
environment of
sedimentation
I
* DIAGENESIS

a
T h e sediment h a s
become o more or i I . I I
less carnoact rock

........... . . . ~ ~ ~ .

T h e sedimentory
series finds itself
under rnelomorphic
conditions on occoun
o f orogeny

Tectonic phenomena
place the sediments
p under conditions of
decompression and
Ieoching. or exposed
in outcrops
(~961'8561) 1 (8561'L561
(2961) 7561'C561) 1 (1961) ( 1961 ) (156 '7E61) (0761 'EE6I) (22611
AOlnHS PUD
H31430SSVh 1 AOHMV'tllS ~ NIHYntl H31hOkiOCI031 hOS13hHS 1 hOlVA01Snd NV'14S833
I i I
LPE
Segonzac pointed out, this only affects a few tens TIME- POROSITY TERMS
of centimetres of sediment. It is during this phase
I PRE-DEPOSITION I I
r1
STAGE DEPOSITION POST-DEPOSITION
that the sediments are transformed into rocks

1
-I
1
PRIMPRY POROSITI
I SECONOARY POROSITY--
which are coherent and solid (lithification). I I
The second phase occurs late in the diagenetic O Y RE-OEPOSTIOA DEPOSlTtONAL
P O S T - D E P O S T O N P L POROSITY

cycle, and is known as anadiagenesis (Fairbridge, POROSITY POR0S17Y

fPOOO"EONSE, TI "K
MfSOGfM111C
POROS," T EP LOfSf O
i flII Tl TC

1967, Fig. 7-8). It is a phase of compaction and

maturation which is characterized by the expulsion
and (usually) upward migration of interstitial water
and other fluids, such as oil or gas, and by &NET DEPOSITIONAL R E A L M
I
NET EROSIONAL REALM-:

conditions of reduction. It takes effect over several

hundreds or thousands of metres of sediment
(Dunoyer de Segonzac), and generally results in a
substantial reduction of porosity.

Fig. 7-9. - Schematic representation of the main areas and

burial zones in which porosity is created or modified (from
Choquette & Pray, 1970).

Fig. 7-8. - ldealised profile across a continental margin sho-

wing the marine sedimentation sites and the three phases of
diagenesis : (1) diffusion during syndiagenesis; (2) movement
of ascending liquid during anadiagenesis; (3) movement of
descending fluid during epidiagenesis (from Fairbridge, 1967).
The third and final phase is epidiagenesis (Fair-
bridge, 1967). It is characterized by the modifica-
tion of interstitial waters as a result of the Denetra-
tion and downward migration of meteoric water,
and by a reversion to conditions of oxidation. The
phenomena of dissolution and of the formation of
"hard-ground" mainly appear during this phase.
The zone affected is usually not very thick and
close to the surface.
These three phases more or less correspond to
the three periods and zones of diagenesis defined
by Choquette & Pray, 1970 (Fig. 7-9) :
- The eogenetic period is the time interval
between the end of deposition and the start of
effective burial. The eogenetic zone is the interval
of depth at or near the surface of sedimentation
where the chemistry of the interstitial water is
largely controlled by the surface environment
before any effective burial takes place (less than a
few tens of metres).
- The mesogenetic period is the post-deposi-
tional period from the start of burial to the start of
the diagenetic processes associated with erosion.
The mesogenetic zone is the depth interval within
which the diagenetic processes associated with
burial take place.
- The telogenetic period refers to the interval
during which rocks which have previously been
buried are subjected to the diagenetic processes
associated with subaquatic or subaerial erosion.
The telogenetic zone is the name applied to the
corresponding depth interval.
Several diagenetic cycles incorporating some or
all of the above-mentioned phases may occur,
each one leaving its marks and possibly oblitera-
ting those of preceding cycles.
7.1.7. Effects of Diagenesis
on the Properties of Sediments
The properties of the sediments which were
originally deposited will change as a result of
physical, chemical, mineralogical, textural and
structural changes associated with the various
diagenetic phenomena. The principal effects are
summarised in Table 7-3; among them are :
- Size and shape of particles : the grains may
increase in size and form crystals by growth or
re-crystallization. Alternatively, the grain size may
decrease because of leaching.
- Mineralogical composition : transformation,
replacement, cementation or authigenesis are the
only means by which the composition of the
original sediment may change.
- Porosity: the majority of diagenetic proces-
ses, apart from dissolution and occasionally repla-
cement, involve a reduction of porosity which may
be quite substantial. This reduction is referred to
 349

Table 7-3
Relative effects of different diagenetic processes on the properties of sediments (from Krumbein, 1942).

Property Compaction Cementation

lization
1 Replacement i 1
D ~ ~ ~ ? Authigenesis
~ a l

Size .......................................... - X x x x - x x x x
Shape and roundness.......... - X x x - x x x x
Surface te-xture .................... - X x x X x x x x x
Particle orientation .............. ? - ? - ? X
Mineral composition ............ - x x X x x x x x x x x
Porosity .................................. x x x x x x X x x x x
Permeability............................ x x x x x x x x X x x x x
Color ........................................ X x x X X - x x

' Legend : x = small to moderate effect; x x = moderate to large effect; x x x = property most strongly affected
by a given process; - means a negligible effect; and ? indicates an unknown effect.

as poronecrosis. Conversely, the phenomena of - Permeability : precipitation of cement, re-

dolomitization and particularly of leaching in-
crease the porosity, sometimes quite visibly, by
the formation of vugs and caverns. This effect is
referred to as porogenesis. However, the way in
which the porosity develops will depend on the
type of sediment (detrital or chemical : Table 7-4)
and on the texture (Table 7-5).
Table 7-4
Comparison of porosities in sandstones
and carbonates (from Choquette & Pray, 1970).
crystallization and compaction will usually result in
a substantial reduction of permeability along with
a loss of porosity. Dissolution and mineralogical
replacement will only increase the permeability if
the newly-created pores are connected to the
existing pore system, and if the interconnecting
channels are themselves enlarged.
- Sedimentary structure :the original sedimen-
tary features can be obscured or deformed by
certain of the diagenetic processes : recrystalliza-
tion, compaction, the action of organisms, lea-
ching or expansion.

Aspect Sandstone Carbonole

Amount ofpri- Commonly 2 5 - Commonly 40-70% 7.2. THE NEED

mary porosity 40%
in sediments FOR DIAGENETIC STUDIES
Amount of Commonly Commonly none or only small
ultimate poros. half or more of fraction of initial porosity: 5 -
ity in rocks initial porosity; 15% common in reservoir Because of the ways in which diagenetic phe-
15-30'?10 com- facies
mon nomena modify the original sediment, it is impor-
rype(s) of pri- Almost exclu- Interparticle commonly pre- tant to be able to evaluate the extent of these
nary porosity sively inter- dominates, but intraparticle
particle and other types are important

ryp4s) of ulti-
Table 7-4 (continued).
Almost exclu- Widely varied because of post.
nate porosity sively primary depositional modifications
interparticle Aspect Sandstone Carbonate
Sizes of pores Diameter and Diameter and throat sizes com-
throat sizes monly show little relation to Influence of
closely related sedimentary particle size o r rracturing
to sedimentary sorting
particle size reservoir prop-
and sorting

Shape of pores Strong depen- Greatly varied. ranges from Visual evalua- Semiquantita- Variable; semiquantitative via.
dence on par- strongly dependent "positive" tion of porosity tive visual esti- ual estimates range fromeasy
ticle shape-a or "negative" of particles to and perme- mates com- t o virtually impossible; instru.
"negative" of form completely independent ability monly rela- ment measurements of paros.
particles of shapes of depositional o r tively easy ity. permeability and capillary
diagenetic components pressure commonly needed

Uniformity of Commonly Variable, ranging from fairly Adequacy of Core plugs of Core plugs commonly inade-
size. shape, and fairly uniform uniform to extremely hetero- core analysis I-in. diameter qualeieven whole cores(-3-in.
distribution within homo- geneous. even within body for reservoir commonly ade- diameter) may be inadequate
geneous body made up of single rock type evaluation quate for "ma- for large pores
trix" porosity
Influence of Minor; usually Major; can create. obliterate,
diagenesis minor reduc- or completely modify porosity; Permeability- Relatively w n - Greatly varied; commonly in-
tion of primary cementation and solution im- porosity inter- sistent; com- dependent of particle sizc and
porosity by portant relations monly depen- sorting
compaction dentpn panicle
and cementation size and sorting
 Table 7-5
Development of porosity during diagenesis (courtesy of Gulf Oil of Canada, Ltd.).

GRAIN-SUPPORTED SEDIMENTS

E lntercrystalline
pores mainly
.lntercrystalline
vuggy
lnterparticle Moldic & Moldic Interparticle
moldic &
Vugs with
irregular Moldic pores
$ in matrix P O ~ O S ~in
~Y porosity vuggv porosity porosity vuggy porosity shapes
-
.-
V)?
w
dolostones

zb
E=
mE
2 WY Selective Size selective
leaching Of
unstable
leaching of leaching of
oz more more Indiscriminate Dedolomitization
So 2
8 " Dolomitization
dolomitization
with
leaching of
calcium
carbonate
panicles
soluble
replacement &
soluble
cement &
leaching of
micrite & selective
leaching
2
L
subsequent carbonate in non pore allochems
leaching particles dolomitized material
deposits infillings
- -
I
Preserved No essential SEDIMENT WITH PRIMARY POROSITY
sediment - changes in -Arenite and rudite size carbonate particles Fracture porosity can develop
porosity sediment porosity with or without lime mud matrix in rocks
independent of composition
bioconstructed carbonate framework with
or texture
or without fine matrix

I
2
-
Compaction Recrystallisation Advanced
Organic Mineral
8 pressure & & replacement Cementation
.a > 2 solution of matrix
cementation precipitation dolomitization
g

1 1
tg
:E
z2 Porosity
CLo a Porosity reduced
2 Porosity Porosity Porosity
mainly in
reduced
O reduced or eliminated reduced or Porosity reduces or eliminated
eliminated in matrix eliminated
interfossil bridged mainly in
a & intrafossil types matrix

MUD-SUPPORTED SEDIMENTS

lntercrystalline Vugs in sucrose

micropores & small or coarser Vuggy & moldic Moldic porosity
Vugs in dolostone porosity in limestones
mesopores in crystalline
sucrose dolostone dolostone I in limestones & dolostones

I
~ontem~braneous ~ e a c d i nof~ Leaching of
solution of sand incompletely or
I more soluble
Leaching of more
or larger size non dolomitized replacement &
Dolomization soluble carbonate
calcitic particles sand or larger displacement
particles
in lime mud during size carbonate material. Vug &
dolomitization particles I fracture fillings

I
Porosity in No essential SEDIMENT WITH PRIMARY POROSITY Fracture porosity can develop
in rocks
chalky changes in Lime mud
independent of composition
limestones sediment porosity Lime mud - supported carbonate grains
or texture
I

V)
Mineral Replacement
8 Compaction Recrystallization Cementation Dolomitization

I
g precipitation displacement

1
-w
.g 2
0 I-
t
g2
8 2 2 Dense micritic Dense micritic Porosity reduced Porosity reduced
CLo o or micritic or micritic Dense limestones in limestones or eliminated Dense
2 granular granular & dolostones & dolostones dense diagenetic dolostone
a limestone limestone veins, bird's eyes evaporites
 35 1

changes in order t o construct a reasonable model IMMATURE SUBMATURE 1 MATURE ISUPERMATURE

of the depositional environment and t o success- I
MUCH CLAY+ : L I T T L E OR N O CI!AY
fully identify the original facies.
L

POORLY SORTED-WELL ~ORTED-

In addition, by recognising the various stages GRAINS NOT ROU
ROUNDED-
and cycles of diagenesis, we are in a better
position to reconstruct the geological history of a
rock, and hence of the sedimentary basin in which
the rock has been deposited.
Diagenetic studies are generally performed on
rock samples by examination of thin sections and
images obtained by scanning electron microsco-
pes.

7.3. DETECTION OF DIAGENETIC

Fig. 7-10. - Diagram illustrating Folks textural maturity concept
CHANGES USING WELL LOGS (from Weller, 1960, in : Chilingarian & Wolf, Compaction of

-
Coarse-grained Sediments, Developments in Sedimentology,
Elsevier. Amsterdam).
If a detailed analysis of rock samples can
provide a reconstruction of the diagenetic changes
which have taken place and hence the stages of
I IMMATURE I SUBMATURE I MATURE 1
diagenesis, it is not then necessary to make use of I
I
wireline logs to analyse the diagenetic history of FERROMAGNESIAN~

the rock. Wireline logs analyse the rock in its Q U A R T Z A N 0 HEAVY M I N E R A L S

present state, and hence both the properties
which were determined by the original depositio-
nal environment, and those which were the result
of diagenesis. At best, then, they will only give a
picture of the final state of the rock which is the
end result of a chain of diagenetic processes.
Having said that, it is only necessary, during the
detailed analysis of the logs, t o bear this in mind
and to keep an eye out for signs which may
indicate certain diagenetic phenomena. Clearly,
from what has already been said, this approach
must be taken regardless of which type of rock is Fig. 7-1 1 . - Diagram showing changes in the relative mineralo-
gical maturity of sandstones (from Weller, 1960, in : Chilinga-
encountered. rian & Wolf, Compaction of Coarse-grained Sediments,
Developments in Sedimentology, Elsevier, Amsterdam).

7.3.1. The Study of Diagenesis

in Terrigenous Detrital Sequences
The type and extent of diagenetic changes Table 7-6
depend largely on the maturity of the rock, that is, Some reactions involving clay minerals during
on its content of stable minerals and on its textural the diagenesis of sandstones
properties (Fig. 7-10). For example, the constituent (from Pettijohn et a/., 1972).
minerals of a quartz-arenite will react differently t o
those of an arkose or a graywacke t o burial and t o Clay mineral Precursor Components added to ( +
the subsequent diagenetic processes (Fig. 7-1 1 lormed or subtracted from 1 - )
and Table 7-6).
Kaolinite Feldspar - ( K + , SiO,)
+H,O(Eq 109)
7.3.1.1. Compaction Kaolinite Pore Space +(Al,O,, SiO,. H,O)
This is one of the major diagenetic phenomena lllite Kaolinite + f K + ,SiO,)
-(AI203, H2O)
in detrital sequences, regardless of composition. It
is generally accompanied by secondary effects. In
Muscovite Kaolinite + K+
- H,O
view of its importance, the following chapter is Illite Montmorillonite + K+
devoted entirely t o the study of compaction. -(SiO,. H,O, Na', Ca".
M g + * ,Fe", etc.)
Chlorite Montmorillonite +(Fe". Mg")
7.3.1.2. Pressure-controlled Solution - ( S O , , H,O. Na',Ca"j
Montmorillonite Volcanic Glass + H,O
The underlying concept of this phenomenon is - (Na', K', Ca" j

that the high pressures developed between the Glauconite Mite +(Fe'+.Fe"j
-(K+.Al~OJ
points of contact of the grains result in increased
352

solubility. This leads to preferential leaching and Table 7-7

this is further encouraged by the presence of a Mineralogical and chemical composition
film of clay. Fuchtbauer (1967) suggested that of arkoses and subarkoses
pressure-controlled solution appears early, and is (from Pettijohn et a/., 1972).
the reason for loss of porosity in sands. Sippel A B ' C D E F ' G H I J
(1 968), however, demonstrated by cathodic lumi-
nescence that detrital grains are not involved, and Quartz 60 57 57 71 60 3c 17 7 57 51 51 I

that authigenic crystal growths appear in sands a t

MlCr0Cll"C
plagloclare ?} 351 {?:} 25 13 592 14::
70
11
IY 5
0.1
Micas -~ T 42 7 I hY
concavo-convex or suture contacts. -~ 5
Regardless of its importance, pressure-control-
Clay
Carbonate - P' ~ , IZO 9
P' P'
7 1'0

Other 6' 8' 14 4 R 4' I 41

led solution is not the only cause of cementation.
Alteration of feldspars and other silicates by
meteoric water produces dissolved silica which
may be re-precipitated in the sand, or may contri-
bute to the growth of quartz crystals. The water
itself may be supersaturated in dissolved silica.
This phenomenon is not distinguishable from
silica cementation by wireline logs, because the
only detectable result of both phenomena is a
I l l Normative or calculated composition. i2l Modal ieldrpdr given by Llrikir as ( 5 r n d
respectively. 131 Present In amounts under I percent. 141 Chlorite. IS1 lion oxide ihemaiitei dnd
kaolin
A Sparagmiie(Precambrfan1 Norway iBarth. 1938. p 601
B Torridonian iPrecambrianl Scotland iMackie. 1905. p 581
C Jotnian iPrecambrian1. Satakuma. Finland 1Simonen and Kuovo 1955. Table ?. No 51
D Subarkore. Potsdam Sandrtone(Cambrian1. New York U S A IHiesnet 1961. p 91 4 iubrrkore
E Subarkow. Lamoltc Sandstone iCambrian). Uirrouri. U S A iojakangar. 1963 p X631
A subarkose
F Lower Old Red (DevonmIScotland I M d c k i c I9OS.p 5x1
G Arkare iPermianl, Auvergne. France IHuckenhoiti lVh1 p 9171
H PalearkosciTriassiciConneciicui. U 5 A iKryninc I V X i p X5I
I RedarkowiTriarriclCannectiiut I S A (Krynine 1950 p X O
J Arkav(Oligocene1. Aurergne. France IHuokrnholt~ 1Yb3 p 9171

reduction in porosity.
A B C D E F G H I J K L

7.3.1.3. Cementation S10, 7930 7580 8089 R702 9260 7332 5924 9211 X574 CY94 -??I ' 0 4

When analysing logs from the diagenetic point

M ~ O 056 054 OM 020 004 024 012 014 III ~r~~~ 141 03
of view, it is necessary to establish the type of
cement involved and the degree of cementation.
cao
Na,O
K,O
038
221
432
141
240
451
004
063
475
YE}
341 ow 07s
293 { 2 3 4
616
I ~ M1 2 7
019
230
011
072
049
116
219
7w
543
110
7 v
?10
331
04
01
1X
Sands which are composed of quartz grains (or-
thoquartzite) are recognised by their very low
060 - - 002 - 0 01 0 10 (I?
radioactivity, due to the almost complete absence P20;
M ~ O
005
002 on5 - ~ -
-

- 050. 0241 070 OE

of potassium and generally low content of thorium co,
1gn loss
~

-
Trace -
- -
-
335 ~
006
-
092 1216 \one
042 I12 101
2 bb

and uranium, the exact amount depending on the

~

Total 9968 9999 9963 9965' 9984 9960 I m 7 9 l C Q l S YYRl 9910 IWIOhIWh
presence of heavy, stable minerals such as zircon (IIContamr Mn0,,(21Total lron.13)Contamr Zr0,and V,O, (41 Reportedas MnO,.l51 Includes
~ ~~~

or monazite. These sands have a cement which 0 06 percent S. (61 Sum given In orlglnal as 9 9 90

may be composed of quartz, calcite, haematite or,
less frequently, of authigenic clay minerals such as
kaolinite or dickite.
Arkoses and graywackes, which have a relati-
vely high potassium content (Tables 7-7 to 7-9) and
hence moderate to strong radioactivity, usually
have a cement of calcite or haematite, or of
authigenic clay such as kaolinite, chlorite, mont-
morillonite or illite. Siliceous cement is rare be-
cause alkaline and alkaline-earth cations from the
alteration of feldspars and from mafic minerals or
volcanic grains combine with silica to form authi-
genic clays or zeolites.
One of the most reliable means of evaluating
the type of cement is to use the litho-density
(LDT *)-neutron combination and the correspon-
ding crossplot (Fig. 7-12). Orthoquartzites with a
siliceous cement are clustered around the point Q
(quartz). At the same time, the density vs. neu-
tron-hydrogen index plot reveals the loss of poro-
sity with reference to the general compaction
gradient of sands, and from that, the quantity of
cement (according to Pettijohn, 1963 and Pettijohn
et a/., 1972). Before concluding that the cement is
siliceous, we must be sure that the decrease in
porosity is not due to poor sorting.
In the case of a calcareous cement, the points
Mark of Schlumberger.
A Jotnian (Prccambrianl Koylio. Muurunmakl. Fmland I I B h k analyst IStmonen and Kouvo
1955. p 631 44 percent normative feldspar
B Torridonian (Precambrian1 Kinlock. Skye. M H Kerr. analyst IKenncdy. 1951. p 2581 53 percem
normattve feldspar
C Sparagmite iLower Cambnanl. Engerdalen. Norway (Earth 1938. p 581 33 5 percent normrure
feldspar
D Calcareous rubarkore ICambnan or Ordovmanl. Basldrd T o w n i h l p Ontarto Cdnrda IKcllh
1949, p 211 About 12 percent feldspar and 7 percent calcitc
E Subarkore. Potsdam Sandstone ICambrianl. New York. P L D Elmore and K E Whlte. analyst,
17 percent normative feldspar iWiernet. 1961. p 91
F Lower Old Red Sandstone iDevon!ani. Foyers. Loch Nerr. Scotland iblackle. 1905. p 581
52 percent normative feldspar
G Calcareous arkore. Old Red Sandstone (Dcvonlani. Red Crags. Fochaberi-on-Spe) Scotland
IMackie. 1905. p 58) 16 percent normative feldspar and 28 percent normat~recalcite
H Subarkore. Rosebrae Sandstone IDevontani. Rosebrae. Elgln. Scotland IUacklc 1905. p 591
About 12 percent normative feldspar
I Subarkore of Whirehorw Group IPermianl. Kansas ISwmford. 1955. p 1221
J Portland Stone (Newark Group. Trlarrlcl. Portland. Conn IMcrrill. I891 p 4201 74 perceni
normative kidspar
K Molasse arkorc iOhgacene. Zugertypuri Unteragerl. KI Zug. Sultrerland F dr Querbrln
analyst iNiggh and others. 1930. p 2621
L Arkose iOllgoceneJ. Auvergne. France IHuckenholrz. 1963. p 91 71 19 percent feldspar
are grouped around a line joining the points Q and
C (calcite). The percentage of cement is then given
by the ratio of the distance of the point from Q to
the length of the line 0 - C .
In the same way, the points for a dolomitic
cement fall around a line joining Q and D (dolo-
mite). If the cement is a mixture of calcite and
dolomite, the points fall between the lines Q-C and
Q-D.
Certain sands have a halitic cement. Thus, in
theory, the points should fall around a line joining
Q and the halite point H. However, if the well has
been drilled with a mud which is not salt-satura-
ted, the halitic cement will dissolve, and the
 353

Table 7-8 Table 7-9

Mineralogical and chemical composition Mineralogical and chemical composition of lithic
of graywackes sandstones and protoquartzites
(from Pettijohn, 1963, in Pettijohn et a/., 1972). (from Pettijohn, 1963, in Pettijohn et a/., 1972).

V 0 3 a 3 .4 0 H
ism brig P8 9L I 1 b9 5889 EP t L ro t i 01 I L
180 290 090 tL0 rR o 0 $1 0s 0
9151 1691 91 I I 8r11 soil Zl 1 1 01 LI 001'1
9L0 bC0 $5 0 IP I i'i 180 0 9s axil
1 9 ~ zis 88 i W t toi 88 t t SI 0L i .Pi 09;
910 i!o axil LIO 500 Po0 B! 0 so 0 IIU I1 u
bcr 9x1 bt I 90: 96i Of I ct I or I t6 I ii I
tli lit OL 0 SI I 0s 0 Ll I 6t I 08 I rii i9s
0s i 81; Lii Ui L L8P i9 I 9) L OL i
69 I jz I i9 I 9. I I8 I PL I Lr I oi i
XI! Iff; 1 ,.u (it1 oti
,9t z
I
061
$10 JWO soul LLO oi 0 9i0 1 '03
20 61 0 roo 900 YI 0 1iU 01 n '011
LO 11 'O'd
Ill1 X80 80 0 Bt0 PX 0 51 0 PIO mi 'OS
510 I3
~

3
~

itu $10 - 800 iI 0 01 0 asui

100 ~

90 11 33111 to 0
~ LOO 0 LI 'I 0 600
6966 $666 5bWl 08 66 08 66 16 b6 LL 66

logging tools will not detect it (Fig. 7-13). Halitic or less in continuous contact, the resistivity will be
cements are usually found near salt formations. very low since pyrite and haematite are both
The P,, which is less sensitive to porosity, may conductive.
show values which are consistently higher than For arkoses or graywackes, the points fall in the
those of quartz (1.8 b/e), and this distinguishes area AI-Q-An-C-F for a calcareous cement. These
this case from a gas sand. The Schlumberger rocks may be recognised by plotting the potas-
TDT'tool is useful in this situation because of its sium ratio on the Z-axis.
sensitivity to chlorine (Fig. 7-14).
Pyrite or haematite cements will displace the 7.3.1.4. Authigenesis
points towards high values of Urn, and pma. If the
quantities are high enough and the cement is more The formation of authigenic minerals in terrige-
nous detrital sequences will depend on the textu-
ral and chemical maturity of the rock, on the types
* Mark of Schlumberger. of fluid and hence on the hydrodynamic conditions
354

A = inhydfiti
AI : ilbita
An I inorthiti
B : biotiti
S.
C : cilciti
W. chl : chlofiti
0 : dolomiti

f = potistiurn l i l d r p i r
G = maurn
H * hilitB
I : illits
K = tnoliniti
1 = limniti
I mscwiti
M. .
.
mmmorilloniti
,111
a ql~rtt
S * iylviti
I = i v i r w i v i l u i 101
t h y rninirilt

I
0 10 20
. *
I' (bms/rm'l

Fig. 7-12. - (pm& - (Urn& crossplot for determining the

mineralogy of rocks and cement.

2.00

2.20

2.40

2.60

2.80

3.00 *.........*.......
-5 5 15 2s 36 46

Fig. 7-13. - ph - &, crossplot showing and example of a

sandstone having a halitic cement (courtesy of Schlumberger).

and on the compaction (simultaneous action of

temperature and pressure).
The formation of authigenic minerals in ortho-
quartzites is usually limited to the precipitation of
"books" of kaolinite (Fig. 7-15). These may be
recognised on the same crossplot. The P, value of
kaolinite is close t o that of quartz (1.8 b/e), but its
content of hydrogen ions gives it a value of (prna)a
and (Uma)a which allow them to be distinguished
(point K for kaolinite). Thus, the points are grouped
around the Q-K line. It is difficult to distinguish
authigenic kaolinite from kaolinite of detrital ori- Fig. 7-14. - Sandstone with a halitic cement. Comparison
gin. However, it is reasonable to assume that between two CPls run with and without the TDT log (courtesy
authigenic kaolinite is purer, and that as a result it of Schlumberger).
ccntains practically no potassium, and even less
thorium and that it therefore has very low radioac- nite, chlorite, etc.), less frequently potassium or
tivity. plagioclase feldspars. It is not usually possible to
In immature sequences (arkoses and graywac- distinguish between these authigenic minerals and
kes), authigenic minerals are common. The most their detrital counterparts from wireline logs. The
common are the clay minerals (illite, montmorillo- presence of authigenic minerals will have a consi-

Fig. 7-15. - Distribution modes of authigenic clays (from Neasham, 1977).
derable effect on permeability, but this will vary
according to how the clays are distributed. The
distribution in its turn often depends on the type of
clay mineral (Fig. 7-15 and 7-16 and Table 7-10).
7.3.1.5. Nodules
The analysis of the microresistivity curves from
dipmeter logs, combined with the dips, allows
identification of resistive events which only appear
355
on a few curves (Fig. 7-17), more rarely on all 4 or
8 curves. In this last case the thickness of the
resistive events varies from one curve to another,
and the dips computed a t the bottom and at the
top of the event will be different (Fig. 7-18).
When these events appear suddenly in a homo-
geneous sandstone, they correspond either to
cemented balls, formed by dissolution of shell
fragments and reprecipitation of the released
calcite in the surrounding pore space by radiating
356

2000 I I I I
I .YL\
\
’
1000 //
800 Areas marked represent 1
600 the main concentrations ; /
400 of points
I
I /
I /
200

I00
80
60
0
E 40
* 20
J
s
a I0
W 8
Z 6 Fig. 7-17. - Resistive events appearing on a few curves. They
correspond t o cemented balls.
5ti4

2
diffusion, or to isolated pebbles in a sandy matrix,
1 or to anhydritic nodules. The choice between
0.8 these hypotheses can be made by checking the
0.6
1 ; ILLITE nature of the previous deposit or the type of the
0.4 / CEMENTED environment. If a grain size evolution can be
0.2
1
L’
/’ ,I
1 WELL detected from the logs, or if evidence of grain
supported conglomerates exists (Fig. 7-19), or if
0.1 I
I
I I I I we are in an alluvial fan, a channel bed load, a
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
mass flow deposit, or a glacial environment, the
pebble hypothesis is the most likely. The cemen-
ted balls hypothesis should be prefered in a deltaic
Fig. 7-16. - Effect of type and distribution of authigenic clay on
permeability. The porosity is unchanged, in spite of a change
or mid fan turbidite environment because it is
in permeability of 4 orders of magnitude in t h e extreme c a s e s impossible to explain how one pebble could be
(from Stadler, 1973; in Blatt et a/., 1980). transported and deposited in a region where the

Table 7-10
Characteristics of authigenic clays
(from Wilson & Pittman, 1977).

Relationship Thirkness of Coating nr

Morpholop of Form of to Sand SIIC Long Dimension of
Indi\idud Flakes Agsregntes Dclnld Grains A@grrgalrsl>l~rronsl Sprial Fralurrs

Kaolinite and pseudohexagonal stacked plates pore filling 2-2500 flakes notched or embayed
Dickite (book) (generally 2-20) (twinned?
pseudohexagonal vermicule pore filling 10-2500 flakes notched or embayed
(generall! 20-209) (twinned’)
pseudohexagonal sheet pore filling 0 1-1 flakes notched or embayed
(twinned?)
Chlorite pseudohexagonal plates (2-di- pore lining 2-10
mensional card-
house)
curled equidi- honeycomb pore lining 2-10
mensional with
rounded edges
equidimensional rosette or fan pore lining 4-150
with angular or and pore (generally 4-20)
lobate edges filling
fan-shaped cabbagehead pore lining 8-40
fibrous bundles and pore
filling
Illite irregular with sheet pore lining 0 1-10 bridging between sand grains
elongate spines
Smectite not recognizable wrinkled sheet pore lining 2-12 bridging between sand grains
or honehcomb
Mixed-layer subequant with imbricate sheet pore lining 2-12 bridging between sand grains
smectiteiillite stubby spines to ragged
hone! comb
 357

Fig. 7-18. - One cemented ball crossed by the well. Observe

the change in thickness from pad to pad. The core photograph

1I
confirms the presence of the ball.

DIP ANGLE
&DIRECTION
I SHDTCURVES 1
PHOTO/
CORE

/
1 ,:iCM
15

0 10 20 3 0 4 0 5061

DIPS RESISTIVITY C O R E DESCRIPTION

CURVES
pads
90

100
95
~~

energy was such that it generated a homogeneous

sand. Anhydritic nodules is the most likely hypo-
thesis in the interdune sabkha deposits of an
aeolian environment. They will be also characteri-
zed by a very high resistivity ( > 500 a - m ) .

7.3.1.6.Pyrite crystals
Pyrite crystals, formed by diagenesis by reduc-
tion of sulfates, are easily detected by the Forma-
tion Microscanner tool. They are characterized by
very conductive peaks (Fig. 7-20)on the resistivity
curves, or by dark black spots on the image
display, these spots reflecting sometimes the
shape of the crystals.

7.3.1.7.Epidiagenesis
As we have already seen, this corresponds to
the development of secondary porosity by lea-
ching, and is detected by comparing the porosity
measurement of the sonic tool with that obtained
from the density-neutron combination (see Para-
graph 7.3.2.3).

4 Fig. 7-19. - Example of grain supported conglomerate.

358
Fig. 7-20. - Pyrite crystals in a shale. They are characterized on the Formation Microscanner curves by very conductive peaks, and
on the images by very black spots showing the shape of the crystals (courtesy of Schlumberger).
7.3.2.The Study of Diagenesis
in Carbonate Sequences
The diagenetic phenomena affecting carbona-
tes are appreciably different from those affecting
detrital sequences. Thus, compaction is of minor
importance because other diagenetic phenomena
may have already affected the rock and made it
more consolidated even before the completion of
the burial process.
7.3.2.1.Crystallization
This is the phenomenon by which primary pore
space is filled with crystals of calcite (sparite) or
aragonite by precipitation or drusy growth (Fig.
7-5).This is accompanied by a loss of porosity
which is easily detected from the porosity logs,
assuming the type of mineralogy does not change.
The points will plot very close to the calcite point,
C, on a (pma)aVS. ( U m a ) a crossplot (Fig. 7-12),except
in the case of aragonite, for which the points fall
towards the bottom of the crossplot.
7.3.2.2.Neomorphism
It corresponds to a "transformation between
one mineral and itself or a polymorph whether the
new crystals are larger or smaller or simply differ
in shape from the previous ones, or represent a
new mineral species" (Glossary of Geology, 1980).
A first type of transformation corresponds to the
change of aragonite to calcite. It is accompanied
by a reduction of density (2.94 g/cm3 for aragonite
against 2.71 for calcite) and a loss of porosity. In
theory it should be very easy to detect from the
logs. This transformation always occurs early in
the cycle, and the majority of ancient sequences
have been subjected to it. Dolomitization (repla-
cement of calcite with dolomite) belongs to the
second type of transformation. It brings about a
13% reduction in volume, and a corresponding
increase in porosity if other phenomena do not
interfere. The log matrix density increases to a
value of 2.87g/cm3. It is this parameter above all
which allows this diagenetic phenomenon to be
detected. Crossplots of density-neutron, M - N,
or ( p m a ) a - ( U m a ) a provide the best means of
detection (Fig. 7-21).(pma)a and (Uma)a vary with the
intensity of dolomitization, which may itself vary
from one point to another.
Recrystallization cannot be detected from the
logs unless accompanied by a change in minera-
logy or porosity.
Dedolomitization is the inverse transformation
of dolomite into calcite, and so leads to a reduc-
tion in porosity and a decrease in density. This
process cannot be distinguished from dolomitiza-
tion using only the logs.
 359

Fig. 7-21. - (pm& - (Urn& crossplot in a typical carbonate (courtesy of Schlurnberger)

7.3.2.3. Selective Leaching

The method for detecting this phenomenon
with the wireline logs is well known. It involves
comparing the porosity derived from the density-
neutron combination with that obtained from the
sonic. The sonic tool detects the arrival of the
fastest acoustic wave which is the one correspon-
ding to the most direct path, that is, the one which
avoids the vugs and caverns which slow down the
waves.
The crossplots of Fig. 7-22 illustrate the method.

Fig. 7-22. - Crossplots showing how points are shifted as a

result of secondary porosity (courtesy of Schlurnberger).

G,YP LITHO-POROSITYPLOT (1) GYP ON VSAt PLOT (4)

61.
I-.

,I 0

SELECTED
LITHOLOGY TRIANGLES
D
32. DOL .Ca Co3
DOL. Ca C q - SIL

W.

0 W 70 m

.. . .. . .. . .. ...
. . I

: y : MID Plot
.

: S.1, :

. . . . . . . 70. .
360

The degree of leaching is measured by the secon- But selective leaching and vuggs can also be
dary porosity index, SPI, given by the relation : recognized on dipmeters and the Formation
Microscanner tool. Vugs correspond to conduc-
SPI = &D - @S tive peaks with irregular shapes, which are not
easily correlated even from button t o button and
or by the relative secondary porosity index, given all the more so from pad to pad (Fig. 7-24). On the
by the relation : Formation Microscanner images (Fig. 7-25) vugs
&D - 4% are represented by dark gray spots of which the
(SP1)reI = shape, the frequency and even the orientation can
N
h
D be determined (Fig. 7-26).

Fig. 7-23 shows the results of a quantitative inter-

pretation which included a computation of secon- RESISTIVITY
CURVES
dary porosity.
7 2 3 4 1

calcilutite
MUDSTONE

t
02:

calcarenite
GRAINSTONE

cakirudite
BOUNDSTONE

Fig. 7-24. - Typical dipmeter resistivity curves in a vuggy

carbonate.

7.3.2.4. Stylolitization

This is a pressure-controlled solution phenome-

Fig. 7-23. - Results of a quantitative GLOBAL interpretation
which displays the secondary porosity in the left-hand column
(Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference United Arab
Emirates/Qatar, 1981).
non. Stylolites are characterized by very fine joints
of irregular, sawtooth form, of variable height and
interpenetrating (Fig. 7-7). These joints often
contain a concentration of insoluble materials
(clays, coal, iron oxides, organic matter). There is
a loss of porosity due t o reprecipitation of dissol-
ved calcite in the surrounding pore space. Styloli-
tization is detected by a sudden large drop in
 361

Fig. 7-25.- Example of Formation Microscanner

images in a vuggy carbonate (courtesy of
Schlumberger).

I
Fig. 7-26.- Example of image analysis showing the extraction
of conductive events with a surface smaller than 250 mm2
(courtesy of Schlumberger).

ZONE FROM 1814 TO 1812 Y

362

Fig. 7-27. - Log response example in a limestone with dense, stylolitized slots between 6880 and 6910. Note the increases in density
and gamma ray, and the reduction of neutron-hydrogen index and sonic travel time, although RHGF ( (pm&) remains more or less
stable (Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference United Arab Emirates/Qatar. 1981).
 363

porosity and a simultaneous increase in radioacti-

vity (Fig. 7-27) often due to enrichment in uranium.
This phenomenon is most frequently encountered
in carbonate sequences, but may also be found in
compacted sequences of terrigenous clastics.
In favorable cases (sufficient thickness, or resis-
tivity contrast between stylolites and surrounding
beds), stylolites are easily recognized on the
Formation Microscanner images as illustrated by
the examples of the Figure 7-28. By studying them
it should be possible to determine their frequency,
and the axis of maximum stress.

7.3.2.5. Cherts and anhydritic nodules

When very resistive events appear in a homo-
geneous and porous limestone (chalk) characteri-
zed by flat curves without variations, chert nodules
seem to be the most likely hypothesis. When these
events are observed in a heterogeneous dolomitic,
or better, anhydritic limestone, they may corres-
pond to anhydritic nodules deposited in the supra-
tidal subenvironment. The Formation MicroScan-
ner tool enables recognition of their shape and
their frequency. They correspond t o very resistive Fig. 7-28. - Examples of stylolites easily recognized on the
peaks (R > 500 n - m ) , and are seen as white spots Formation MicroScanner images (courtesy of Schlumberger).
with irregular shapes on the images (Fig. 7-29).

7.3.2.6. "Hard-Ground"
This is a highly-cemented area which is rich in
oxides of iron and manganese. It may be penetra-
ted by burrowing organisms or sometimes by
encrusting organisms such as oysters. It indicates
a pause in sedimentation. It is frequently overlaid
with a fine intraformational conglomerate, rich in
phosphate debris and glauconite in a marly matrix
(Fig. 7-30). It appears on the logs as a very narrow
peak of very high density and resistivity which is
best seen by the micro-devices (MLL, M L and
HDT, SHDT or FMS), with a radioactive peak just
above (Fig. 7-31).

7.3.3. The Study of Diagenesis

in Volcaniclastic Sequences

The basic diagenetic reactions observed in

volcaniclastic sequences are the transformation of Fig. 7-29. - Example of anhydritic nodules detected on the
glass into clays (montmorillonite) or zeolites. In Formation Microscanner images, confirmed by core photo-
graphs (courtesy of Schlumberger).
addition, plagioclases may be altered t o give clays,
and the zeolites themselves may be transformed
into other zeolites or into albite. The reactions
which give rise t o these diagenetic minerals are
hydration, carbonization and dehydration.
In the absence of in-depth studies of logs in
sequences of this type, it is not possible t o indi-
cate methods of detection.

Fig. 7-30. - A "hard-ground" horizon in a chalk (from Selley,.

1976).
364

Fig. 7-31. - Example of a hard-ground detected using well logs

(from Serra, 1973).

7.4. REFERENCES
BATHURST, R.G.C. (1976). - Carbonate Sediments
and their Diagenesis. Developments in Sedi-
mentology, 12, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
BISSEL, H.J. (1959). - Silica in sediments of the
Upper Paleozoic of the Cordilleran area. In :
IRELAND, H.A., ed., Silica in Sediments - a
symposium. Tulsa, SEPM special publication 7,
p. 150-185.
BLATT, H. (1979). - Diagenetic processes in Sands-
tones. SEPM, Special Paper 26.
BLATT, H., MIDDLETON, G. & MURRAY, R. (1980).
- Origin of Sedimentary Rocks. 2d ed. Pren-
tice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
CAROZZI, A.V. (Ed.) (1975). - Sedimentary Rocks.
Benchmark Papers in Geology, 15, Dowden,
Hutchinson & Ross, Inc., Stroudsburg, Pennsyl-
vania.
CHILINGARIAN, G.V. & WOLF, K.H. (Eds) (1975).
-Compaction of Coarse-Grained Sediments.
Developments in Sedimentology, 18A & 188.
Elsevier, Amsterdam.
CHOQUETTE, P.W. & PRAY, L.C. (1970). -Geologi-
cal nomenclature and classification of porosity
in sedimentary carbonates. Bull. amer. Assoc.
Petroleum Geol., 54, p. 207-250.
CURTIS, D.M. (1976). - Sedimentary Processes :
Diagenesis. SEPM, Reprint series 1.
DAPPLES, E.C. (1967). - Silica as an Agent in
Diagenesis. In : LARSEN, G. & CHILINGAR,
C. V., Eds. : Diagenesis in Sediments, p. 91- 125,
Elsevier, Amsterdam.
DAPPLES, E.C. (1972). - Some concepts of Cemen-
tation and Lithification of Sandstones. Bull.
amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geol., 56, p. 3-25.
DICKEY, P.A. (1 979). - Petroleum Development
G eo Iogy . Petroleum Publishing Co., Tulsa.
DUNHAM, R.J. (1962). - Classification of Carbo-
nate Rocks according t o Depositional Texture.
Amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geol., Mem., 1. p.
108-121.
DUNOYER de SEGONZAC, G.D. (1968). - The birth
and development of the concept of diagenesis
(1867-1966). Earth-Sci. Rev., 4, 3, p. 153-201.
EVAMY, B.D. (1967). - Dedolomitization and the
development of rhombohedra1 pores in limesto-
nes. J. sediment. Petrol., 37. 4, p. 1204-1215.
FAIRBRIDGE, R.W. (1967). - Phases of Diagenesis
and Authigenesis. In : LARSEN, G. & CHILIN-
GAR, C.V., Eds. : Diagenesis in Sediments, p.
91 - 125, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
FERTL, W.H. (1976). - Abnormal Formation Pressu-
res. Developments in Petroleum Science, 2,
Elsevier, Amsterdam.
FOLK, R.L. (1959). - Practical Petrographic Classifi-
cation of Limestones. Bull. amer. Assoc. Petro-
leum Geol., 43. p. 1-38.
FOLK, R.L. (1962). - Spectral subdivision of Limes-
tone Types. Amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geol.,
Mem. 1, p. 62-84.
365
FRIEDMAN, G.M. (1964). - Early diagenesis and
lithification in carbonate sediments. J. sedi-
ment. Petrol., 34, p. 777-813.
FRIEDMAN, G.M. & ALI, S.A. (1981). - Diagenesis
of Carbonate Rocks : Cement-Porosity Rela-
tionships. SEPM Reprint series 10.
FRIEDMAN, G.M. & SANDERS, J.E. (1978). -Prin-
ciples of Sedimentology. John Wiley & Sons,
New York.
FUCHTBAUER, H. (1967). - Influence of different
types of diagenesis on sandstone porosity. Proc.
7th Wld Petrol. Cong., Mexico, p. 353-369.
GARRELS, R.M. & MACKENSIE, F.T. (1971). -Evo-
lution of Sedimentary rocks. Norton, W.W. &
Co, New York.
GARY, M., McAFEE, R.Jr. & WOLF, C.L. (1972).
-Glossary of Geology. Amer. Geol. Institute,
Washington, D. C.
GRIM, R.E. (1958). - Concept of diagenesis in
argillaceous sediments. Bull. amer. Assoc. Pe-
troleum Geol., 42, p. 247-253.
HOBSON, G.D. & TIRATSOO, E.N. (1975). -Intro-
duction t o Petroleum Geology. Scientific Press
Ltd, Beaconsfield, England.
KRUMBEIN, W.C. (1942). - Physical and Chemical
Changes in Sediments after Deposition. J.
sediment. Petrol., 12. p. 1 1 1 - 117.
KRUMBEIN, W.C. & SLOSS, L.L. (1963). -Strati-
graphy and Sedimentation. 2d ed. W.H. Free-
man & Co, San Francisco.
KRYNINE, P.D. (1948). - The megascopic study and
field classification of sedimentary rocks. J.
Geology, 56, p. 130-165.
LANDES, K.K. (1951). - Petroleum Geology. John
Wiley & Sons, New York.
LARSEN, G. & CHILINGAR, G.V. (1967). - Diagene-
sis in Sediments. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
LEET, L. Don, JUDSON, S. & KAUFFMAN, M.E.
(1978). - Physical Geology. 5th ed. Prentice-Hall
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
LINK, P.K. (1982). - Basic Petroleum Geology. OGCl
Publications, Tulsa.
LOMBARD, A. (1956). - Geologie Sedimentaire.
Les series marines. Masson, Paris.
LOMBARD, A. (1972). - Series sedimentaires.
Genese - Evolution. Masson, Paris.
LONGMAN (1980). - Carbonate diagenetic textures
from nearsurface diagenetic environments. Bull.
amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geol., 64, p. 461-487.
NEASHAM, J.W. (1977). - The morphology of
dispersed clays in sandstone reservoirs and its
effect on sandstone shaliness, pore space and
fluid flow properties. 52nd Ann. Fall Meet., SPE
of AIME, paper SPE 6858.
PETTIJOHN, F.J. (1975). - Sedimentary Rocks. 3d
ed. Harper & Row, Publishers, New York.
PETTIJOHN, F.J., POTTER, P.E. & SIEVER, R.
(1972). - Sand and Sandstone. Springer, New
York.
PIRSON, S.J. (1977). - Geologic Well Log Analysis.
2nd ed. Gulf Publishing Co., Book Division,
Houston.
366
POWERS, M.C. (1967). - Fluid release mechanisms
in compacting marine mudrocks and their im-
portance in oil exploration. Bull. amer. Assoc.
Petroleum Geol., 51, p. 1240-1253.
PRAY, L.C. & MURRAY, R.C. (Eds)(1965). -Dolomi-
tization and Limestone Diagenesis. SEPM, Spe-
cial Publication 13.
PRESS, F . & SIEVER, R . (1978). - Earth. 2d ed. W.H.
Freeman & Co, San Francisco.
RIEKE, H.H. Ill & CHILINGARIAN, G.V. (1974).
-Compaction of Argillaceous Sediments. Deve-
lopments in Sedimentology, 16, Elsevier, Ams-
terdam.
RUSSELL, W.L. (1951). - Principles of Petroleum
Geology. McGraw-Hill Book Co, New York.
SELLEY, R.C. (1976). - An Introduction to Sedimen-
tology. Academic Press, London.
SERRA, 0. (1973). - Interpretation geologique des
diagraphies differees en series carbonatees.
Bull. Centre Rech. Pau-SNPA, 7. 1, p. 265-284.
SIPPEL, R.F. (1968). - Sandstone petrology, evi-
dence from luminescence petrography. J. sedi-
ment. Petrol., 38. p. 530-554.
TAYLOR, J.M. (1950). - Pore space reduction in
sandstones. Bull. amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geol.,
34, p. 701-716.
TRASK, P.D. (1932). - Origin and environment of
source sediments of petroleum. Houston.
WELLER, J.M. (1960). - Stratigraphic principles
and practice. Harper, New York.
WILSON, J.L. (1975). - Carbonate Facies in Geolo-
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WOLF, K.L. & CHILINGARIAN, G.V. (1976). -Diage-
nesis of sandstones and compaction. In : CHI-
LINGARIAN, G.V. & WOLF, K.H. (eds) : Com-
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J. sediment. Petrol., 12, p. 127-136.
 Chapter 8

COMPACTION STUDY

8.1. DEFINITIONS
As pointed out by Fertl (1976), the compaction
is related to several parameters which are :
Compaction is the reduction in volume of sedi- o : the stress on the system,
ments due to compression, the first stage of which p : the density of the formation,
is marked by a reduction in pore volume. Gene- 4 : the porosity of the formation,
rally, compaction is the result of the mechanical k : the permeability of the formation,
action of the burial of formations and the weight D : the burial depth,
of overlying sediments accumulated during subsi- t : the time since the starting of the burial,
dence. The principal stress is therefore vertical, c : the compressibility relationship,
and directed downwards (Fig. 8-1). However, fur- v : the velocity parameter for solids and in-
ther compression may occur because the ensuing terstitial fluids in the system,
forces may result from tectonic movements in V : the volume relationships.
various directions. This kind of compression only The stress caused by burial is a function of the
occurs after compaction. force per unit area, and is represented by o. Its

P, :P # Pz P, $ Py # PI

PZ P.

P ,.

A
,?pykij- B C

u1)
D
P
Y
p
E
v
Fig. 8-1. - Classification of compaction stresses : (C) polyaxial stresses (pz > pv > px); (A) hydrostatic stresses (p. = pv = pz); (B)
triaxial stresses (p. = pr < pJ; (D) uniaxial stresses (the four faces which are parallel t o stress pzare stationary); (E) biaxial stresses
(p. = pv and the faces parallel t o these t w o stresses are maintained stationary) (from Sawabini ef a/., 1974).
368

unit is the pascal( = newton/m2) and its dimension

is kg/m/s2.
o=- Force
surface (8-11

The force (whose unit is the newton) generated

by the sediments is equal to the product of their
mass, M, and the acceleration due to gravity, g.
Therefore eq. (8-1) becomes :

The mass of the sediments is equal to the

product of their average density (usually expres-
sed in g/cm3) and their volume (surface height).
Thus : Fig. 8-2. - Variation of geostatic pressure with depth.

( J = p-b’g .surface. h (8-3)

surf ace

or simplifying, we get the total overburden 0-

pressure ’ 2-

4-

-
-Q5
where 6-
o = the overburden pressure in pascal ’, 8-
i)b = total average density of the sediment in

g/cm3,
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2), -;; 10-

h = height (or thickness or depth) in metres.

For porous formations p b can be expressed as :
5 12-
r

0
14 -

16 -

where 18 - I
bw = average density of the fluid in g/cm3,
p,, = average density of the matrix in g/cm3, 20
07
I 0.8 0.9
I
I
1.0
I
1.05
(matrix as understood by the log analyst, i.e. the Overburdengradient psiltt
total non-fluid part of the formation),
@ = average porosity of the formations.
Overburden pressure increases with depth, and Fig. 8-3. - Variation of geostatic pressure gradient with depth
as a first approximation would be assumed to be (1) theoretical; (2) in Texas and Louisiana; (3) in California; (4)
uniformly proportional to depth (Fig. 8-2). Howe- in the North Sea (from Fertl, 1976).
ver, this is not the case, since the density of rocks
increases with depth. Assuming a uniform in-
crease, we define an overburden pressure gradient pressure). This is represented schematically in
which is assumed to be equal to 0.231 kg/cm2/m Fig. 8-4. Thus,
( = 1 psi/ft) for an average density of rocks equal o = pp + pe (8-6)
to 2.31 g/cm3 (Fig. 8-3). For porous formations, by
using eqs. (8-2) and (8-3), the overburden pressure N.B. In the case of non-porous rocks, pp = 0
can be broken down into two components, hydros- and (J = pe.
tatic, pp (pressure of fluid column) and lithostatic, The hydrostatic component pp is also known as
pe (pressure of sediment column or intergranular the interstitial fluid pressure, or pore pressure, and
is equal to the hydrostatic pressure (i.e. the
product of average fluid density and the height of
the fluid column), if the fluid is pure water and the
compaction is normal.
’ Or, more precisely : a = g J:pb(h)dh. (8-4b)
The pressure is sometimes expressed in psi or kg/cm2.

Pw Pma
PP + P.
a
Fig. 8-4. - Schematic representation of geostatic pressure and
its components.
Fig. 8-5. - The concept of compaction in subsurface.
This pressure may exceed the hydrostatic pres-
sure if the interstitial fluid is subjected to an
excess of pressure due, for example, to tectonic
stresses or compaction (in the case of a under-
compacted formation). The hydrostatic pressure
gradient is defined as the ratio pp/h, and is equal
to 0.1 kg/cm2/m for pure water. The ratio of fluid
pressure, pp, to overburden pressure, 0,represen-
ted by h, is minimal in a hydrostatic environment
or in the case of normal compaction :
(8-8)
0
h = 0.435psi/ft (0,lkg/cm2/m)
In an undercompacted environment, the fluid
supports some or all of the lithostatic pressure. pp
increases while pedecreases. pp tends towards the
geostatic pressure o and h tends towards a value
of 1 psi/ft (Fig. 8-5).
8.2. COMPACTION OF SANDS
The first stage of the consolidation is a mecha-
nical rearrangement of the grains '. During this
they roll or slide over each other easily and rapidly
depending on their shape and sorting, because of
the vertical stress exerted by overlying sediments
at the time of burial. This produces a tighter or
more compact arrangement and hence a reduction
of porosity, leading to an increase in the density.
Furthermore, as shown by Taylor (1950),this rear-
rangement will cause the number of lower and
total contacts for each grain to increase (Fig. 8-6).
' See Allen & Chilingarian, 1975, for more details.
369
I w\
Subpr.uiv.r
(abnormally low p m w r e ) y\ surpr.uiv.r
(abnormally high y s s u r e )
b
It can be demonstrated that for a stack of spheres
of the same size the number of lower contacts will
increase from 1 to 3 or 4 (Fig. 8-7).Taylor also
established that the type of contact changes with
burial (Fig. 8-6 and 8-8).From having a tangential
shape (a point), the contact becomes elongated (a
ridge), then concavo-convex and finally sutured (a
surface). The change in porosity due to compac-
tion also depends on sorting. Initially, a poorly
sorted sand is less porous than one which is well
sorted. However, the reduction in porosity with
depth is less rapid for a poorly sorted sand. Once
the coarse grains have been rearranged with
tangential or elongated contacts by the displace-
ment of small grains, they will carry most of the
load and thus protect the smaller grains from
further stress. These will occupy the volume
allowed by the arrangement of coarse grains, and
will continue to do so until the point a t which the
stress begins to crush the grains.
The composition of the sand also has a part to
play. The porosity of a "clean"sand, that is without
shale or mica, decreases less rapidly with depth
than a shaly sand. This is because, under stress,
mica or shale grains, which are less resistant and
more plastic, lose their shape and crumble, the-
reby invading the porous space. Furthermore, the
presence of such minerals as amphiboles, pyroxe-
nes, plagioclases, feldspars, etc., encourages the
development of other diagenetic phenomena be-
cause of their chemical instability. Such pheno-
mena will quickly take over from compaction.
According to measurements carried out by
various researchers (Maxwell & Verral, 1954; Borg
& Maxwell, 1956; Maxwell, 1960), well-sorted
quartz sands can have very high porosities (25to
30 O/O) a t ambient temperatures, for pressures
corresponding to a depth of 13,000m (40,000ft).
370

I -

a
40

d
13 b

01 I I I I
Y
I
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
DEPTH (meters)
-L€GEND-
TANGENTIAL -- - - - - CONCAVO-CONVEX ----- NUMBER OF CONTACTS
LONG--- SUTURED --__---
Fig. 8-6. - Effect of depth of burial on the type of grain-to-grain contact in the Jurassic and Cretaceous sandstones in two Wyoming
wells (from Taylor, 1950).

nc = 6 0 = 47.6443 nc = U 0 = 39.54 nc = 12 0 = 25.95

According to Maxwell (1964), porosity decreases

83 % f B
Can1

cubic
C a n2

h.Xag0n.l
Care 3

momboh.dn1
more rapidly with depth when the temperature
gradient increases (Fig. 8-9). For low temperature
gradients (7oC per 1,000 ft) and young formations
(Miocene) Maxwell recorded, in Louisiana and
Texas, a porosity of 20% a t a depth of about
nc = 8 0 39.54 nc = 10 0 = 30.19 nc = 12 0 = 25.95 %
6,000 m. It can be concluded that a high tempera-

83
ture gradient encourages the early development of
other diagenetic phenomena, particularly cemen-
C a n4 tation, at which time compaction becomes a
Cam 5 Care 6 secondary effect.
onhorhombic tetregond Wink
Another factor in the reduction of porosity
appears to be the passage of time, which also
nc = total number ofcontacts per grain encourages other diagenetic phenomena. Based
on the results of 17,367 porosity measurements
90 60 60 made on subsurface cores, Atwater & Miller, 1965
(in Blatt, 1979) established that porosity develops
Can1 Cam 2 C a n3 linearly and continuously a t depths below 350 m
(Fig. 8-10). McCulloh (1967), on the other hand,
60 -1.
defined a change of porosity with depth which is
not linear. This study was based on 4,000 porosity
can 5 Case 6 measurements from cores (Fig. 8-1 1). The contra-
nci = 2 nei = 4
dictory results of these two researchers seems to
be due to their analysis of porosity changes on a
statistical basis only, rather than studying the
origin of porosity reduction.
In fact, these curves include all the diagenetic
Cam 1 C8SO 2 Can3 effects associated with burial and not just com-
nci : number of bwer contacts paction. It is difficult to determine the diagenetic

4 Fig. 8-7.- The six stacking schemes for spherical grains of the
same size which control the porosity and number of contacts
C a n4 C a n5 Care 6 (from Graton & Fraser, 1935).
 371

006
OoaO

@ T a n g m t h l contacts
Point
contact

1 ina
long contacts contact

Concavo - convax contacts I Sur faca

contact

Suturad grains

a- 50 46
Porosity

5 1.5
Number of lower contacts per grain

Fig. 8-8.- Variation of the number of lower contacts and of the porosity with depth of burial (from Taylor, 1950).

- two
5000

10000
*

.
-4
. 2000
. 3000 I000
I
E . 4000
-
c .
I

. 5000
\
15000
2000
f 20000 *
- 6000
$
-
2 -, 7000
e

25 000 -
0
E 3000
I
30 000 !i
:
#
0 10 20 30 40 50
4000

P
Porosity ( X 1
500C
Fig. 8-9. - Variation of porosity with depth using various
temperature gradients and ages (from Maxwell, 1964).

60OC
Fig. 8-10. - Relationship between depth of burial and porosity,
based on measurements on 17367 core samples from sandsto-
nes of the late Tertiary in Louisiana. The points represent the 18 22 26 3b 34 38 I

average values over 1000-foot intervals (from Atwater & Miller, AVERAGE POROSITY- %
1965, unpublished).
372

TOTAL POROSITY, IN PERCENT APPLIED PRESSURE PSI

50

rocks ( t h a t
r o c k s of PII
cone a n d Qu
ternary a#.)

0.31
_--,
I I
...
\w
r\\
1

0.2
Ilkaly t o occur In 10 100 1000
a n argillaceous
rock a s s o c l a t d APPLIED PRESSURE, KG/CM-*
w t h a rock of
probabla marl-
mum porosity
Fig. 8-12. - Relationship between void ratio and applied
pressure ( 1) in a Rhode Island sand; (2)in a Plum Island sand;
(3) in quartz; (4) in feldspar (from Roberts, 1969).

arvolr sandstona
mantary rocks
Porosity for vlrtually
811 sadlmantary mclu
aadlmantary rocks
Fig. 8-11. - Relationships between the total porosity of sedi-
mentary rocks and depths of burial, based on laboratory
measurements on over 4000 core samples from the basins of
Los Angeles and Ventura, and other locations in the US and
Italy (from McCulloh, 1967). The curve through the crossed
points is from the Niger Delta (see Fig. 8-16).
The analysis of the effects of burial on sands
should be based on changes in maximum porosity
which should be related to the porosity of "clean"
sands (i.e. well-sorted, with no unstable minerals).
These sands will undoubtedly be less influenced
by diagenetic effects other than compaction.
Furthermore, considering the stress exerted on the
grains, the porosity seems to decrease in steps.
Each step corresponds, for a given temperature
gradient, to a certain pressure linked with a resis-
tance to normal or shearing stresses, to collapsing,
or to a change of mechanical behaviour. Figure
8-12, taken from Roberts (1969), shows that there
is no modification of the void ratio4 and hence
porosity, until a certain pressure, known as the
point of collapse, is reached. In the same way, the
variation in maximum porosity with depth is seen
to be stepped, as measured by Maxwell (1964) and
plotted in Fig. 8-14, other diagenetic effects being
minimal. The following can be concluded :
- The study of compaction in sands must be
based on the maximum porosity.
- The reduction of porosity due to burial does
not decrease proportionally, but in steps.
- Compaction is often accompanied by secon-
dary diagenetic phenomena.

phenomena responsible for the reduction in poro- The void ratio, e, is defined as the ratio of pore volume
sity on the basis of individual samples. For this, a t o solid volume
detailed analysis should be carried out on thin
sections by cathode luminescence or a scanning v ou e = -@-.
e = A, (8-9)
V, 1-4
electron microscope. It is clear that beyond a
certain temperature and pressure which depends Robertson (1967) defined the percentage of solids G as the
on the composition and texture of the rock, other ratio of the volume of solids t o the total volume (Fig. 8-13)
phenomena begin to take over from mechanical
G V ou
= 2, G = 1 - 4. (8-10)
compaction. For very clean, mature and well-sor- Vb
ted sands, (i.e. free of clay), and for a low tempe-
This gives
rature gradient, these secondary effects appear
later, hence a t greater depths. G' (8-11)
 373

f l I

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Proportion of solid Grain (G)

Fig. 8-13. - Relationship between porosity, void ratio and

percentage of solids (from Robertson, 1967)

0 10 20 30 40
I I 5000 I
Atsd Atrh psh (pblsd

normal trend normal trend normal trend

10000- - low0 for sands for shales for sands

Y -
-
c

-
Y

z - 3 Fig. 8-15. - Plot of density and sonic travel time as a function

I - of depth, providing a determination of the compaction trend
:15000-
I-
- 15000 in sands.
0
8
-

20 000
0 10 20 30 UI

POROSITY $
8.3. STUDY OF SAND COMPACTION
Miocene s8ndslonss
USING WELL LOGS
8 F r i o (Oligocene 1 sandstones, A c i d i r . Allen

Since burial results in reduced porosity, it is

Fig. 8-14. - Variation of maximum porosity with depth (from
Maxwell, 1964). The variation can equally well be plotted in
easy t o study this from logs, given the wide range
steps. of measurements they provide and the great
number of wells drilled throughout the world in
which density and neutron-hydrogen logs have
been recorded. Well logs also provide other
- At a given depth, a porosity which is below the opportunities for analysis, when combining natural
compaction line indicates either a decrease in radioactivity data (total or selective) with the Pe
sorting, or the development of other diagenetic index measured by the LDT tool, giving an accu-
effects (cementation, authigenesis, etc.), connec- rate picture of the composition of the sand,
ted with a combined effect of pressure and tempe- without long and costly laboratory analyses.
rature and chemical instability of the minerals Any tool sensitive t o porosity (density, sonic
present. transit time or neutron-hydrogen index) may be
- Levels of higher porosity indicate undercom- used for this purpose. Either the raw values, or
paction and suggest the presence of zones of high those corrected for the “parasite” effects of the
pressure. Such zones are detectable by an in- borehole influence (Fig. 8-15), can be plotted as a
crease in mud pit levels during drilling, in which function of depth. With density or sonic logs, the
case mud weight should be increased. Higher porosity value derived from the raw measurements
porosity may also indicate secondary porosity due ( p b or At) is used, choosing those of quartz as the
to epidiagenesis if the reservoir pressure is hy- standard values of density and sonic travel time
drostatic. ( p m a and Atma)of the matrix, as understood by log
374

analysts. In this case, the calculation is made

automatically from the following equations :
i
2 000-

' =
At' - At
At, - Atma
(8-13)

3 000-
An upper limit for radioactivity can also be set,
excluding from the calculation and crossplot very
high levels which may correspond to chemically
and texturally immature reservoirs. These may
include chemically unstable radioactive minerals,
such as feldspars, mica or shale.
4000- Figure 8-16 shows, as a function of depth,
porosity measurements for clean sands (radioacti-
vity below a certain limit) determined from density

1
1 logs recorded by ELF in 26 wells in Nigeria and
corresponding to 1875 measurements carried out
a t depths of between 2,000 and 14,000ft. The

"ool3
porosity is plotted logarithmically. The average
change, given by the middle line, and correspon-
ding to the line of regression seems to be expo-
nential, and represents the change of porosity with
burial, all diagenetic phenomena being conside-
4
red. The same graph shows the change in maxi-
a 000-
mum porosity as well as minimum, the maximum
being defined in clear steps as previously mentio-
ned.

1000- 8.4. COMPACTION OF CARBONATES

One can conclude, as Coogan & Manus (1975)

did, that the compaction of carbonates depends
on three principal factors - which are also those
#ma- which act in the compaction of other sediments.
- Inherited factors which are related to the
original composition of the carbonate (particle
mineralogy), and to the texture (grain and crystal
size and shape, sorting, packing), consequently to
s00- the depositional environment.
- Inhibitory factors which inhibit compaction
and are related to physically and biologically indu-
-- ced chemical changes during preburial lithification
or alteration such as synsedimentary or early
la aoo-
cementation and dolomitization.
- Dynamic factors which are related to the
depositional, diagenetic and tectonic environ-
- ments, and overburden pressure, subsurface tem-
perature, duration of burial stress, pore pressure
and pore fluids.
11 000- Completely contrary to quartz and shales, the
carbonate minerals (fundamentally calcite and

4 Fig. 8-16. - Plot of porosity measurements, based on logs run

by ELF-Aquitaine in 26 wells in Nigeria, as a function of depth.
l2000-
There is a clear general trend, while the variation in maximum
OEPTH I# F E U porosity appears to progress in steps.

dolomite), are very soluble, their solubility depen-
ding greatly on the pH and Eh conditions, and the
temperature and pressure.
The initial (depositional) porosity of carbonates
is often very high (between 40 and 80 %). This high
porosity favors fluid circulation if it is associated
with a high permeability, which depends on the
size of the crystals and the throats between the
pores. Consequently, the interstitial waters are not
always in chemical equilibrium with the surroun-
ding rock. This can create ionic exchanges bet-
ween the solutions and the minerals composing
the rock. Furthermore, a high dispersion of the size
of the particles and crystals leads to different
amounts of dissolving and recrystallization. All
these factors result in early diagenesis which leads
either to lithification of the rock by cementation
and/or recrystallization, or to a weakening of the
rock due to dissolution. In the first case compac-
tion by burial will have little effect. In the second,
it will become important and will generate other
diagenetic phenomena : pressure solution, fractu-
ring, stylolitization, brecciation, etc.
So, carbonate rocks react to burial in different
ways depending on the original facies, and the
importance and type of diagenetic phenomena
supported since the deposition.
Other factors must be taken into account :
- the rate of sedimentation and subsidence;
- the geothermal regional gradient (i.e proxi-
mity of a volcanic activity, etc.), the temperature
effect on the solubility of calcium carbonate being
important;
- the maximum effective stress or overburden
pressure;
- length of time of burial;
- the fluid pressure, which, if it is high, will
decrease the effect of compaction;
- the formation fluids, the presence of oil or gas
can considerably decrease the ionic exchanges
and consequently the diagenetic phenomena.
Oil-wet particle surfaces could substantially re-
duce the potential for solution of carbonate
minerals and the redeposition of calcite as cement
in the pore space.
In the case of chalks, the initial porosity is very
high (between 70 and 80 %). The size (1 to 20 pm)
of the organisms which compose them (coccoliths
and foraminifers), and the good sorting, give this
type of rock poor permeability, limiting fluid
movement. Furthermore, the magnesium content
is often close to zero, giving them a high degree of
diagenetic stability. The decrease of porosity with
depth is, in its initial phase, fundamentally linked
to compaction. The porosity evolution with depth
is close to that found for sands (Fig. 8-17). But, the
comDaction is sometimes delaved either when the
rate 'of sedimentation is high, or when the hydro-
carbons have early occupied the pore space at an
early stage, or when the two phenomena are
375
I I NorthISea Coccolith ICh\alk 1 1 I
I
70
I
60
I
50
I
40
I
30
I
20
I
10 0
Porosity, percent
Fig. 8-17. - Porosity loss with depth in chalk. Gulf Coast Chalk
lost more porosity than normal. This is related to a high
geothermal gradient. On the other hand, North Sea Chalk was
deposited so quickly that much more original porosity was
preserved (courtesy of R . Nurmi).
combined as in the North Sea example (Fig. 8-18).
In the case of reefs (bioherms), the framework
itself of the recifal body is the reason that these
deposits can support an important burial without a
significant loss of porosity. Other diagenetic ef-
fects (cementation, dolomitization) can, however,
modify their behaviour.
In the case of carbonate sands (bioclastic,
oolites) the compaction will depend on the impor-
tance and the nature of the other diagenetic
phenomena which themselves will depend on the
depositional and diagenetic environments.
From a general point of view, taking into ac-
count all phenomena, a recent study on carbona-
tes from the south of Florida, would seem to
indicate that the loss of porosity of limestones is
more rapid than that of dolomites (Fig. 8-19).
8.5. COMPACTION OF SHALES
Shales are well-suited for studying compaction
because of their high initial porosity and the lower
importance of other diagenetic phenomena. So a
great deal of work has been done on them,
resulting in numerous publications '. Of particular
interest are those of Rieke & Chilingarian (1974),
and Fertl (1976).The following paragraphs summa-
rize the basic points necessary to understand
compaction.
' A detailed list of references is given for readers interes-
ted by the subject.
376

Water bearing? x 500

Less porous and
permeable chalk

1
Oil bearing
I
Hardground
Coccolith.
X600
Shales

Oil bearing
chalk

More shales
transition zones

Water bearing
I X700

Fig. 8-18. - Example of compaction profile in a chalk. Observe the two types of trends. In water bearing formations (lower resistivity
zones with low radioactivity) the average porosity is much lower than in oil bearing (high resistive) beds.

8.5.1. Principal Stages in Shale Compaction

Like all other sediments, shales expel their

interstitial water when buried. Due to their signifi-
cant permeability, related to their high porosity,
there is a considerable period during which shales
can potentially expel this water.
Several models of compaction have been pro-
posed.
0 For Athy (1930) compaction is simply the
process of expelling interstitial fluids, resulting in
a porosity decrease. However, after the deposition
and burial of a sediment, its pore volume may be
modified by :
- deformation of the grains;
- cementation;
- dissolution;
- recrystallization;
- grain compression.
0 For Hedberg (1936) compaction has three
6 stages (Fig. 8-20) :
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Porosity, percent

Fig. 8-19. - Comparison of limestone and dolomite porosity

- mechanical rearrangement and loss of water
evolution with depth in a south Florida formation. Above from the shaly mass in an interval between 0 and
1500 m limestones are generally more porous, below they are 800 psi. For a small pressure variation, the reduc-
less porous than dolomites (courtesy of R. Nurmi). tion in porosity is high;
 377

- recrystallization with porosities below 10 O/o.

The reduction of pore volume is slow and only
happens with a large increase in pressure. The
larger crystals may enlarge a t the expense of the
smaller ones.
0 Weller’s model (1959), which is very similar to
that of Hedberg, gives the main stages of compac-
tion as follows :
- expulsion of interstitial water until the mo-
ment when the grains come into contact with each
other; porosity is reduced from 85 to 45%;
- grain rearrangement;

Fig. 8-20a. - Hedberg’s compaction model (from Hed-
berg.1936).
- mechanical deformation of the particles toge-
ther with further expulsion of adsorbed water
between 800 and 6,000 psi (4 < 35%). Some
recrystallization of shale particles may occur;
- soft shaly minerals are squeezed between the
grains of the more resistant minerals;
- deformation, tending to eliminate all porosity.
0 Powers (1967) considers that the mineralogi-
cal type of the s hale causes compaction to have
different effects, as shown in Figure 8-21.

-t .G

20

DEPTH OF BURIAL ( f e e t )

Fig. 8-20b. - Relationship between depth of burial and grain ratio or porosity, showing Hedberg‘s compaction stages (from Baldwin,
1971). (A) Oklahoma (Athy, 1930); (D) Venezuela (Dallmus, 1958); (DG) Gulf Coast (Dickinson, 1953); (ERl) Santa Barbara Basin
(Emery & Rittenberg, 1952); (ER2) California Coast (Emery & Rittenberg, 1952); (ER3) Los Angeles Basin (Emery & Rittenberg, 1952);
(G) Lake Mead (Gould, 1960); (H) Venezuela (Hedberg, 1936); (J) Joides, Well 1 (Beall & Fisher, 1969); (K) 15 cores from the abyssal
plane (Kermabon e t a / . , 1969) (KH) Venezuela (Kidwell & Hunt.1958); (M) curves 3,4, 7, 8, and 10 (Meade, 1966); (RK) New Scotland
(Richards & Keller, 1962); (SH) compaction test by Skempton (Hamilton, 1959); (SJ) composite curve by Skeels (Johnson. 1950);
compaction test on blue marine shales (Terzaghi, 1925); (W) compaction test by Warner (Beall & Fisher, 1969);(B) average curve
by Baldwin (Baldwin, 1971).
378

MONTMORILLONITE COMPACTION HISTORY ILLITE AND KAOLINITE COMPACTION HISTORY

WWAKV nfsuLTs IU souncf ROCU PROWL7 RLWLTS IU OIL SHALL

IIEYARUS
I w c n E s c m nncAsma-
IYUILAR TO K R U C A D I L I T Y
AND POROSITY C U I V L I I

' Y Y Y .+%
- \ \ \\\\ \ YI

W A T f ~ - f . S C A P C CURVC ILLlTC

[II17 W U T Y O R I L L O N I T C a ILLITC IN0 I A O L I U I T L

Fig. 8-21. - Compaction history of various types of marine-deposited shales and its probable relationship to the formation of
hydrocarbons (from Powers, 1967)

0 Finally, Burst (1969) proposed a compaction

Density = 1.32
model based on three stages of dehydration Recant burial
(Fig. 8-22). k

From these, the stages of compaction can be ,

I 0Porewater
i

summarized as follows : ,
\I

\
Interlayer water

1. The expulsion of interstitial water until the Swelling clays solids

grains come into contact with each other. The ,
t
I Non-swellingclay solids
porosity in shales falls from 70-85% to around ,
!

45 %, a reduction which is attained rapidly over a 70% '\ 0 Non-clay solids

depth of a few tens of metres. ,
,
I I
8
2. Mechanical rearrangement of grains and
continued expulsion of fluid. Porosity falls to about L 1 . H t
25 O/O, a reduction which is slower and occurs over D = 2.57
several hundred metres.
3. Mechanical deformation of the particles and
expulsion of the adsorbed water. Soft minerals
sink into the interstices between harder minerals.
The porosity falls from 35 to 10 Oh. This reduction is
even slower and may occur over several thousands
of metres.
4. The development of major diagenetic phe- I- stage 1 + Stage 2 4-
Stage 3 --I-----I
nomena caused by modification of the physical-
chemical equilibrium by the combined action of Fig. 8-22. - Global composition of a marine shale during its
pressure and temperature, concentration of water dehydration (from Burst, 1969).
and the presence of other fluids, e.g. gas and oil.
This development includes :
8.5.2.Compaction Mechanisms
- recrystallization,
- cementation, Note : The following pages will consider vertical
compaction along a single axis caused by the
- dissolution. weight of overlying sediments on shales.

I M : MANOMETRE
Fig. 8-23. - Schematic representation of shale compaction (from Terzaghi & Peck, 1948).
The mechanism of compaction was described
by Terzaghi & Peck (1948) and later by Hottman &
Johnson (1965).To explain it they created a model
like the one in Fig. 8-23, consisting of perforated
metal plates, separated by metal springs and
water, all within a cylinder. The springs simulate
the grain-to-grain contacts between the shaly
particles and the plates simulate these particles.
Manometers record the fluid pressure.
At stage A of the experiment the valves are
closed and no fluid can be expelled. When pres-
sure is exerted (o),the springs are not subjected
to any pressure (pe = 0), and the pressure applied
is totally counterbalanced by the equal and oppo-
site pressure of the water (pp) occupying the
volume Vi, and pp = o.
A practical way of recording this pressure is to
note the ratio of fluid pressure, pp and the pressure
exerted o
h = h (8-8)
o only escape with difficulty, the following condi-
At stage A, h = 1, and the system is overcom-
pressed.
At stage B, the valve is partially open, the plates
are moved downwards (compaction), the volume
V1 decreases and the springs transmit part of the
applied pressure.
(3 = Pp + Pe (8-6)
and h = 1.
At stage C, the valve is completely open and
enough water is expelled to allow the springs to
reach compaction equilibrium. From this moment
the system is in equilibrium and no more water is
expelled. The water occupies a volume V1,smaller
than VI and Vi (compaction). Now, the applied
stress is supported by the springs and the water
379
which is at the hydrostatic pressure. In such a
case, h approximately equals 0.433.
This model simulates well what actually hap-
pens :
- o represents the overburden pressure exerted
by the overlying sediments;
- pp is the interstitial fluid pressure at depth Z
(formation or hydrostatic pressure);
- pe is the compaction pressure to which the
shaly matrix is subjected a t depth Z, or the lithos-
tatic pressure to which it is subjected, if the
proposals of Chapman (1972) are accepted.
Thus, if the pore fluids can escape freely during
subsidence, either towards the surface or by
continuous drainage, the volume of original water
(porosity) decreases proportionally with Z, pe is
maximum and pp tends to be hydrostatic. In these
circumstances, compaction is said to be normal.
However, if, given the burial conditions, fluids can
tions will be found :
- slight reduction in the volume of original
water, therefore a small porosity decrease with
depth;
- pe will be abnormally low;
- pp will be close to the overburden pressure.
Here the compaction is defined as abnormal or
undercompaction can be assumed.
8.5.3. The Hubbett & Rubey Law
It has been established by these two authors
that the effective stress peexerted on porous shale
(or on the springs mentioned in the experiment)
380

depends on the degree of shale compaction, and

that pe increases proportionally with compaction.
Undercompacted shales
A practical guide to the degree of shale compac-
Normallycompactedshales
tion is its porosity 4, defined as the ratio of pore
o
L

volume to the total volume. From this it can be E

deduced that, for a given shale, there is for each 0
porosity value 4 a certain maximum value of
effective compression stress pB which the shale
can support without further compaction. This is
expressed by :
&h = &hoe-kpe (8-14)
3Ooo- oh.
\.
0. \

2000 -
1
with
p. = 0 - pp (8-6b)
where 1000 --
\
&hO = shale porosity at zero burial depth \
(2= O),
&h = shale porosity a t burial depth 2,
pe = compaction pressure exerted on the solid
matrix a t depth Z,
k = constant,
0 = total pressure exerted on a porous shaly Fig. 8-24. - Variation of shale porosity with depth (from Masse,
element a t depth 2 (i.e. overburden pressure), 1971).
pp = fluid pressure.
This equation shows that shale porosity a t a
given depth is a function of fluid pressure. If this
pressure is abnormally high the shale porosity will Oklahoma, Hubbert. & Rubey established the fol-
also be abnormally high, as in the case of over- lowing coefficients :
pressured shale.
In hydrostatic conditions : &ho = 48 %

c = 1,42.10-3(m-1)

These values are close to those formulated by

and Masse (1971) :
Pp = pw.g.z (8-15) &ho= 48 ?h
c = 1,14.10-3(m-1)
where
pbw = average density of the overlying sedi-
ments, impregnated with water of a density pw in which were established from measurements on
g/cm3, 113 shale samples in 18 wells drilled in 6 basins
pw = average density of the fluids in overlying (Paris, Aquitaine, Illizi, Gassi-Touil, Gabon and
formations in g/cm3, Majunga). They were made a t different burial
g = acceleration due to gravity, depths varying between 800 and 5,500m and
Z = burial depth in metres. ranging from the Gothlandian to the Upper Creta-
Substituting values for 0 and pp in eq. (8-14) : ceous (Fig. 8-24). The differing values of c can be
explained by the fact that Masse's line is an
&h= (8-16) average, which integrates data from different
basins with different ages of rocks, while that of
with Hubbert & Rubey applies only to the Permian
formations of North Oklahoma.

8.5.4. Compaction Effects

c = compact ion factor, with dimension L-l
(inverse of length).
Eq. (8-16) shows that shale porosity varies
exponentially with burial depth. So, plotting &h
logarithmically against Z on an arithmetic scale,
eq. (8-16) is shown by a straight line, characteri-
sing normal compaction.
Using shale measurements from Athy (1930) on
shales and mudstone of the Paleozoic of North
8.5.4.1. Effects on Shale Porosity
As already seen, the mechanical effect of
compaction is a reduction in volume and therefore
in porosity as well as an increase in density. The
connate water is expelled towards less compact,
more permeable areas of drainage.

20003”
20 40 60
POROSITY, 7.
Fig. 8-25. - Relationship between porosity and maximum depth
of burial of shales and shaley sediments (from various au-
thors: ( 1 ) Proshlyakhov (1960); (2) Meade (1966); (3) Athy
(1930); (4) Hosoi (1963); (5) Hedberg (1936); (6) Dickinson
(1953); (7) Magara (1968); (8) Weller (1959); (9) Ham (1966);
(10) Foster & Whalen (1966). In : Rieke & Chilingarian, 1974).
The highest variations in density and porosity
should occur between 300 and 800m and the
gradient of specific mass of the shales should be
between 0.02 and 0.05 g/cm3/100 m. From Fig. 8-24
it appears that during deposition (mud with almost
85 OO/ water, buried at 800 m, bsh = 20 %) porosity
should decrease by 65 %, corresponding to an
expulsion of around 650 litres of water per m3 of
sediments.
The change in shale porosity with depth has
been studied by various researchers, and their
findings are shown in Fig. 8-25. The curves reveal
a wide range of differences, possibly due to the
very varied composition of the shale, different
amounts of quartz, mica and calcite, various shaly
minerals or a variety of organic matter, and various
geological ages. The analysis of the graph shows
that, in many cases, curves can be more or less
superposed by a simple translation. This seems to
indicate a more complex geological history, such
as the effects of tectonic stress, ages, or of a
significant erosion of the overlying sediments,
bringing deeply buried rocks closer to the surface.
However, this conclusion cannot be reached in the
absence of detailed analyses.
Systematic studies (Chilingar & Knight, 1968)
and (Chilingar et al., 1963) have been made of void
381
3[ . -I 70
1 100 10000
Pressure(kg/cm*)
Fig. 8-26. - Variations in the porosity of various types of shale
with pressure (from Chilingar & Knight, 1960).
ratio in relation to pressure for pure clays (mont-
morillonite, illite, kaolinite, dickite and halloysite),
and the results are shown in Fig. 8-26. They
indicate a different behaviour for each type of clay
mineral.
The curves do not seem to follow an exponen-
tial law, but can be taken as such, this having been
validated by an analysis of log parameters over a
considerable interval of depth.
8.5.4.2. Effect on the Log Parameters of Shales
Shale Density
The general density of a rock depends on the
percentage per unit volume of each component,
and its respective density. This is given by :
pbsh = @Pw -k (1 - 4)pma (8-18)
where
P b s h = density of the shale recorded on a den-
sity log,
pw = density of the liquid in the shale pores,
pma= density of the shaly matrix or clay mine-
rals,
$J = shale porosity.
Since the density of shale matrix varies bet-
ween 2.5 (montmorillonite) and 3 (ferriferous
chlorite), and that of the liquid is close to 1, any
porosity reduction is indicated by an increase in
total density and vice versa.
If density is proportional to porosity, in normal
compaction the density of shale varies exponen-
tially with burial depth. So plotting the density of
the shales on a logarithmic scale against depth on
a linear scale, the line given by p b against depth
will be straight ( a t least where the shale porosity
varies exponentially with depth). This is shown in
Fig. 8-27, obtained experimentally. This is achieved
a t the wellsite by measuring the density of shale
cuttings and recording how this varies with depth.
Similarly, the compaction of shales can be studied
by following the changes in density obtained from
the density log as a function of depth. Care must
always be taken to avoid readings from caved
zones where the mud effect can be significant.
382

Fig. 8-27. - Example of a compaction profile (from Serra et a/., 1975). Note the density curve (ROSH).

Sonic Velocity in Shales

It has been widely accepted following the work
'
of Wyllie et al., (1956) that the sonic travel time
is linearly dependent on porosity, and that there-
fore the travel time in shales is an exponential
function of depth in the case of normal compac-
tion

where
Atshis the sonic travel time in shales in psec/ft,
Atf is the sound travel time in fluids,
Atrnathe sound travel time in the shale matrix,
# is the porosity of the shales.
Thus, if the sonic travel time in shales is plotted
logarithmically against depth on a linear scale, the
points representing the shales should fall on a
straight line. This is verified by the experimental i A h (@I*)
results shown in Figs. 8-28 and 8-29.
Fig. 8-28. - Variation of Atsh with depth for Oligocene and
The sonic, then, provides a means of studying Neocene shales of the Gulf Coast (from Hottman & Johnson,
the compaction of shales as a function of depth. 1965).
Because it is largely unaffected by caving, the
borehole compensated sonic measurement provi-
des a better measurement than the density.
Resistivity of Shales
The resistivity of a rock depends on :
In spite of the errors pointed out by Raymer et a/. in the - the conductivity of the constituent minerals
Wyllie equation in certain conditions, w e will continue to use
it because it has been more or less verified for porosities in (metallic sulfurs, haematite and graphite are
the range of 10 to 45%. conductive, for example),
 383

- the porosity and the salinities and saturations

of the pore fluids,
- the temperature.
All other factors being equal, decreased poro-
sity will give increased resistivity. The salinity,
however, often increases with depth and may
reduce or even reverse the trend due to porosity.
Formation Factor
Foster & Whalen (1965) proposed a shale for-
mation factor based on the ratio of the shale
resistivity to the resistivity of the water in the
surrounding sands to overcome this difficulty :

(8-20)

This formation factor then increases with com-

paction and depth (Fig. 8-30). This method requires
a knowledge of R,, which is not always possible
due to inaccuracies in determining Rw from the SP,
or indeed because the SP is not available. It also
assumes, controversially, that the water in the
Normal compadio shales is of the same type as that in the sands.
trend for sands
This method is little used.

1
10 20
I I
I
I I

30 4 0 6080100
1 , 1 , 1

2dO
Formationfactor Fsh

Fig. 8-29. - Trend of normal compaction of shales of a Nigeria Fig. 8-30. - Example of variations of FShas a function of depth
well over an interval of 14000 feet. in the Gulf Coast (from Fertl, 1976).
384

Hydrogen Index of Shales

The presence of hydrogen is mainly due to
molecules of water or hydrocarbons. The shales
contain molecular water on the one hand, but also
water or hydrocarbons associated with porosity. It
is possible, then, at least theoretically, to observe
the reduction in porosity with depth by studying
the behaviour of the hydrogen index of the shales.
However, most neutron tools saturate rapidly a t
'0 1 2 3 4 5
porosities above 50 to 55%, and in addition they I 'Void ratb'
are adversely affected by caves, which are com-
mon in shales. The compensated neutron tools
allow this parameter to be used in the study of Fig. 8-31. - Variation in the concentration of NaCl in the
interstitial water of pores of montmorillonite (from Engelhardt
compaction because of their increased range and & Gaida, 1963).
corrections for the effects of caves. Also, since
these tools are sensitive to gas, which is often
present in shales, the shales can appear to be
more compacted than they really are. For all these
reasons, this method is little used.
Capture Cross-section of Shales
Timko & Fertl (1970) have suggested this
measurement for the study of compaction. The
dependence of this parameter on porosity sug-
gests its usefulness for observing the effects of
compaction on porosity, but it must be remembe-
red that the measurement is also very sensitive to
chlorine, and hence to salinity. This generally
varies in a different way to porosity, and its effect
can mask the effect of porosity.
Natural Gamma Ray Spectroscopy Log
Clays are transformed mineralogically under the
combined effects of temperature and pressure, for 42 0,4 0,6 0,8 t t,t 1,2
example montmorillonite and kaolinite are chan- 'Void ratio"
ged into illite. This results in a change in the
potassium content and in the thorium to potas- Fig. 8-32. - Enlarged section of the preceding figure
sium ratio. The latter should decrease with depth,
being around 10 for montmorillonite and 20 for
kaolinite, but only 4 for illite (Hassan & Hossin,
1975). This method is not yet widely supported, has been reached, the clays allow water to pass,
partly due to a lack of measurements, but also but retain ions selectively (see, for example, the
because this effect is slow to appear and because work of Hitchon, 1964).
illite can appear detritally a t any depth and be-
cause the ratio can be affected by other radioac- Effect on Geothermal Gradient
tive minerals such as feldspars, micas or zircon. The flow of heat from the depths of the earth
crosses the layers of formations within a basin and
Effect on the Chemistry of Interstitial Fluids eventually dissipates a t the surface a t a rate which
The following facts are based on various obser- depends on climatic conditions. For a given flow
vations : rate, the geothermal gradient is a function of the
thermal conductivities of the intervening forma-
- the salinity of interstitial waters in normally- tions (Lewis & Rose, 1970).
compacted shales increases with depth,
Any localised bodies of high conductivity, such
- the water salinity in undercompacted forma- as a salt dome, cause a concentration of thermal
tions is generally lower a t a given depth, unless flux (Fig. 8-33a) and the geothermal gradient
there are salt formations nearby. decreases (Fig. 8-33b), while the opposite occurs
The work of Engelhardt & Gaida (1963) (Figs. with bodies of low conductivity (Fig. 8-34).
8-31 and 8-32) shows that the concentration of salt In reservoirs which are thick and permeable,
in interstitial water in shales decreases initially convection currents can be established, and this
with compaction, but starts to increase once a implies good thermal conductivity. Thus the hy-
certain degree of compaction has been achieved. drodynamic renewal of formation waters dissipa-
This phenomenon is explained by the clay mem- tes the thermal flux and tends to diminish the
brane effect. Once a certain degree of compaction geothermal gradient.
 385

S p h m = Cornp.adzone
---- *otherme l i n r
- Thermalflux l i n r

Groundsurfsca
50'.
100
t
150' rstun
200' imt
2500
300'

a: :
350'

4500
5000
550'
600'
650'
700

Fig. 8-33. - Distribution of thermal flux and temperature profile in the case of a thermal conductor (from Lewis & Rose, 1970).

Groundsurface
50-
100:
150
200:
250
300- Insulator
350'
400'
450'
500.
550'
600'
a t50.
700°

Insulator INIS (high prow)

--- - - Iromermllmr
I
-.- Thermal tux l i n r

Fig. 8-34. - Distribution of thermal flux and temperature profile in the case of a thermal insulator (from Lewis & Rose, 1970)

Conversely, the overlying non permeable forma-
tions will appear as insulators, resulting in an
increase in thermal gradient. Consequently, in
sequences in which the sand/shale ratio is low
(probably indicating undercompacted shales),
there will be few thermal conductors and the
geothermal gradient will be high.
Effect on Mineralogical Transformations
Chemical equilibria are affected by the effects
of temperature and pressure associated with
burial. Elements and compounds will be subjected
to solution, precipitation, cementation and minera-
logical changes. We will only list the well-known
transformations :
- carbonates : aragonite calcite -+ dolomite
-+
- sulfates : gypsum + anhydrite
- clays : montmorillonite K illite, montmorillo-
nite + chlorite, kaolinite -+ chlorite, kaolinite -+ il-
lite.
0.5.4.3. The Influence of Time
The experiments of Terzaghi & Peck indicate
little influence due to time, the equilibrium position
being reached almost immediately due to the high
permeability of the disks (Fig. 8-23). In the case of
shales, however, the permeability can often be
very low and the loss of water can be much
slower, hence the time taken to reach equilibrium
is longer. The influence of the time factor is
illustrated by the diagram in Fig. 8-35.
The pressure profile as a function of time will
depend on the rate of sedimentation and type of
substratum, as illustrated in Fig. 8-36. It is possible
that, on a geological time scale, a similar influence
could exist, which would explain the spread obser-
ved in the densities of shales according to their
ages (Dallmus, Fig. 8-37).
On the basis of these observations, then, it can
be concluded that the trend of normal compaction
will vary from one basin to another according to
the characteristics of each basin, that is :
- the type of substratum under the shales,
- the rates of sedimentation and subsidence,
and hence the tectonic framework,
- the composition of the sediments, their poro-
sity and permeability.
These factors will determine the thickness of
sediment which the water expelled from the
shales by compaction will have to cross to reach
porous and permeable rocks. They also determine
386

1. Recent t o Miocene
2. Pliocene t o lower Miocene
3. Pliocene t o lower Oligocene
I I I 1 I 1
4. Eocene
PWfWohd d l U Springs 5. Readjusted curve of Paleozoic
(laDlmUObllltyl -(analog cloy o w ~ k s l
ShO,es I ] sands
Fig. 8-35. - Schematic representation of the compaction of a
shale and of the influence of time (from Katz & Ibrahim, 1971).

Fig. 8-37. - Normal compaction curves for shales of different

rh ages (from Dallmus, 1955, in Weeks, L.G.(ed), Habitat o f Oil).

must be established for each basin and for each

period of sedimentation. Every deviation from this
relationship between porosity and depth will cor-
respond either to a state of undercompaction
(excess porosity) or to formations which have
been deeply buried being raised by extensive
erosion, or to the consequences of tectonic
movements.

8.6. COMPACTION OF ORGANIC

SEDIMENTS (PEATS)

From Weller (1959) the compaction processes

of peats are close to those of shales : water
expulsion, followed by a physico-chemical trans-
In I formation of the sediments. The variation of thick-
I ' ness can reach ratios of 30 to 1 (Renault, 1899;
Rukhin, 1953; mentioned by Ryer & Langer, 1980).

Fig. 8-36.- Diagrams showing the influence of time and of the 8.7. COMPACTION ANOMALIES
type of substratum on the compaction of shales.

the time taken for this migration to occur, and
hence the degree of compaction at a given instant.
The time taken in fact depends on the permeability
which is a function of the type and grain size of the
sediments. Thus the trend of normal compaction
8.7.1. Definition
A compaction anomaly or undercompaction is
the state of a sediment which has been unable to
expel its interstitial water during burial.

8.7.2. Origin of Compaction Anomalies
Compaction anomalies are to be found in
sequences which lack porous and permeable
escape routes for the interstitial water of the
sediments which should be expelled during com-
paction. The water remains trapped and takes on
part of the lithostatic overburden. The fluid pres-
sure pp therefore increases, while the sediment
itself is undercompacted.
8.7.3.Zones Exhibiting Undercompaction
The phenomenon of undercompaction is found
in basins of rapid detrital sedimentation, poor in
permeable deposits or rich in clays, such as outer
deltaic deposits. It is also observed in basins of
mixed detrital and evaporitic sediments. The map
in Fig. 8-38 from Fertl (1972) shows the regions
throughout the world in which the phenomenon of
undercompaction, or more generally of overpres-
’
sured formations are found.
Overpressure is not always associated with undercom-
paction, but may also be due to osmotic phenomena, exces-
sive overburden or tectonic constraints.
I time, and the formations of most concern are
Fig. 8-38.- Countries in which overpressured formations have
been encountered (from Fertl, 1972).
R
--- C
ohm-mVm mmhe/m
\ \
F
\
Cap rock
transition
zone
3*
Undercompacted
zone
I
Fig. 8-39.- Schematic responses of the various logs on entry into an undercompacted shale (completed after Fertl & Timko, 1971).
387
These phenomena are encountered from Cam-
brian to Pleistocene, and from depths of a few
hundred metres to about 6,000 m.
8.7.4. Associated Phenomena
As we have already seen, undercompacted
formations will exhibit the following features :
- increased porosity, and corresponding effects
on those parameters which depend on it :
. increased sonic travel time, At,
. reduced density, pb,
. reduced resistivity, R, and formation factor, F,
. increased neutron-hydrogen index, IHN,
. increased capture cross-section, C
-formation pressure exceeding hydrostatic
pressure,
- reduced formation water salinity,
- increased temperature,
- increased geothermal gradient.
If these parameters are plotted against depth,
then, undercompacted formations will exhibit
anomalies as illustrated in Fig. 8-39.
8.8. COMPACTION STUDIES
FROM WELL LOGS
From the foregoing it is clear that the study of
compaction can be undertaken using well logs, in
particular those affected by porosity variations. In
broad terms, it involves examining the variation in
log parameters with depth. The logs of prime
concern are the resistivity, density and sonic travel
shales, but also to some extent silts and sands,
and very occasionally carbonates (chalk).
0
Oo
OC
Geothermal
gradient
-
388

8.8.1. Determination 8.8.1.2. Determination of the Profile

of the Compaction Profile
8.8.1.1. Manual Plot
This method consists of plotting the resistivity,
density, sonic travel time and neutron-hydrogen
index of each pure, homogeneous shale formation
on a logarithmic scale against depth on a linear
scale.
at the Wellsite
The wellsite computers now available can pro-
vide a composite log which can be used to select
the shale zones and thereby to obtain the log
parameters of these zones (Fig. 8-40). A compac-
tion profile can also be generated which plots the
sonic travel time on a logarithmic scale (Fig. 8-41).
8.8.1.3. DENSON Automatic Plot
The DENSON program, written in 1969 by ELF
(Chiarelli et a/., 1973), automatically provides a
shale or even a sand compaction profile on a
plotter using log measurements which have been
previously digitized or recorded on magnetic tape.
The following parameters are plotted against
depth, as shown in Figs. 8-42 and 8-43 :
in the left-hand track, on linear scales :
- the shale content, or the total natural gamma
ray curve corrected for mud effects,

I'ft' I
IAPII

Fig. 8-41. - Compaction profile created automatically at the

wellsite (courtesy of Schlumberger).

4 Fig. 8-40. - Selection of shale zones and of shale parameters

on a composite log made at the wellsite, and construction of
the trend of normal compaction for detection entry into
undercompacted zones (around 2300 m) (courtesy of Schlum-
berge r).
 389

- I

'' """'
10 100
' ' 1."'
... ...'1. . . . - .
i
i
i
I
1
I
I
I
I
I
I
i
i i
I
I
i
I
I
1
i
I
i
i i
I
I
i
i
1
i
I
i
i
I
I
i i
I
I
i 1
I
I
I
i
1
I
I
i I
I
c
I
-3
f
I
I 1
I
I
i I

I
i
I
i
I
1
1 i
1
1
I w
,u
- I

Fig. 8-42. - Example of a compaction profile obtained with

ELF-Aquitaine's DENSON program. At and pb are used to i
detect entry into undercompacted zones (marked by an 1
asterisk). I

- optionally, the neutron curve;
in the right-hand track, on logarithmic scales :
- the sonic travel time and/or the bulk density
of the shale intervals,
- their resistivity,
- the salinity computed in clean zones from the
SP or in the shale zones by the Pickett's method
(1960).
Fig. 8-43. - Another example of a compaction profile combi-
ning pb and resistivity (from Chiarelli et a/.. 1973).
The shale levels chosen for plotting are selected
according t o two criteria :
- by determining shale content using gamma
ray and/or SP, retaining only those zones showing
a shale content (Vsh)above 80% (method l ) ,
390

I ~ ' ' ' I""""'I"", J, , , , ,,,,,; Rsh

, , ::
, ,,,, , , , ,,#
PP
I

I
i

I i I :
I I

I I
I I
I I
i ;
I i
8 I
i i
I I
I I
1 1
I I
I I
I i
i i
i 1
i i
i i
i I
i I
4 i
I I
I 1
i I
i i
I i
i I
i i
I I
I I
- -
Fig. 8-44. - Comparison of compaction profiles obtained by the two methods on the same well (from Chiarelli e t a / . , 1973).

- by comparing the At and p b readings with The logic of the program is illustrated by the
those predicted for a normally-compacted shale at simplified flow-chart in Fig. 8-45. Data are entered
the same depth based on the trend of normal in the program from magnetic tape which has
compaction established for a given basin or re- either been recorded directly or which is derived
gion. Only points having At values greater than or from digitizing optical logs.
equal to that of the normal trend, and Db below or
equal to the normal are plotted (method 2). Conduct of a Study
Fig. 8-44 shows the profiles obtained by both At the beginning of a regional study, the first
methods in the same well. method is applied to several wells in order to
 39 1

1 2 used. It is often necessary to adjust the response

level several times in the same well to take
account of variations in hole diameter and mud
type, as well as changes in shale type. The use of
LITHO (Delfiner et a/., 1984) results can help to
select shale intervals more accurately.
Advantages of the Program
t
I

The main advantages are :

When results tu serefa1 wells have
h e n c o n b i n d using mrthd 0
, dial
- the speed of obtaining a profile, and the
tk avetage compaction flfai(ht
Iim a d inbodwe tk tmm accuracy of the plot,
caiespordinl tothis slfai#M lire
- the possibility of correcting responses for
bore hole and mud effects by introducing correc-
tion charts into the program,
- the easy detection of levels which are badly-
I caved or very radioactive thanks to the symbols
Rkdiqd VJIUS CR SP.
pb R CaI A1 d krel n At Pb R CaI ol Ikvel n used,

CornMalion d clay % at
- the possibility of using only the levels which
krrl n lrm CR ad SP tPbl mOMaind hom a are most representative of a pure shale, marked by
namal compaction SbaqM the symbol X, and defined from the neutron log, in
Ilm p8Wtd On the basis
the computation of the trend of normal compac-
n:ntl
tion,
- the high density of points (one every six
inches), which allows poor quality points to be
eliminated, and which clearly shows certain geo-
logical phenomena which might not be so appa-
rent on a manual plot which would naturally have
a lower density of points.

8.8.2. Construction
of the Normal Compaction Trend

8.8.2.1. For a Single Well

At.Pb. R
with sinbol
n+l
n:
Fig. 8-45. - Logic of the DENSON p rogram (from Chiarelli et
a/., 1973).
establish the trend of normal compaction. It then
becomes possible to apply the second method to
individual wells ’.
Particular care must be exercised in the defini-
tion of the mean radioactive response in the
shales, and the intervals chosen must be represen-
tative of a pure shale, and not of other radioactive
formations. If necessary, the neutron log can be
* In practice, the trend is displaced slightly upward,
enabling normally-compacted shales, or values displaced by
statistical or lithological variations which would otherwise
have been undetectable, to appear.
In the case of a shale, the trend is constructed
by connecting a line through the points corres-
ponding, on the one hand, to a pure, homoge-
neous shale, and on the other, to the hydrostatic
pressures of the beds, determined either from
pressure measurements in surrounding reservoirs,
or from the density of the mud, used for drilling
the formations, which must be the closest to
1 g/cm3 (Fig. 8-46).
In the case of constructing the trend for a sand,
“clean” sands which are a t hydrostatic pressure
are chosen. However, several different trends can
usually be constructed, each one corresponding to
a certain degree of sorting, since this is what
controls the initial porosity.
8.8.2.2. For Several Wells
The points for each well satisfying the above-
mentioned conditions, that is falling on the normal
compaction line, are plotted together on a semi-
logarithmic scale. A regression line is then esta-
bished for all of these points, and the equation of
this line is used in the second method.
 392

Surface r e l m i c ACOUSTK: IMPEDANCE

and overlald VSP trace
j
from sonic and from traed
denaky logs lnvenlon

1530

1600

1700

I800

1900

2000

2100

2200

2300

2400

2503

2600

2700

2800

290C

3GOC

31CO
2M) SHALE INTERVAL TRANSIT
OEPTHS (meters) 50

Fig. 8-47. - Overpressure prediction from a VSP recording

(from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference, Nigeria,
500 1985).

the determination of the top of undercompacted

b
Fig. 8-46. - Detection of over pressure using the sonic
(Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference, Algeria, 1979).
8.8.3. Detection of Undercompacted
or Overpressured Zones by VSP
As previously mentioned (Chapters 1 and 12),
the VSP recording allows us to see below the
bottom of a well. An adapted interpretation of the
recorded data, using inversion techniques to
model the boundaries below total depth, enables
or overpressured zones which correspond to a
rupture in acoustic impedance gradient.
This is possible by the fact that VSP allows the
accurate separation between downgoing and up-
going wave trains.
A layered model below the recording point, with
up to fifty boundaries for a length of trace of about
1 second, is built such that the incident downgoing
wavelet produces an upgoing synthetic trace as
close as possible to the real one. The choice of
these boundaries is done by stepwise regression.
This process insures that we deal mainly with
important contrasts and that we stay relatively
immune to noise. The successive iterative process
keeps the initial position of the boundaries, but
computes the contrast across these boundaries to
obtain a synthetic trace which nearly coincides
with the real upgoing trace. The absolute value of
the acoustic impedance is known at the recording
point from the density and sonic logs, so the series
of impedance contrasts will start from that refe-
rence value. When the change between two
successive iterations is less than a pre-determined
level the solution is output (Fig. 8-47). Geological
knowledge (presence of fault, dips) can be intro-
duced at some point of the trace with a constraint
related to the degree of uncertainty of this kno-
wledge. An important break in the acoustic impe-
dance gradient can suggest the entry in an under-
compacted or overpressured formation.
 393

8.9. APPLICATIONS the diagrams of Fig. 8-39), and partially on the

OF COMPACTION PROFILES
8.9.1. Hydrodynamic Applications
8.9.1.1. Detection of Entry into
an undercompacted Formation
Note: Obviously, with the exception of VSP
interpretation below the bottom of the well, this
analysis can only be applied retrospectively, since
the logs are not available until the formation has
been drilled.
Entry into an undercompacted formation will be
marked by a shift of points relative to the trend of
normal compaction already established. The dis-
placements depend partially on the logs used (see
degree of undercompaction (compare the five
profiles in Fig. 8-48).
The boundary a t which the undercompaction
appears can be located very precisely. lsobath
maps showing the entry into undercompacted
formations can be constructed by applying this
method to several wells in a region (Figs. 8-48,
8-49). Such maps can be useful in designing
drilling programmes (casing points, selection of
casing and mud types) in future wells to be drilled
in the region.
The appearance of undercompacted zones
usually marks the entry into sequences where the
chances of finding continuous reservoirs is consi-
derably reduced. Moreover, the problems, and
hence the cost of drilling increase considerably as
soon as undercompacted (overpressured) zones
are penetrated. It follows that isobath maps of the
upper limit of undercompaction provides useful

% At
shale shale

* Topofunder

Fig. 8-48. - Identification of undercompacted zones. Studying the profiles enables the point of entry into the undercompacted
shales to be pinpointed, and gives an idea of the degree of undercompaction (from Chiarelli et a/., 1973).
394

OR At R

t
0
+
+
+
+
+ Ocean Atlantic

Fig. 8-49. - lsobath map of the entry into undercompacted

formations (from Chiarelli et a/., 1973).

information about the thickness of the zones Fig. 8-50. - Example of a pressure anomaly due t o gas in a zone
of normal compaction (from Serra et a/., 1975).
which are most attractive in the search for oil.
The detection of the entry into undercompacted
zones using the logs allows certain interpretations
related to the existence of high-pressure forma- 50 100 Atsh
tions, detected by well site measurements and
wrongly attributed to undercompaction, to be
corrected (Fig. 8-50).

8.9.1.2. Evaluation of Formation Pressures

Theoretically, the study of the degree of under-
compaction of the shale should help in the evalua-
tion of the pressures of the surrounding reservoirs.
Let A be a point in the undercompacted zone a t
a depth ZA (Fig. 8-51). The shale here suffers the
same compaction as the point E, a t depth ZE.
According to eq. (8-6),
in A we have ZE

OA = (Pp)A -t ( P e ) A (8-22)
in E we have
OE = (PP)E -k (Pe)E (8-23)
Since the shales a t A and E have suffered the
same degree of compaction, ( P ~ =) ~

In practice we assume that for equal porosities, the

pressure supported by the matrix is the same. This is the basis ZP
of the model of Terzaghi & Peck used here.

Fig. 8-51. - Estimating formation pressure from the compaction DEPTH

profile (theoretical example).
 395

At E the shales are normally-compacted, and

the hydrostatic pressure ( p p ) is
~ written :

(Pp)E = Pw -
ZE (8-24)
10
where pp is in kg/cm2, ZE is in metres and pw is
the density of the fluid in g/cm3. W e also have l o

(JE = PbWE -
ZE
10
(8-25)

where
PbwE is the global mean density of the sediments
in the interval surface-ZE.
Likewise, we can write :

(JA = PbWA -
ZA (8-26)
10
If the type of shale does not vary, we can take
i)bwA as equal t o PbwE as a first approximation,
since the sediment porosity is the same at ZE and
ZA. We can then write

(JA = -
PbWE Z A - (8-27)
10

Replacing OA and pa)^ with their values in eq.

(8-22) gives

(Pp)A = pw -
ZE
10
+ Pbw -
ZA - ZE
10
(8-28)

or again

Note :If pw and pbw are not known, the following

values can be used :
pw = 1 ,O g/cm3 et pbw = 2,31 g/cm3.

The real case illustrated in Fig. 8-52 shows that

such an evaluation is practicable.

More precisely, w e have on the one hand

6"
lo

OE = -
,lo Pbw(z)dz; (8-25b)

and on the other

&6 '4

(r
OA = Pbw(z)dz; (8-26b)

or again

lEZA
Fig. 8-52. - Evaluation of formation pressure. The computed

OA = & Pbw(z)dZ + Pbw(z)dz); (8-26~)

pressure is 470 kg/cm2 at 2925 m, while the pressure measured
during a test on the reservoir above is 455.1 kg/cm2 at 2800 m
(from Chiarelli et a/., 1973).
which gives the following expression by replacing and

s 'szA
OA
(p.). by their value :
In any case, in practice a very good approxima-
( p p ) ~= $ 0
'€
pw(Z)dz +
lo ZE
Pbw(z)dz. (8-28b) tion of the trend of normal compaction tied to the
shaly facies studied is necessary in order to be
396

slight undercompaction average undercompaction high undercompaction

Fig. 8-53.- Indication of the degree of undercompaction by a shift in the trend of normal compaction (from Chiarelli et a/., 1973).

Reservoir Reservoir fluid

fluid pressure Fluid pressure gradient Mud
gradient weight (psilft) weight
(psi/ft) (Iblgal) (Iblgal)
A00

100

.600
12.0

14D

A00
160

ID00
0 20 40ug/ft60

Fig. 8-54.- Charts relating the fluid pressure gradient to R,h and Atsh.The fluid pressure is equal to pp., = FPG . Z A ( ~ )
where FPG is the pressure gradient of the fluid from the chart (from Hottman & Johnson, 1965).

exact. This poses a serious difficulty. The three
plots of Fig. 8-53 show, nonetheless, that it is
always possible to evaluate the amplitude of the
anomalies, which represents, in spite of all, consi-
derable progress.
Certain authors (Hottman & Johnson, 1965;
Ham, 1966), propose charts (Fig. 8-54) or nomo-
grams (Fig. 8-55), which allow an empirical deter-
mination of the pressure from the comparison of
the shale resistivity (Rsh)obs, or the sonic travel time
(Atsh)obs,
observed in undercompacted shale inter-
vals with the resistivity (R& or the sonic travel
time (Atsh), defined a t the same depth for nor-
mally-compacted shales. These charts or nomo-
grams are only valid within the region for which
they have been established.
8.9.1.3. Evaluation of Pressure Gradients
in Massive, Undercompacted Shales
As soon as we are capable of estimating the
interstitial water pressure within a massive shale,
the most probable direction and value of the
pressure gradient can be determined. Fig. 8-56
represents a profile in an undercompacted zone
where the points corresponding to the same facies
are distributed about a line which is practically
vertical. This signifies that the interstitial water is
 397

0 1 4 6 8 10 I 2 1 4 I b

Fig. 8-55. - Nomograms for estimating formation pressure from resistivity or sonic travel time, established for the Gulf Coast (from
Hottman & Johnson, 1965).

in organic matter -

Fig. 8-57. - Compaction profile showing a steep pressure

gradient, but also showing variations in shale composition
(from Chiarelli et el., 1973).

subjected to a geostatic gradient directed from
bottom to top. This phenomenon is also detected
on the profile in Fig. 8-53.
It goes without saying that such a considerable
gradient can influence the migration and hence
the distribution of hydrocarbons. Such a distribu-
tion of pressure reduces the value of any reservoir
whose source rock is situated on top of it. This
seems to be the case for the well represented by
Fig. 8-57, which, having penetrated a sequence
very rich in hydrocarbon shows, then entered a
water-bearing reservoir.
398
- 0 1
50 100 200
8.9.2. Geological Applications
8.9.2.1. Detection of Unconformities
Unconformities sometimes show up clearly on
compaction profiles. In fact, they are marked,
generally, by a sudden shift in the trend of normal
compaction (Fig. 8-58). This shift undoubtedly
indicates several phenomena :
- change of shale type,
- the strong influence of time elapsed since
deposition,
- probable erosion.
F
Fig. 8-58. - Three examples of unconformities detected using
compaction profiles (Serra, 1972; Chiarelli et a/., 1973; Fertl,
1976).
8.9.2.2. Reconstruction of Maximum Burial
Depths
If the log responses of normally-compacted
shales of the same geological period from diffe-
rent wells are plotted together, it is frequently
observed that the points from the various well do
not fall exactly on the same line, but rather on a
set of parallel lines, one for each well (Fig. 8-59).
This generally indicates a structural uplift of the
whole interval, but by different amounts for the
different wells, so long as we accept that compac-
tion is an irreversible phenomenon.
Using the trend of well (1) for which the actual
depth is the greatest for a given value of At, the
maximum apparent depth reached by each of the
 399

At POROSITY, '/o
c I5 20 25 30

I"'"

E
i
I-
n
W
zoo0

POROSITY, ''0 3oK

011~f111ad sandstones
o W o l a r - f ~ l l e drandstma6
\ Pfbrent depth
- Mailmum depth of burial
,' Moximum depth of burial before oil accumulation

E 103:
a
a
w
I-2
200(
a a

300(

Fig. 8-59. - Determination of the maximum depth of burial. (a)

15 20 25 X,
method of determination; (b) application example (from
Philipp et a/., 1963). b

different shales (A, B, C or D) in the interval can be

EROSION
-
determined. Thus, the shales C of well (4). curren-
tly between 2100 and 2250 m have been buried to
at least 3100-3250 m, according to the trend for
well ( 1 ) . They have therefore been uplifted again
by about 1000 m.
This application thus provides a relatively pre-
cise palaeogeographic reconstruction in basins
which have been subjected t o deep erosion. The
reader is referred to the article by Lang (1978)
which provides a good example.
These studies can also have geochemical appli-
cations by providing an indicaticm-of the degree of
diagenetic change and the maturation of organic
matter in relation to maximum depths of sediment
burial.
However, these methods can only be applied to
basins which have not suffered major tectonic
constraints. Fig. 8-60. - Schematic showing the effects of differential
compaction on the shapes of sedimentary bodies.

8.9.2.3. Differential Compaction

Since the loss of porosity with burial differs
between sands and shales, the change in volume
will not be the same. This leads to changes in the
shapes of bodies as illustrated by the diagrams in
Fig. 8-60.
8.9.2.4. Correlations between Wells
As the recent work of Lang (1984) pointed out,
these compaction profiles (Fig. 8-61) can be useful
for establishing correlations between wells. They
400
Fig. 8-61. - Correlations based on compaction profiles (from Lang. 1984).
have the advantage of presenting the log data in
a compressed form (due to the scale used), thus
emphasizing the major phenomena such as ero-
sion, condensation, stable periods, etc.
8.9.3. Sedimentological Applications
The strong influence of lithology on sonic
velocity and resistivity presented certain difficul-
ties, and indeed caused some errors in the first
interpretations of compaction profiles. The measu-
red variations are, in fact, more frequently related
to changes in the type of lithology rather than
porosity variations. The variations can be quite
abrupt, as the example in Fig. 8-57 of three
different shale facies illustrates. The slowest fa-
cies in particular corresponds to a sediment rich in
organic matter, which explains its acoustic proper-
ties. equally, the variations can be progressive, due
to a gradual enrichment in silts, carbonates, etc.,
as in Fig. 8-62, rather than a change from a state
of normal compaction to one of undercompaction.
Furthermore, the variation can sometimes be so
gradual and extend over such a long interval
(Fig. 8-63) as to render it practically undetectable
by a simple examination of the logs. This can lead
..UO -
WIPALEO DATA
to errors of interpretation both in determining the
trend of normal compaction and in detecting
undercompacted zones. Compaction trends will
therefore be used as a sequential tool providing a
first sketch or compensating for the deficiencies
of the gamma ray, and in certain cases correcting
the trend it provides.
8.9.4. Application to Reservoir Studies
8.9.4.1. Variation of Porosity with Depth
Several authors (i.e. Teodorovich & Chernov,
1968) have proposed formulas to express the
variation of porosity and permeability with depth.
For instance, for sandstones we have :
@ = 28.21e-1 2210-'2
and
k = 2.8Q3e-7410-52
Z being the depth in metres.
A study of the density variations of sands using
the DENSON program in twenty-six wells, corres-
ponding to 1875 density-depth pairs distributed
 40 1

__ - t
.'
r'
w
I
,
I
I
I

Sand txwcentaart
-,
- f

-- . 1 1 I

Fig. 8-62. - Detection of sequential variations from compaction

profiles (from Chiarelli et a/., 1973).

between 2000 and 14000 feet, yielded the following

relationship :

(pb)sd = 1 ,g5e5,21.lO-'Z(m) (8-30)

Assuming pma = 2.65g/cm3 and pf = 1 g/cm3,

the density is converted to porosity, and the
following relationship is obtained :

if Z is expressed in feet, and

with Z in metres.
Note: This statistical law is only valid for
normally-compacted sands (Fig. 8-64) which have
not suffered diagenetic effects (other than those
associated with compaction), and only in the
interval 2000 - 14000 feet in Nigeria.

8.9.5. Geophysical Applications

A knowledge of the variations in density and

Fig. 8-63. - Sequential variations over 1700 m clearly shown by
the compaction profile (from Serra et a/., 1975).
sonic velocity with depth of both shales and sands
or silts can be of major interest to the geophysi-
cist. It can result in a better interpretation of
seismic profiles in the transformation of isochro-
nes to isobaths, in the computation of reflection
coefficients and in the estimation of sand-shale
percentages. This is how data from numerous
wells in Nigeria were used by the DENSON pro-
402

Feet Metres Velocity (V, (Wsex.) Porosity C#J (%)

ct ct 20000 10000 5 000
5 0
8
P

SO00

10OOO

15000

Fig. 8-64. - Laws of variation of density, sonic travel time and porosity of sands and shales as a function of depth.

gram to provide the curves in Fig. 8-64, which are
represented by the following equations :
Note : The above relationships have been deri-
ved statistically from measurements in a depth
interval of 2000- 14000 feet, and have only been
verified within this interval.
8.9.6. Geochemical Applications
This subject has been touched upon in the
preceding paragraphs in the discussions of detai-
led studies of shaley sediments, detection of zones
rich in organic matter as well as the reconstruction
of maximum burial depths. These are all questions
which are of some interest to the geochemist.
However, certain other points have not yet been
mentioned. The first concerns the detection of gas
zones in massive shales.
Fig. 8-65 speaks for itself. It shows without any
ambiguity the strong effect of gaseous hydrocar-
bons on the resistivity. This property, which is a
nuisance in the study of shale compaction using
only resistivity logs, becomes of interest in qualita-
tive studies of the distribution of gas shows within
shales when other logs are available.
 403

Fig. 8-65. - Detection of gas zones in a massive shale (from

Chiarelli et a/., 1973).

The second point concerns the formation of

hydrocarbons in undercompacted sequences. Is
the expulsion of hydrocarbons from undercompac-
ted source rocks always sufficient for the creation
of accumulations of commercial interest ? To what
extent can a lack of expulsion inhibit the normal
functioning of a source rock? What exactly is the
effect of overpressure on the maturation process
of organic matter? Such are the questions to
which it would be interesting to have answers; but
these answers - some of which are only now
becoming clear -, will only have credibility if they
are based on a great number of observations. This
is why the use of well logs must provide the basis
of the answers.
8.10. DECOMPACTION
8.10.1. Objectives
A decompaction procedure is necessary if a
reconstruction of the arrangement of the different
sedimentary bodies as it should be a t the time of
deposition is required. In that case it is important
to apply to each body an appropriate decompac-
tion coefficient. For that, the compaction rate
km
Fig. 8-66. - Chart giving the coefficient of decompaction, 5, for
pure shale as a function of depth and thickness.
supported by each individual sedimentary body
must be taken into account. This compaction rate
takes into account the mineralogical composition,
the texture, the thickness, the environment of
deposition and the maximal depth of burial of each
body. Fig. 8-66 shows the chart for estimating the
compaction rate of shales as a function of depth
of burial and thickness. The law of decompaction
for a given lithology is generally deduced from the
compaction law experimentally established for the
same lithology from porosity measurements on
rock samples or from log data.
8.10.2. Procedures
They are defined by Brown, (1975) and illustra-
ted by Fig. 8-67. They consist, firstly of correcting
404

I Observed Formal Interpretive Format

the apparent thickness of each sedimentary body,
fundamentally shales and peats, for overburden
compaction; secondly, of fitting the geometry to a
subjacent palaeosurface or assumed reference
datum.

I A
8.1 0.3. Applications

This decompaction technique allows recons-

TlON iIig,5-l&A.B1
truction of the palaeotopography a t the end of
deposition. It helps to establish both chronostrati-
Non-compaction Model
C
Paleosurlace Model
graphic and facies correlations.

FOR C O H T E Y P O R I N E O V S

,
I----------->
RESIDUAL ,
LM!?! uy_S-:S,?$l

4 Fig. 8-67. - Decompaction procedures (from Brown, 1975)

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407
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 Chapter 9
RES ERVO IR EVALUAT10N
(Description of petrophysical properties : static behaviour)
9.1. INTRODUCTION
(POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY)
A typical sequence of formations will contain
intervals which exhibit the properties of a reser-
voir. A reservoir may be defined as a rock which
has both porosity and permeability. Porosity is the
percentage of the global volume of a rock corres-
ponding to the spaces (pores) between the grains,
particles or crystals, whether they are connected
or not. It may be expressed as :
4 =p! ! - V,- Va
V, V,
where :
V, is the volume of pores,
Vt is the total volume, and
V, is the volume of solids.
The factors which determine porosity, that is,
the volume of pores, their geometry, and their
distribution, are the depositional environment and
subsequent diagenesis, hence the importance of
identifying such phenomena prior to any well
evaluation. It is thus possible to speak of a deposi-
tional porosity which depends on the type of rock
and the texture (cf. Chapter 3). In certain cases
this porosity may be rapidly modified by diagene-
tic processes which either enhance its diagenetic
porosity, the result of dissolution or of formation
fracturing, or reduce it by re-crystallization or
cementation (cf. Chapter 7). In detrital rocks the
depositional porosity is essentially of the intergra-
nular type, though it can vary in carbonates (cf.
table 3-3 of Chapter 3).
The log analyst differentiates between the pri-
mary porosity &, and the secondary porosity qh.
Each can be both depositional and diagenetic. The
former is generally seen by resistivity and acoustic
tools, the latter corresponds t o the difference
between the total porosity as seen by radioactive
tools (density and neutron) and the primary poro-
sity.
where :
The permeabilityof a rock is a measure of the ease
with which fluids can pass through the rock. This
property will be analysed in the next chapter.
9.2. OBJECTIVES
OF RESERVOIR EVALUATION
The evaluation of a series of reservoirs based on
well log data has the following essential objecti-
ves :
(a) the location of reservoirs, vertically within
the drilled section, and spatially by determing the
x, y and z coordinates for the upper and lower
boundaries of each reservoir.
(b) determination of fluid type within the reser-
voir: type of possible hydrocarbons, gas, oil or
bitumen; salt content of the formation waters.
(c) calculation of the reserves, both movable
and in place. This involves :
- determination of both the apparent and the
actual thickness of each reservoir from dipmeter
data;
- computation of the petrophysical parameters,
i.e. porosity (total, primary, secondary and effec-
tive) and mode of distribution of the porosity and
geometry of the pores;
- computation of water saturation;
- calculation of pay thicknesses;
- selection of cut-offs;
- determination of reservoir geometry.
(d) determination of the productivity of the
well, that is maximum output for optimal recovery
of the hydrocarbons in place. This involves :
- determination of mobility;
410
- calculation of the total and relative permeabi-
lities;
- determination of the formation pressure.
(e) determination of the lithology, facies and
depositional environment so as to get an idea of
the lateral extent of the petrophysical features of
the reservoir :
- exact nature of the principal minerals and, if
possible, of the accessory ones, since any error in
mineral type can lead t o significant errors in the
calculation of porosity, of saturation and of reser-
ves (for example, radioactive minerals such as
micas, feldspars, phosphates, or heavy minerals
may be confused with clay);
- percentages of the principal minerals;
- clay content, clay type and distribution;
- estimation of texture, grain size distribution,
sorting and grain shape.
To obtain this comprehensive information the
most complete set of well logs is clearly essential,
given the complexity of the formations encounte-
red, but other data are also needed, especially if
the suite of logs is incomplete. In particular, such
data as :
- an exact lithological and mineralogical des-
cription of the formations from the cuttings,
sidewall samples or cores, by x-ray analysis or by
scanning electron microscope so as to get an idea
of the minerals present and thus reduce the
unknown factors;
- results of the measurements of porosity,
permeability, matrix density (as defined by the
petrophysicist), of the size of grains or crystals,
their mineralogical nature, and the shaliness, all
measurements being made either from 'plugs'
(small cylinders of rock the size of a bottle cork
taken from the cores), or from thin sections, or by
means x-ray analysis or electron microscope scans
of samples of rock. These measurements are
made in order to optimize log calibrations and to
check the results of the interpretations;
- information on the fluids, salt content and
resistivity of the formation water collected during
tests, possibly the type and density of the hydro-
carbons, or presence of shows;
- data on the drilling mud (type, density, salt
content, free water), on pressures, on the zones of
loss or possible inflow.
9.3. NECESSARY INFORMATION
To get the best results from the interpretation
of the reservoir zones, the following preliminary
results must be assembled :
- composite log after log quality control;
- re-calibration and depth-matching of the
various logs;
- results of the LITHO ' program;
- results of dipmeter processing by the GEODIP
program for the HDT' tool, or LOCDIP' for the
SHDT ' tool;
- results of the SYNDIP' program;
- results from a facies and sequential analysis
and from a reconstruction of the depositional
environment;
- data derived from the drill cuttings.
Such information will facilitate the choice of
interpretation model and will thus save time and
allow a more coherent set of results to be obtained
using all the available data.
9.4. IDENTIFICATION OF RESERVOIRS
Reservoir zones may be identified by characte-
ristic log responses which depend on petrophysi-
cal properties such as porosity and permeability.
Identification of reservoir zones has been analysed
in detail in Chapter 1, Wellsite Interpretation of
Wireline logs. Briefly, a reservoir zone may be
recognised by the simultaneous presence of some
or all of the following features :
- deflection of the spontaneous potential (SP)
curve from the baseline in shales (but this is only
apparent when the salinity of the mud and the
formation water show sufficient contrast);
- presence of mud-cake (but note that some
reservoir rocks, such as unconsolidated sands or
fractured limestones, can cave in or collapse);
- positive separation of resistivities R 1 - x ~-- Rz-
(but a positive separation may occur in washed-
out zones, while it is possible to get a negative
separation opposite porous zones with mud-cake,
especially when R,r < RJ;
- separation of dup and shallow resistivities as
measured by macro devices such as DLL, DIL or
phasor Induction;
- apparent porosity on FDC, LDT, CNL, Sonic
tools, and low radioactivity, but note that some
porous sands, silts and carbonates are radioactive.
The LITHO program provides a more automatic
method for locating reservoirs by integrating
various reservoir recognition strategies.
9.5. RESERVOIR FLUID CHARACTERISTICS
To obtain the above one uses either crossplot or
overlay techniques as described in Part One. One
may also use the results of processing by LITHO
since this program integrates strategies for identi-
fying fluids in place. It is also possible to apply the
following empirical rules :
- given I$R 4 & = hD, one may deduce the
presence of hydrocarbon and primary porosity;
- given I$R 4 & < &D, one may deduce the
presence of hydrocarbon and primary as well as
secondary porosity;
- given qk = & < hD, one may deduce the
presence of a water-bearing reservoir with primary
and secondary porosity;
Mark of Schlumberger
 41 1

- given $R = q$j = &D, one can deduce that the
reservoir is water-bearing and that the porosity is
of the intergranular type or intercrystalline without
development of significant secondary porosity.
&, is derived from the Archie equation.
9.6. CLASSIFICATION OF RESERVOIRS
Since the quantitative interpretation model and
the type of program to be used must adapt to the
complexity of the problem to be solved, and
depends on the nature of the reservoir, it is
important to establish from the start the category
of reservoir to which the zone in question belongs.
This is the objective of the facies analyses descri-
bed in Chapter 5. For non-geologists, the features
of the major categories of reservoir will be briefly
summarised so that the log responses which will
enable them to be identified can be deduced.
From a practical point of view, reservoir rocks
can be classified according to their origin, which
will in part determine the type of porosity (inter-
granular, intercrystalline, vuggy, effective), the
geometry of the pores and their distribution as
well as m factor, together with the mineralogical
complexity of the rock and thus the complexity of
the interpretation.
9.6.1. Detrital Terrigenous
(Siliciclastic) Reservoirs
Depending on grain size, these may include
conglomerates, sands or sandstones, silts or silts-
tones, and the porosity is of an intergranular type,
usually primary. The mineralogical composition of
the reservoir depends essentially on firstly, the
chemical and textural maturity of the grains and
the matrix of the sediment, and secondly, on the
nature of the cement, if any, which binds the
grains (Fig. 9-1).
A chemically mature rock contains virtually
nothing but quartz, the most abundant stable
mineral, and possibly one or two other stable
minerals, either as secondary minerals or in the
form of cement. One then has a quartzitic sand or
sandstone, sometimes known as quartzite or or-
thoquartzite; the cement may be described as
either calcareous, dolomitic or saliferous.
As well as quartz, a chemically immature rock
contains unstable minerals (feldspars, micas, pla-
gioclases) and rock fragments in variable propor-
tions but increasing in number according to its
immaturity. In such cases, one has graywackes (as
defined by Tyrrell, 1931 and developed by Petti-
john, 1949), and arkoses. Thus the chemical
maturity of the rock could be represented by the
quartz-feldspar ratio and, as a first approximation
by its potassium content and thus its radioactivity.

COMPOSITION ROCK TEXTURE

COMPONENTS
TYPE OF DETRITAL ROCK I
TEXTURAL
CARBONATE 1 SHALE SANDSTONE PARAMETERS 1 Granules lmrn

/
Bioclasts Silt size of : Quartz Grain
Oolits Quartz Feldspars
Pellets Feldspars Micas
Quartz Micas Rocks
Heavy fragments Size
minerals Mudstone
grains
Bioclasts
Pellets
(glauconitel
Grain /
Abrasion Matrix
Clay minerals Clay minerals product Roundness

I
(silt size quartz
feldspars,
micas ...)
Sphericity
Clay minerals Sorting
Accessory Packing
minerals Orientation

Sparry
calcite
Ca Ic it e
organics
Silica
Calcite
Cement '
Dolomite

A-
Water Cement
oil
gas
Fig. 9-1. - Composition of a detrital reservoir
41 2

The textural maturity is determined by the

percentage of matrix (in the geological sense) and
the degree of sorting. To a certain extent the
percentage of detrital clay is an indication of
textural maturity - the less there is the more
texturally mature the rock is.
Chemical maturity and textural maturity do not
necessarily appear simultaneously; thus a
conglomerate may reveal a high textural maturity
and a low chemical maturity (as is the case with
numerous igneous rock pebbles). A very fine sand
can be chemically highly mature (quartz and
kaolinite) and texturally immature (poor sorting
which generally decreases with grain size). I Rocks Fragments

The evaluation of the two types of maturity is

important from the geological point of view as well Fig. 9-2. - Sorting of detrital terrigenous rocks (after Pettijohn
et a/., 1972, adapted from Dott, 1964).
as for production and interpretation. As for the
latter, the complexity will clearly increase from
quartzitic sandstones to arkoses. Table 9-1
In an orthoquartzite, a textural model designed Mineralogical composition of graywackes and
to differentiate between sands, silts, cement and proto-quartzite sands (from Pettijohn, 1963 in
possibly clays, will undoubtedly be of greater use Pettijohn et a/., 1972).
than a mineralogical model aimed a t the calcula-
A B C D E F G H
tion of the percentages of quartz, clay minerals,
feldspars and micas, the last two being practically Quartz 50 60 7!} 654 {3;: 71 309 27
Feldspar 3-5 3 8 100 2
absent or only present in insignificant amounts Mica ~
I ~
~
02 tr 03 -
Rocklragmentr 40 35 IS 106 430' 22' 330' 46'
and then solely bound to rock fragments which
themselves are not numerous. In such cases, an
Clay'or matri'i
Silica cement !O, 2 4
-
68
II 9
69
trace -
2
-
55
-
5

Calcite cement present RS 130 - 192 20

adequate program would be SARABAND or
VOLAN *, rather than a program like GLOBAL..
For an arkose, however, it will be very useful to
determine the mineralogical composition of the
I l l Includes IS0 percent chert. 121 Includes 280 percent chert. 131 5-10 percent. author's
observation: 141 Includes 50 percent chert. 151 Includes 3 0 percent chert. 12.0 percent Itmestone.
27 0 percent dolomite
A Orwcpo Sandrtonc IOrdoviciani. Pennrylvanla. U S A IKrynlne and Tuttlc. I9411
B Bradlord Sand IDevonlanl. Pennsylvania. U S A IKrynme. 1940. C - I . Table 31.

rock precisely, in order to get a better computation
of porosity and saturation. It will also help to
evaluate the textural maturity and grain size to get
an idea of the depositional processes and envi-
ronment. In such a case a very full suite of logs is
essential and a precise, detailed interpretation can
only be achieved using a program like GLOBAL.
9.6.1. l . Sands or quartrose sandstones
Sand is a loose detrital sendiment whose grains
are for the most part between 1/16 mm and 2 mm.
A sandstone is a sand consolidated by the pre-
sence of a cement binding the grains together and
cementation is a post-depositional process where
the cement fills the pore space. In detrital sequen-
ces one can usually assume that the percentage of
cement cannot exceed the porosity existing a t the
time when the process of cementation began.
As shown in Fig. 9-2, quartzose sands corres-
pond to sand containing less than 25Oh feldspars
and less than 15 O h matrix. They are subdivided into
pro toquartzites and orthoquartzites, the Iatter
being the purest (Table 9-1).
By definition, quartzose sands and sandstones
are thus both chemically and texturally mature.
They are of a light colour: white, grey or pink.
Allochthonous detrital minerals, such as feldspars
and micas, are rare to very rare. Accessory heavy
Mark of Schlumberger.
C Decre Formation IPennrvlvanmnI. Oklahoma. U S A IJacobwn. 1959. Table 4. Analvrir D.1121
D Salt Wash Member 01 -Morrison Formation (Jurarricl. Colorado Plateau. US A Mean of
r . p 251.
25 thm r e c t ~ o n r i G r i ~ t h1956.
E "Calcdrcour graywacke" ICretaceourl. Torok. Alaska Average of 3 sampler (Kryninc tn Payne
and others. 19521
F Basal Claibarne Sand IEoceneI. Trrar. U S A (Todd and Folk. 19571
0 "Frio. S ~ n d m n eIOl~pocenc).Seeligron field. Jim Wells and Kleberg Counties. Texas. U S A
A\erreeol2?rrmplerINilni. 1 9 5 4 , ~1121
H Malrr?erandrtemITeruaryi. Germany I U S M NO 186. Fuchtbauer. 1964. p 2561.
stable minerals, such as zircon, rutile, tourmaline,
apatite, and garnet are frequent. Autochthonous
detrital minerals, e.g. glauconite, phosphates, or
shell fragments are sometimes common. The size
of grain varies but the sorting is on the whole
good. The grains are round (Fig. 9-3).
These parameters mean that quartzose sands
are very porous and permeable. Cement is usually
secondary silica or calcite, more rarely dolomite,
anhydrite, halite, pyrite, or haematite. One assu-
mes, due to their high maturity, that they are the
consequence of several cycles of sedimentation.
Quartzose sands are frequently characteristic of
either beds of winnowed sand deposited on sub-
marine rises, or of aeolian sands. However, they
can also be found in other environments.
From a log analysis point of view, quartzose
sands will generally show a low to very low
radioactivity, the result of a low potassium content
(less than 1.5Oh), or even very low to zero (ortho-
quartzite), unless they contain an abundance of
heavy radioactive minerals such as zircon, allanite
and monazite. In such circumstances, the NGS
 41 3

Table 9-2
Mineralogical composition of arkoses and sub-
arkoses (from Pettijohn, 1963 in Pettijohn et a/.,
1972).
A B ’ C D E F ’ C H I J
~

Quartz 60 31 37 71 M) 35 377 57 51 51 I
24 30
Microcline
y- } {
1x5
Plagioclase 33’ {2:} 25 I3 592 4:; 6 II 04
Micas _ _ T -- 42 3 I 69
Clay 3 - 120 9 1 170
Carbonate - P’ - .. 2 ~ p’ p’
Other 6‘ 8’ 14 4 8 4’ I 41

(I)Normative or calculaled composition. (21 Modal ieldrpar. given by Mackie as 55 and 60.
rcspectwcly: (31 Present ~n amounts under I percent. 141 Chlorite. 15) Iron oxide lhernautel and
kaoltn
A Sparagmitc(PrecambrianI Norway IBarth. 1938. p Mi
B Torridoman (Precambrian) Scotland (Mackie. 1903. p 581
C Jotnian (Precambnanj, Satakunta. Finland (Sirnonen and Kuovo. 1955. Table 2. No 51
D. Subarkosc. Potsdam Sandstone (Cambriani. New York. U S A (Wiernel. 1961. p 91 A rubdrkose
E. Subarkase. Lamottc Sandstone ICambrian). Misrour~. U S A IOpkangar. 1963. p 8631
A subarkore.
F Lower Old Red (Devonian1Scotland lMackie 1905. p 581
G Arkose(Psrmmn1. Auvergnc. France IHuckenholtz. IYh? p 9111
H Pale arkosc (Triassic1 Connecticut. U S A IKrynme 1950, p 851
I Red arkose (Triassic1 Connecticut. LI S A IKrynine. 1950. p 851
J Arkose (Oligocene). Auvergnc. France IHuckenholtz. 1963. p 9171

Fig. 9-3.- Photograph of a thin section of a mature sandstone

(from Pettijohn, 1975).

spectroscopy log will indicate a high thorium

content (above 15-20 ppm) and a little uranium.
The values of P, and of U,, given by the LDT tool
will be virtually those for quartz or a little higher if
the rock contains feldspars or a cement other than
silica. On a P b - & crossplot, the corresponding
values will fall close to the sand or sandstone line,
if it is not a gas reservoir, or slightly below if the
cement is calcite. The distribution of points is
similar to that of a boomerang if there is vertical
grain size evolution, which will be shown by the
dipmeter resistivity curves. The distribution will be
triangular if the formation is laminated, which will
be shown by the resistivity curves of the microde-
vices (ML, MLL, MSFL, HDT, SHDT or FMS).
Because of the simple mineralogy of quartz,
clay and cement, a program such as SARABAND
or VOLAN is generally sufficient for orthoquartzi-
tes. Protoquartzites, should be treated like arko- Fig. 9-4. - Photograph of a thin section of an arkose (from
ses, the difference between the two types of rock Pettijohn, 1975).
being essentially a matter of the percentage of
feldspars.
Feldspars can be of different types but micro-
9.6.1.2. Arkoses cline and albite are the most common. Alteration
produces sericite, kaolinite, or montmorillonite.
Arkoses are essentially rocks which have a Micas are also common along with heavy minerals
certain textural maturity (less than 15 OO/ matrix) but while alteration of micas produces illite, montmo-
are chemically immature (more than 25Oh felds- rillonite, or kaolinite depending on the degree of
pars, that is, unstable minerals). Some arkoses can alteration.
even contain up to 6 0 % feldspars if the source According to Selley (1976) the majority of
rock is rich in feldspars and poor in quartz (Table arkoses are to be found in fluvial facies (alluvial
9-2). fans), and are characteristic of intracratonic basins
Arkoses are the product of incomplete altera- delimited by fault systems. However, they can also
tion of igneous or metamorphic rocks of the be found in other environments.
granite type such as diorite and gneiss. The typical From a log analysis point of view, arkoses are
arkose is pink or red in colour, more rarely grey. identifiable by strong to very strong radioactivity,
Pink denotes feldspars in the matrix, while red due to their often high potassium feldspar content,
denotes ferric oxide. Grain size is very variable and together with micas and heavy minerals such as
the sorting is often poor. The grains themselves zircon and monazite. Their potassium content is
are angular to sub-spherical (Fig. 9-4). often higher than 1.5 O/o and that of thorium lies
414

between 15 and 30 ppm. The values of P. and U,,

are higher than those for quartz due to the
presence of feldspars, micas, and heavy minerals.
On a P b - q 5 ~crossplot the representative points
generally fall below the sandstone line and vir-
tually on the limestone line. A Z-plot of SP values
usually allows them to be differentiated from
shales which are radioactive but which are located
in the E or SE sector of the crossplot (Fig. 9-5).
For the interpretation one chooses a mineralo-
gical model containing quartz, potassium feldspar,
plagioclase, (whether associated with the former
or not), mica and clay. This demands a full suite of
logs including the natural gamma-ray spectros-
copy tool and the use of a program such as
GLOBAL.

9.6.1.3. Gfeyweckes
Graywackes are by definition texturally imma-
ture sands because they contain more than 15Oh
matrix. According to their chemical maturity, they
are subdivided into lithic graywackes, if the pro-
portion of feldspars is below 25 %, and into felds-
pathic graywackes if the feldspars make up more
than 25% of the elements present (Table 9-3).

Table 9-3
Mineralogical composition of graywackes (from
Pettijohn, 1963 in Pettijohn et a/., 1972).
A B C D E F G H I J

O"drl2 33 ?? 37 4 14 27 33 56 9 trace
Fcldsprr I5 5 I? 10 32 19 21 37 43 M
Koikirrgmml\ i ?h I< 511 I9 311 7 1 10 13
\l"lTil 45 47 32 1? P' ?I 33 P' 25 45
Vita and chloritr ~ I 6 ~6 - 4 -
v,,cellane""i i ? 8 3 - - 4' 10'

I I I 401 seprratel) reporicd 38 percent of rack ii "cla! and s i l t " . 121 No1 separately reported.
131 Hornhlendi and pvroxcnc
A Feldrpathic g r a y u a c k e IPrecambrirnl Ontmo. Canada. average af 3 analyses (Petitjohn. 1943.
p 9461
B Lithic graywacke iMarunsburg Shalei. iO!douiciani Pennsylvania. L S A IMcBridc. 1962. p 621
C Akrystuylh Grit ISilurianl. Wales iOkada. 1967. Table I Analysis 70AI
D Lnhic praywacke IDevonianl. Australia. average oi 5 ICrook. 1955. p 1001
E Fcldrpathic graywackc 1Devonian.Mississippian. Tannerl. Harr Mountains. Germany (Helm-
bold 1952 p 2561
F GraywackeiKulml. Harz. Germany IMattiat. 19M)l
C Crayuacke lLower Mcrozoicl. Porirua dirtrici. New Zealand IWebby. 1959. p 4721
H Fcldspathic graywackc IJurarsic~ Franciscan Format~onl.Calif. U S A , average of 17 analyses
ITallaferro. 1943. p 1351
I Purari graywackc ICrclaceourl. Papua. average 014 IEdwardr. 19Mb. p 164)
J Tufraaceour Aure graywackc (Miocene). Papua. average of 2 IEdvardr, 19501. p 1291

Graywackes are generally hard rocks, of a dark

grey-green colour. They are very poorly sorted,
with grain size varying from very coarse t o very
fine (clay by matrix). In shape, they are angular to
subangular and of low sphericity. The quartz grains
are covered by other detrital minerals (Fig. 9-6),
while minerals such as hornblende and pyroxenes
are often mixed in with feldspars. The largest
grains are usually plutonic, volcanic or metamor-
phic rock fragments, according t o the source rock.
Micas (muscovite and biotite) are plentiful, toge-
ther with chlorite and sericite which are present as
microcrystals of diagenetic origin. Finally, unstable Fig, 9-5. - pb - b crossplot in a typical arkose (from Schlum-
heavy minerals are also frequent. berger, Well Evaluation Conference, India, 1983).
 41 5

Graywackes are generally characterised by ra-

pid deposition in orogenic belts associated with
flysch facies. Because of their immaturity they
usually have poor reservoir characteristics, that is,
average to low porosity, and low to very low
permeability.
From a log analysis point of view the tool
responses will reflect this immaturity. Radioacti-
vity is high since the content of potassium, tho-
rium and even uranium is often high. P, is between
3 and 4 b/e and U, usually higher a t 7 to 8 b/cm3.
On a P b - & crossplot, the points fall clearly below
the sandstone line and are grouped more or less
as a circle or an ellipse between the limestone line
and that of the dolomites (Fig. 9-7).

Fig. 9-6. - Photograph of a thin section of a graywacke (from

Pettijo h n, 1975).

All these detrital grains are embedded in an

abundant matrix made up of clay minerals (chlorite
and sericite), quartz, carbonates (often in the form
of siderite), pyrite and sometimes carbonaceous
organic matter. This matrix is both syndepositional
and diagenetic by alteration of unstable detrital
material.

Fig. 9-7. - pb - I#+, crossplot in a typical graywacke (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference, India, 1983).
416
In view of the textural and mineralogical com-
plexity of graywackes, a quantitative interpretation
using a GLOBAL type program with a very full
suite of logs is called for. A mineralogical model
based on quartz, feldspars (potassium and plagio-
clase), micas (muscovite and biotite), rock frag-
ments, clays (illite and chlorite), and carbonate
(siderite) can be established if the suite of logs is
adequate. A re-interpretation with a textural model
(rock fragments, sand, silt and clay) is highly
recommended for a better evaluation of permeabi-
lity.
9.6.1.4. Conglomerates
These are detrital sediments in which more than
25 O/o of the particles are over 2 mm in diameter.
Depending on the quantity of matrix the conglo-
merates are classified as o~hoconglomerates
(grain supported) and paraconglomerates (mud
supported). Analysis of the dipmeter resistivity
curves usually makes it possible to differentiate
between the two types (Fig. 9-8).
I DIPS I RESISTIVITY I CORE DESCRIPTION
s They can be distinguished from the latter by their
Fig. 9-8. - Typical dipmeter response opposite conglomerates.
(a) grain supported conglomerates. (b) mud-supported
conglomerates.
The orthoconglomerates of marine origin are
without matrix at the time of deposition, but can
acquire a post-depositional matrix of fine material
carried by water flowing through the pore spaces
of these highly permeable formations which
contain large pores and considerable spaces
between the pores.
Fluvial orthoconglomerates, however, have a
matrix deposited a t the same time as the pebbles,
while paraconglomerates usually correspond to
mud-flows or to deposits of glacial origin.
Conglomerates are further subdivided accor-
ding to their composition. Thus there are mono-
genic conglomerates, made up of a single type of
rock - usually quartzitic sandstone - and polygenic
conglomerates made up of several types of rock.
The grain size of the conglomerates means that
they are very porous and permeable. But, because
of this, fine material (matrix) can enter the pore
space and greatly reduce permeability. According
to the kind of matrix which penetrated the pore
space, the quantitative interpretation may be
simple or complex : simple if the matrix is sandy
and the conglomerates monogenic. The interpreta-
tion will be more complex if the matrix is shaly or
the conglomerates are polygenic. Monogenic
orthoconglomerates with a sand matrix will have
the log characteristics of a quartzitic sandstone.
textural features identified by the dipmeter. Other
conglomerates are identifiable either by their
textural features, or by their more complex com-
position as shown by crossplots.
9.6.1.5. Silts and siltstones
Silt is a sediment whose grains, of detrital
origin, have a diameter of between 1/16 and
1/256 mm. A siltstone is a hardened silt. The
composition of silt may vary considerably, but the
most common minerals are quartz, mica, felds-
pars, and the heavy minerals, with a variable
percentage of clay minerals. Grains are angular to
sub-rounded. Sorting is often average to poor, and
porosity is sometimes high, but because of the
grain size, permeability is frequently poor. From a
log analysis point of view, silts are usually charac-
terised by strong to very strong radioactivity due
to their composition which means that sometimes
they can be more radioactive than clays (Fig 9-9a).
On a p b - qh crossplot, the representative points
are located close to the limestone line or between
the limestone and dolomite line. More often than
not they are distinguishable from clays by a
deflection of the SP which will be shown by a
Z-plot as well as by the presence of a mud-cake.
Crossplots linking the SP or the SSP to thorium or
potassium allow a better identification of silt and
its parameters (Fig. 9-9b). A quantitative interpre-
tation requires a full suite of logs, a complex
geological model and a GLOBAL type program.
 41 7

volcanic origin they are made up of pebbles of

lava, whose composition is rhyolite, andesite, or
basalt
- volcanic sands or tuffs or ashes, originating
from volcanic explosions or an erosion of the lava
flows. They are composed of crystals, volcanic
glass and rock fragments. The crystals are compo-
sed of quartz, feldspars, olivine and black mica in
variable proportions depending on the type of
volcano from which they originate. They can be
deposited on the Earth's surface or underwater.
Volcanic sands are often badly sorted due to the
fact that any major movement and winnowing
would quickly remove the unstable minerals which
compose them. As a result their permeability is
generally poor, and minerals in the zeolite group
are frequently present. They are the product of
deterioration of various components of the tuffs.
Fig. 9-9a. - Example of silts which are more radioactive than From a log analysis point of view, they have the
clays (from Serra & Sulpice, 1975).
characteristics of volcanic rocks from which they

. , MP
~oO:... I
1 ,. .
...............................................
,,., I.
I0 .*3.1 ,I
I,.
In
11,
I,,
. I.
I,
I,
NL4rnb.r ol point#1401
originated with, however, frequently high but not
effective porosities because some pores are not
connected, e.g. those corresponding to isolated
...............; i
FnqumryPlm
bubbles in a vitreous matrix. Quantitative interpre-
. II tation requires a full suite of logs, a textural and
mineralogical model and a program such as
............. . .: .:. GLOBAL (cf. Khatchikian & Lesta, 1973).
i I
................i ! 9.6.3. Weathered plutonic reservoirs
i. :j 1. ("granite or basic wash")
............* * . i i ]ii!
: Such reservoirs result from alteration of pluto-
.................i '1
t:
nic basement or intrusions. The matrix porosity is
jaw 1.00 poor (generally lower than 5 Oh). Fracturing is often
abundant, varying from small cracks to large open
......... .................... fractures. The mineralogical composition is close
to that of the parent rock (granite, diorite, or
gabbro), plus products of weathering (clay mine-
......... ............. ......: i
FWu+Pla
..... rals, i.e. chlorite).
. I

......... ....................; \
. I

From the log analysis point of view interpreta-

1 .
I .
I .
I .
I .

. , . . .. I
I
.
.
tion of such reservoirs is close to that of arkose.
I , .
: i
I
I9
2
,
,
.
. ij But sometimes the set of logs is not sufficient for
......... ............. ........
.

a complete and detailed analysis in terms of the

.*: *

/
. ,.. principal mineral composition. Consequently, the
I.

1:

......... ................... i: 1 computation of the porosity and saturation requi-

*

... res a simplified model. As shown in figure 9-10 the

..
4;
/
....... '!i
i ...........................
1 Pb 1 ............. ........:
II
I..

......... 6 ' " " " " " ' 'pmlcc' :&
8. I : .

'w K 5.00
hn = 12

Fig. 9-9b. - Crossplots combining SSP and the potassium and

.................................
,.,@:..*..,.,.,..*.*.
thorium contents, thereby allowing the clay and silt parame-
ters to be determined.

9.6.2. Detrital volcanic reservoirs

( pyroclastics)

Such reservoirs are essentially the product of

.......................................................
@BIOTITE

volcanic rock fragments. Depending on grain size, @N

one can define them as : .......................................................
.5.O" 10.0" 11.10 40.00 ,I.PD 74.1:

- agglomertes, that is volcanic equivalents of Fig. 9-10, - pb vs qh crossplot and its interpretation to define a
conglomerates formed by explosions and screes at "basement point" and the trend towards the chlorite point
the base of a volcano. Depending on the type of (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference, Egypt, 1984).
418

interpretation of the P b vs tjh crossplot using the

envelope technique, enables define a "basement
(granite) point", which is a mixture of quartz,
potassium feldspar and plagioclase (QAP), musco-
vite and biotite (MB) to be defined. This mixture
corresponds to a granite or granodiorite. A clear
trend towards the chlorite point is also visible. The
result of the interpretation of the available logs
with the GLOBAL program using the QAP and MB
mixture model is shown in figure 9-11.

DEPTI

3300

3400

3100

-
Fig. 9-1 1. - GLOBAL computation of a basement reservoir
using a simple granite-chlorite dual mineral model (from
Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference, Egypt, 1984).

Another example of a granitic reservoir is illus-

trated by crossplots of figure 9-12. From their
analysis four igneous rock types have been reco-
gnized : granite 1, granite 2 and granite 3, and
diabase. The diabase intrusions are clearly visible
in figure 9-13 which shows the GLOBAL proces-
sing using the four "rock type points" and chlorite
as the five principal "minerals". The proximity of
the granite 1 facies to these intrusions would seem Fig, 9-12. - Several crossplots and their irrterptetation (from
to suggest that a metamorphic process is respon- Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference, Chrna, 1985)

sible for the high potassium feldspar content and
the low density of this granite 1 which should
correspond to a granulite. Granite 2 is in fact a
granodiorite, and granite 3 is a migmatitic plagio-
clase granite.
Fig. 9-13. - GLOBAL processing results from a five principal
mineral model (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Confe-
rence, China, 1985).
9.6.4. Detrital Carbonate Reservoirs
(Bioclastics)
Such reservoirs correspond to the accumulation
of shell fragments or carbonate rocks either with
or without non-carbonate detrital grains (litho-
clasts),often made up of quartz. Depending on the
quantity of quartz, one finds sandy limestone (or
dolomites) or calcareous (or dolomitic) sands (Fig.
9-14a). Because quartz is a transported element,
these rocks are termed allochthonous. Shell frag-
419
ments may also contain detrital carbonate grains
(intraclasts, pellets, and oolites), the whole being
bound by a matrix (micrite or clay) and a cement
(sparite). Depending on the relative proportion of
grains to matrix, Dunham (1962) has subdivided
this type of rock into :
- mudstone, when grains make up less than
1Oohof the total volume of the rock;
- wackestone, when the percentage of grains
lies between 10 and 50°h and the grains are thus
supported by the matrix;
- packstone, when the percentage of matrix is
between 50 and 10 O h and as a result the grains are
touching;
- grainstone, when the percentage of matrix is
less than 10%.
Depending on grain size the last category can
be subdivided into calc-arenites for a given size of
sand, and into calci-rudites for grain sizes above
2 mm (Grabau's classification).
Since carbonate grains are often formed on site
or close by, carbonate rocks are termed auto-
chthonous. Furthermore, the origin of the matrix
means that they are frequently classified as rocks
of chemical or biochemical origin. It is important
to note also that these rocks are highly sensitive to
diagenetic effects which can at the same time
alter their texture and even their mineralogy (do-
lomitization). Vuggy secondary porosity, resulting
from dissolution, is frequent.
From a log analysis point of view, allochthonous
type rocks are characterised by weak to average
radioactivity which depends on the percentage of
clay, which is indicated by a non-zero content of
potassium and thorium. In some cases, radioacti-
vity may be high and related to the presence of
phosphate or of organic matter which results in a
relatively high uranium ratio. P, and Urn,values fall
between those of calcite and quartz or of dolomite
and quartz if the rock is dolomitized (Fig. 9-14a).
On a P b - f # ~CrOSSplOt, the points fall between the
sandstone and limestone lines, or between sands-
tones and dolomites. A quantitative interpretation
will be based on a mineralogical model comprising
quartz, calcite, dolomite, and clay and a textural
model with two types of porosity (primary and
secondary). A GLOBAL type program is most
suitable.
The second type of reservoir (autochthonous)
will generally show a low to average radioactivity,
depending on the ratio of clay minerals and of
phosphates as well as glauconite and organic
matter. Pe and Urn, values will be between those of
calcite and dolomite and possibly between the
latter two and those for clay. On a Pb - qh crossplot
(Fig. 9-14b), the points will fall between the limes-
tone and dolomite lines, the most shaly levels
being located to the SE of the dolomite line and
being identifiable by a z-plot by the potassium and
thorium values. Dipmeter data usually provide a
good indication of the texture and structure of
such rocks (Fig. 9-15). A quantitative interpretation
420

D E N S I T Y - N E U T R O N C R O S S P L O T F O R Z O N E FROM 3177' TO 4 7 9 0 . D E N S I T Y - N E U T R O N C R O S S P L O T FOR Z O N E F R O M 4714' TO 4 3 8 0 .

2.0000

2.2000

2.4000

2.6000

2.8000

3.0000
+N
3.0000 I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
-0.100 0.0000 0,lOOO 0.2000 0.3000 0.4000 0.5000 -0.100 0.0000 0.1000 0.2000 0.3000 0.4000 0. 00

L D T - C N T C R O S S P L O T F O R Z O N E F R O n S177' TO 4790' L D T - C N T C R O S S P L O T F O R Z O N E F R O n 4714' T O 4380'

-
2.6000

__--
-*
~ LIMESTONE-
I

2.8000

2.90 0 0 -1 DOLOMITE+-
1

?.I000
4,0000
I 6.0000 8.0000 10.000 12.000 14.000
Uma
16.0011
3. 1000
4,0000 6.0000 8,0000 10,000 12.000 14.000
Uma
16.000

a b
Fig. 9-14. - (a) p b - & crossplot in a sand-dolomite sequence (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference, Egypt, 1984). (b)
pb - & and (pm.). vs. (Urn.). crossplots in a calcareous-dolomitic sequence (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference, Egypt,
1984).

CORREUTION
requires a mineralogical model comprising calcite,
CURVE GEODIP RESULTS and dolomite, with phosphate and glauconite as
4

1
CII*.rl

C.l,D.,

n.".l'"''*
I
10

, AND'IPANGLE
20

E
DIRECTION g
11 CORRELATIONS
FACIES well as one or two clays as secondary compo-
nents. The textural model will contain both types
of porosity. A program like GLOBAL should be
chosen for the calculation of mineralogical percen-
tages.

9.6.5. Reservoirs of chemical

or biochemical origin

Such reservoirs are essentially represented by

carbonates formed by chemical deposit from a
solution rich in CaC03, by temperature variation,
by the biochemical action of algae, or by the
activity of constructor organisms. Dunham (1962)
has given the name of boundstone to carbonates
resulting from this activity. They are also termed
calcareous reefs or simply reefs.

4 Fig. 9-15.- The difference in resistivity curve responses

recorded by dipmeter reveals the different textures of a
limestone reservoir (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation
Conference, Egypt, 1984).
 42 1

For this category of reservoir, porosity may be include rocks formed by accumulation of siliceous
of different types : intragranular, intergranular, but skeletons : radiolarites and diatomites.
mainly skeletal, as shelters, casts, or even inter- Carbonates of chemical or biochemical origin
crystalline (Table 3-3). This category of reservoir is can contain gypsum or anhydrite. The chalk is
often linked with formations resulting from an often very porous though its permeability is poor
accumulation of calcareous shells (chalk, nummu- so that siliceous intrusions are frequently found,
litic limestones, etc.). Such a reservoir should also e.g. silex and chert.
From a log analysis point of view, limestone
reefs are identifiable by the highly heterogeneous
.......: f feature of the dipmeter resistivity curves (Fig.
f..!I! 9-15). The other criteria are those for the carbona-
.......:
I8

.:11ii
I!
tes as a whole. For interpretation a textural model
j and a mineralogical model are required : minera-
'
I,

......;. logical for nuclear tools, textural for resistivity and

r 4 41 acoustic measurements. Siliceous reservoir are
: I!
: I! often rich in opal, and this will result in a displa-
.......: '\ cement of points towards the NW on the p b - 6
i i
: 1 crossplot (Fig. 9-16). The (pma)a - ( U m a ) a plot of Fig.
2.4: ........................................... ......i: iI 9-17 clearly shows the displacement of points
towards the opal point.

9.7. CLASSIFICATION OF RESERVOIRS

Fig. 9-16. - pb - &, crossplot showing the presence of opal. Not FROM WELL LOGS
to be confused with a gas effect (from Schlumberger, Well
Evaluation Conference, West Africa, 1983).
The log characteristics of the main types of
reservoir have been briefly analysed in the course
of describing each of them. These characteristics
.............. > are derived from the translation of geological data
:: into theoretical log responses (Fig. 9-18). The
:I . .>
........ . d
problem which now concerns us is the reverse :
: ii for the purpose of interpretation, starting from log
i !f
.I
1
i.!i responses, one has to work back to the type of
* I * , 9 .

~ ~ " . ' " ' ":" . ' ' ' ' . . ........ 4,
reservoir and to the appropriate choice of geologi-
j cal model. In the end, such a model will determine
......i:jf the choice of computation program and of the
I0
most suitable paramaters. To solve this problem
i la, one needs to analyse in detail both the response
.......................
. i t , , ,
........
. L I

.,
.......ii 'it from each log and the crossplots, once formation
i ' :: has been identified as a reservoir.
i , ,
* i& ' 1

...4:Dolomite
:...............i,,,.,......
8 12
.I
(Urn.)*
* *,
20
i
,: I !
f

a
9.7.1. Analysis of Well Logs
Definition of the type of reservoir will be based
2.4 :.... ..............................................
,I 14 ,I
'
LO, '$7
I,
I7
I7
.>
I,
I, ' 1 1 I 1 1
on logs which have a low sensitivity to porosity
i(h). $50 % Opdl 50 % Quartz variations, or to the nature of the fluid. Analysis
will thus be based on the total or spectral measu-
rement of radioactivity and on the data obtained
by the litho-density tool (LDT). Thus any reservoir
formation low in radioactivity or in potassium
content will correspond either to an orthquartzite
if P, is close to 2 b/e or ( U m a ) a is below 5 b/cm3 or
to a carbonate. The distinction between limestone
2,8i .................................................. and dolomite is established by the value of P,
(close to 5 for a limestone and 3.14 for a dolomite),
i Dolomite i
2.9:.........:.........:.........:.........:..........
' 4 i
i Wm). : or of ( U m a ) a (respectively 13.7 and 9 b/cm3). All
intermediate values of P, or ( U m a ) a will indicate a
0 4 8 12 16 20
mineralogical mixture or the presence of a ce-
b
ment, providing that is there is no baryte in the
Fig. 9-17. - (prna).- (Urn.), crossplots of the same well with (a)
frequency and (b) gamma ray values on the Z-axis. The
drilling mud. Conversely, any reservoir formation
tendancies towards clay and calcite are evident (from showing a high radioactivity or, better, a potas-
Schlumberger. Well Evaluation Conference, West Africa, sium content of more than 1.5 OO/ will be characte-
1983). ristic of a detrital rock of low chemical maturity,
422

WELL LOGGING RELEVAIIT

GEOLOGICAL PARAMETERS PARAMETERS AFFECTED LOGGING TOOLS

CEMENT
(OIher than clays)

MATRIX"'

COMPOSITION 4

, clays)

SP FDC LDT GST

CONTENT
(Fluid)

SATURATION S, S,

Fig. 9-18. - Relationship between the composition of a rock and the log parameters (from Serra, 1984).

thus of an arkose or graywacke, or of a volcano- crossplot the mineralogical model suggested by

clastic rock of rhyolite origin. The mineralogical
model must, therefore, contain quartz, potassium
feldspar, plagioclase, and mica, with the possibility
of clay, of cement and of rock fragments. If the
high radioactivity is due to uranium and a t the
same time the thorium content is low (below
5ppm), then the reservoir is a carbonate (limes-
tone or dolomite) and contains either bitumen or
phosphates.
9.7.2. Interpretation of Crossplots
the preceding analysis or the analysis of trends.
Thus, if a chemically immature formation has been
identified, the representative points of quartz,
potassium feldspar, plagioclases, micas and va-
rious clays must be situated on the crossplot,
including calcite and dolomite if, given the maxi-
mum porosity recorded, the presence of cement is
probable. To illustrate the procedure to follow, the
example of well logs in Fig. 9-20 and the corres-
ponding crossplots in Figs. 9-21 and 9-22 will be
a naIysed.

This interpretation must be made by rock type

to avoid confusion or error in the mineralogical
model. Consequently, a preliminary step is requi-
red. It consists of zoning the studied interval into
its principal rock types using either the above
mentioned techniques based on typical or thres-
hold values, or using the results from a FACIOLOG
or LITHO processing (see later).
When radioactivity and potassium content are
moderate to high, the determination of the type of
reservoir will depend largely on crossplot techni-
ques and more especially on "Z-plots". The latter
consist of plotting a third measurement a t the
junction of two others. The use of colour to
represent these variations greatly facilitates the
interpretation of crossplots (Fig. 9-19). The inter- Fig. 9-19. - Use of colour allows better visualisation of the
pretation must be undertaken by projecting on the variations of a third parameter.
 423

OPTN HOE 100.5 I

TPR*< > ~ .........~)(PPILCL.>.
........
-40.00
_ _ _ _ _L O_. O_O O_ _UBWCTJIJ
0.1000 1000.0 40.000
.........CW.<GA?I>..........
0.0 1SO.OO 0.OlOO
IUBC__L
100.00
_-_-- 0.0
PGR ( G h P l ) ....... ..... ........ rninc )

a b

Fig. 9-20. - (a) Composite log over the interval studied. (b) NGS log over the upper section showing the higher radioactivity of the
reservoir compared to that of clays (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference, India, 1983).
424

The combined examination of caliper, SP and of

the resistivity curves (separation between LLS and
LLD curves), leads to the location of the reservoir
and makes it possible to note that it is highly
radioactive, that is more radioactive than the
surrounding shales. Analysis of the spectrometry
of the gamma radiation shows a percentage of
potassium between 0.8 and 2 O/O and a high thorium
content opposite the reservoir beds. These two
observations suggest an immature formation, rich
in minerals containing thorium, such as zircon and
monazite. The percentage of potassium may be
variously explained as follows :
- influence of clay only: in which case its
percentage should be high, even if only illite is
present; this is not compatible with other measu-
rements, especially the SP;
- influence of potassium feldspar only: its
percentage would then be between 5 and 12%
which should bring about a lowering of the appa-
rent density of the matrix ( (P,,,~)~), which in fact is
contradicted by the pb - qh crossplot;
- influence of mica only: its percentage would
* CHLORITE
be between 10 and 25% and thus the matrix
density should be 0.05 to 0.08 g/cm3 higher than
that of the quartz. This would be just about in line
with the apparent density of the matrix as shown
by the pb - qh crossplot. However, the interpreta-
tion of the same crossplot with SP and K on the
Z-axis allows two lines to be drawn, one corres-
ponding to sand size, the other to silt size, and
between the two a more or less constant potas-
sium content suggesting an equally constant
percentage of mica. This is incompatible with the
increase in the apparent density of the matrix.
Thus the hypothesis must be rejected;
- joint influence of feldspar and mica: this
hypothesis is much closer to what can be obser-
ved on the various crossplots. The more or less

,o -.....*
:.**-..-..:..
: i GN (P.U.) i
f
* r
o
constant content of potassium together with the
increase of the apparent density of the matrix can
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
be explained by a percentage reduction of felds-
D
3
0 10 20 30 bO 50
par, balanced by a percentage increase of mica.
Fig. 9-21. - pb - @W crossplot where the values of SP, K, and Th
are indicated by five colour tints on the Z-axis (from Schlum-
This is completely in line with the reduction in
berger, Well Evaluation Conference, India, 1983). grain size towards silt as shown in Fig. 9-23 taken
from Blatt et a/. The apparent density of the sands
0
D
***.....
0
0
0
>.
s
I.
being relatively high, suggests the presence of
plagioclase as well as that of potassium feldspar.
Th (ppm) A few dense points having a low potassium and
. f * - * * . *
thorium content correspond to limestone beds or
lenses. The examination of the arrow-plot and the
resistivity curves in the display of the results of the
..*.**.*
processing of the HDT data by the GEODIP
program over the same interval reveals and loca-
tes this fact perfectly (high resistivity peaks in Fig.
9-24). Finally, the interpretation of the same cross-
plot clearly suggests an evolution of the shaly
points towards the chlorite pole. This is confirmed
by the crossplot combining potassium and thorium
together with, on the axis of Z, the apparent
density of matrix (low value of thorium for chlo-
Fig. 9-22. - Crossplot of thorium vs. potassium for the same rite). All these conclusions are confirmed by an
interval with the apparent grain density on the Z-axis. analysis of the core samples (Table 9-4).
 425

mm
8 4 2 1 112 114 116 1/161/32 1/64 1112811258 Sub
I I I I I I I ' I I I I I ,,, I I

Median grain size lmml

05 04 03 02 01

Heavy minerals 1
b

Fig. 9-23.- Relationship between grain size and the composi-

tion of the detrital fraction in clastic rocks. (a) In general (from
Blatt e? a/., 1980). (b) In Torridonian sandstones (from Selley,
1966).

Table 9-4
Rock composition by analysis of thin sections.

SAMPLE KAOLINITE CHLORITE ILLITE SMECTITE MIXED LAYER

WELL DEPTH ILLITEISMECTIT

G 2026.5 17 17 25 - 41

G 2185.5 - 15 13 - 72

G 2190.5 - 44 3 - 53

H 2002.5 - 62 8 - 30
-
Fig. 9-24. - Presentation of results of dipmeter processing with
H 2175.5 3 10 38 51

H 2209.0 - 86 3 - 11 the GEODIP program, allowing carbonaceous beds or nodules

to be located (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Confe-
rence, India, 1983).
CALC DOL I SID TOTAL
MICA + CLAY
~

16
Another example of crossplot interpretation is
9 6 -
provided by the case shown in Figs. 9-25 to 9-27.
1 1 2 55
The crossplot p b vs qh (Fig 9-26), with values of the
gamma ray (GR) and spontaneous potential, pla-
1 3 - 23
ced along the axis of 2 allows a line of sands and
3 - - 23 a line of silts to be defined. The latter joins the
fluid point at the points situated furthest to the SE
CALC = Calcite
but showing a value of 1 on the gamma ray and of
2 on SP. The most shaly points correspond to
DOL = Oolomite
points showing the highest value of SP and of
SID Siderite gamma ray. The points distribution between the
426
sand line and the shale point, suggests the pre-
sence of structural and laminated shale, as well as
laminated silt and clay. Maximum porosity is of the
order of 36% and the drop in porosity probably
reflects a reduction in grain size distribution
sorting. The ,interval can be interpreted as a
mixture of sand, silt and clay. The parameters for
the sand will be those of quartz, since most of the
points fall on the line. However, the radioactivity of
the most porous sands reveals the influence of
radioactive minerals such as feldspars. The silt
parameters are to be defined by determining a silt
"point" which lies a t the intersection of the silt-line
and of the line crossing the points furthest to the
SE. This point must also be at the intersection of
the line of silts and of a line starting from the
quartz point and parallel to a line of equiporosity
drawn through the points furthest to the SW,
showing the lowest values of SP and gamma ray.
The porosity of the points situated between the
silt-lines and the sand-lines with values of SP and
gamma ray below 2 and 3 respectively, must be
determined by moving in parallel with the line of
equiporosity. The crossplot GR vs SP (Fig. 9-27)
allows the radioactive sand and silt to be specified,
17.5 API for sand, and 152 API for silt, 110 API for
shales. Furthermore, this crossplot can be used to
determine the percentages of sand, silt and shales.
9.7.3. FACIOLOG and LITHO (Geo Column)
Programs
As shown previously, a detailed interpretation
of crossplots makes it possible to determine the
composition of the nature of the principal minerals
of a rock or, more specifically, of a reservoir. At
the same time, we can obtain a rough idea of the
percentages of these minerals, thus enabling us to
identify the type of reservoir. Given this, it seems
useful for the interpretation to be automated. It is
apparent that each type of reservoir can be statis-
tically defined by the surface it covers on each
crossplot. This surface corresponds to the projec-
tion, on a plane determined by the axes of coordi-
nates of the two combined measurements, of the
hypervolume spatially defined to n dimensions
where n corresponds to the number of log measu-
rements used for this definition. The higher n is the
lower will be the risk of confusion. The hypervo-
lume can be determined by a process of the kind
used either in the FACIOLOG or in the LITHO
program. As described in Chapter 5, the method
used in the FACIOLOG program, consists of reco-
gnising the spatial grouping of points to n dimen-
sions, from n-log measurements carried out in
well. Each grouping thus located is translated into
facies or lithofacies either by interpreting its
position on the various crossplots, or by compa-
ring it with the data obtained from core samples
taken in the same interval. The method used in the
LITHO program is different, since the grouping of
points corresponding to a lithofacies are predefi-
ned and the allocation of a level of reading or of
a bed to one of these lithofacies is achieved by an
attribution method. The LITHO program has been
described in Chapter 2. As well as giving an
immediate idea of the type of rock, the signifi-
cance of this preliminary interpretation of the logs
lies in the fact that it allows the model of interpre-
tation and its attendant constraints to be determi-
ned, together with the log parameters most suita-
ble for each type of rock. This results in a reduc-
tion of the number of unknown factors which
allows the full potential of a program like GLOBAL
to be exploited, as shown by Suau e t a / . (1982). Fig.
9-28 gives an example of a lithological profile
obtained by means of the LITHO program.
 427

Fig. 9-26. - pb - &, crossplot over the same interval with (a) frequency, (b) gamma ray values and (c) SP values on the Z-axis.
 SSP
.,I. .

..
I I

.: t,
I
I

. .
I

..
. . : '2
..
I !
I , .1

..
I'
I*
1 I 1
,!
I I,Sl

.
I . , ,I

e 8 %
II 4I

: I!
#I
: :I
.
t II

..,
. 4

..
, I
I 1
II
tI.i

.. . a

, ..
I
I,
*,
-14.

SSP
., -

SSP
Fig. 9-27. - Crossplots relating gamma ray and SSP with (a) frequency, (b) hydrogen index, (c) density on the Z-axis.
 429

.....coiuMi.
iruni MICAL
.#_.#I.

U -.
LITHOFACIES
.-
I SUB
definition
MAJOR
definition

-
CALCAREOUS 0 10 PU DOLO
PURE ANHYDRITE EVAP
CALCAREOUS 0 10 PU OOLO
TIGHT DOLOMITIC LIME
CALCAREOUS0 10 PU DOLO
ANHYDRlTlC LIME

PURE ANHYDRITE EVAP

TIGHT DOLOMITIC LIME

CALCAREOUS 0.10' PU DOLO

PURE ANHYDRITE EVAP

ANHYDRITIC LIME

PURE ANHYDRITE EVAP

i ANHYDRlTlC

I i MEDIUM P O R O U S l O 2 5 P LIME
, L (
, ' I
I TlGHTOlOPU
PURE ANHYDRITE EVAP
A~~HYDRITIC DOLO
DOLOMITIC 2 5 35 PU LIME

EVAP

I
DOLO

.............
LIME

EVbP
6111.

DOLO

Fig. 9-28. - Example of a lithological profile obtained by the processing of logs using the LITHO program

9.8. QUANTITATIVE INTERPRETATION ( 2 ) the geology which itself may be subdivided

OF WELL LOGS
The interpretation of well logs is : the art of
choosing the best model from the given data so as
to obtain results which are as close as possible to
the reality.
An interpretation model is a combination of
different sub-models dependant on the following :
(1) the response of the tools, that is the relation
between the actual measurement made by each
tool and its conversion into log parameters (i.e.
cps recorded by the density tool and their conver-
sion into bulk density);
as follows :
(a) mineralogy, that is the definition of the
nature of major and secondary minerals as well as
the composition of grains or particles, crystals,
cement or clay, with a notion of maximum percen-
tages geologically feasible given the type of rock
(detrital, biochemical, chemical);
(b) texture, giving by rock type a notion of grain
size, sorting, grain distribution, clay distribution,
porosity type, and connection between pores;
(c) structure, indicating the internal organisa-
tion of the electro-facies, massive, heterogeneous,
laminated, grano-graded, fractured, etc.;
430
(d) petrophysical, which follows from the struc-
ture and which allows parameters such as pma,Rsh,
Atshrpa, Rmfr R,, p,, etc. to be specified, these being
necessary for quantitative interpretation;
(e) mathematics, that is the selection of equa-
tions relating the log parameters to the desired
parameters, porosity, saturation, permeability, etc.,
and the selection of constraints and levels of
uncertainty on the measurements.
These various sub-models are closely linked.
Thus the response of the tools depends on the
geological or petrophysical model e.g. calibration
of the gamma-gamma tool as a function of rock
density and interpretation of the response of the
neutron tool (CNL). Furthermore, the saturation
equation depends on the texture and on the
structure of the rock.
The choice of interpretation model must, there-
fore, take into account all the geological inforrna-
tion given by the close analysis of the logs as
explained in previous chapters. The importance of
these preliminary stages is thus evident.
A mineralogical model is best suited for the
interpretation of nuclear logs (gamma ray tool,
NGT, neutron, density or lithodensity, GST), while
a textural and structural model is best suited to the
interpretation of resistivity tools or tools measu-
ring sonic or electromagnetic transit time.
Processing the data using the LITHO program
will allow the mineralogical model to be determi-
ned together with the constraints tied in with it, as
well as the textural model, that is, type of porosity
and choice of the value of m.
The results of processing dipmeter logs using a
GEODIP or LOGDIP type program will give a
notion of the textural model, especially in the
carbonate sequences, and of the structural model,
and thus of the values of m, of which saturation
equations to use as well the equations linking
sonic speed to porosity (Wyllie or Raymer-Hunt
equations).
But before beginning the interpretation proper a
certain number of parameters have first to be
determined.
9.9. DETERMINATION
OF FUNDAMENTAL PARAMETERS
(TEMPERATURE, MUD PROPERTIES,
R, ph)
General and fundamental parameters are those
which are applicable to the whole of a study or to
a sequence of levels which make up an interval.
They include :
(1) bottom hole and surface temperature or
better still the temperature measured a t a given
depth during a previous recording of a suite of well
logs;
(2) mud, filtrate, and mud-cake composition, of
which the density, salinity, and resistivity must be
known;
(3) formation water with if possible its composi-
tion, salinity and resistivity;
(4) composition of the hydro-carbons and their
log characteristics, density, hydrogen-neutron in-
dex etc.;
(5) parameters relating porosity 4 to formation
factor F, that is, a the lithological constraint of
proportionality where m is the factor of cementa-
tion or of tortuosity and n the index of saturation.
9.9.1. Determination of Temperature T
Since temperature influences resistivities as
well as the density of fluids, the hydrogen neutron
index, the sonic transit time in fluids etc., it is
important to determine the temperature opposite
each level examined in order to take this influence
into account in the quantitative interpretation of
the log measurements. Temperature varies with
depth, and it is necessary therefore either to have
a continuous measurement (temperature well log-
ging) or to know the temperature at two given
depths and to inter- or extrapolate. In the case of
temperature well logging it is enough to read the
temperature a t the required depth from the ave-
rage line recorded on the run (Fig. 9-29), or to
determine the line by which to define the geo-
thermic gradient in the bore hole using a regres-
sive method. Usually, the bottom-hole tempera-
ture is only available from one or more maximum
reading thermometers attached in a carrying tube
to one extremity of the logging tools. It is recom-
mended to take temperature measurements on
N 16" Temperature ('IF)
-2
<
2
5-
5%-
r-
c
2
-+E3
Geothermal gredient
250'
~~~
Fig. 9-29. - Example of a temperature log.
 43 1

each run in the hole in order to determine more
accurately, using the Horner function, the forma-
tion temperature a t thermal equilibrium. This value
is plotted on a depth-temperature graph (Fig. 9-30)
together with the BHT from the previous suite of
recordings. The two points are then joined by a
line which gives the variations of temperature to
depth. If no other measurement is available then
one uses the surface temperature most compati-
ble with bore hole location and the season. In the
event of having no measurements one uses charts
provided by the service company, in the case of
Schlumberger chart GEN-6. In such a case, to
select the temperature-depth line (Fig. 9-31), one
needs to know the average annual surface tempe-
rature and the regional geothermal gradient.
"Run" 1
T = lOSa L 750 m
9.9.2. Determination of the Resistivity
of Mud R,
In the case of air drilling (R, indeterminate) or
of oil drilling (infinite R m ) , there is no need to
determine R ,, Rmr and Rmc.One passes straight to
the determination of R.,
There are two ways of measuring the resistivity
of the mud.
9.9.2.1. Measurement
by Use of Resistivity meter
This is the standard method, carried out by the
service company engineer on a sample of the mud
taken from the gutter a t the end of the circulation,
before the pull-out of the drill pipe string. The
operation should be done quickly so as to avoid all
risk of the mud drying out. Alternatively, the mud
sample may be taken from the drill hole using a
special tool sent down with a measurement tool.
The temperature of the mud should be taken a t the
same time as the resistivity meter measurement.
Since mud resistivity Rml is known at a given
temperature, T1 (usually the surface temperature),
it has to be converted for temperature T2 a t the
depth of the level studied. This is easily done by
using charts (Fig. 9-32) or using the following :

T1 + 6'77 in Farhenheit (1)

Rm2 = Rml (T2 + 6.77)

Rm2 = Rml
T1
(T2 + 21.5
+

21.5)
in Celsius (2)

One can determine the resistivity of the mud a t a

given temperature by creating a diagram as in
Fig. 9-30. - Determination of temperature as a function of Fig. 9-33.
depth.

9.9.2.2. Mudlog
ESTIMATION OF FORMATION TEMPERATURE
(Linear Gradient Assumed)
This consists of the continuous recording of
TEMPERATURE (CENTIGRADE)
ANNUAL A
mud resistivity as a function of depth using the
microlog tool lowered with pads closed (Fig. 9-34).
1.0 Given the depth limits of resistivity microdevices,
,100
-8 1" x 1" and 2", providing the tool does not touch
the side it will measure the resistivity of the mud
E
l.0

,100
especially since the hole has a larger diameter. In
1.0 5
this instance the micronormal and microinverse
'-
4 . 0
E
w
0
should give the same resistivity. This reading
,100 provides a means of checking the measurement
l.0
made from samples. When the reading covers the
ANNUAL''000 ,100
interval to be studied one obtains the value of R m
SURFACE
TEMP.
\M* 100 9 , , ow, -1 I- 100 a t the depth level of the reading. One can com-
TEMPERATURE (FAHRENHEIT)
pensate for the lack of such a recording by taking
EXAMPLE: BHT is 200°F at 11,ooO' (Point Al.
Temperatureat8,OW'is 167"FIPointB).
the resistivity of the micronormal and the microin-
TemperatureGradientConversions: loF/10Ofi = 1.824"UlOO
m verse (which should be virtually the same) oppo-
1oUIOOm= 0.5486°F/100ft site caved zones, and by plotting these readings
Fig. 9-31. - Estimation of temperature at a given depth from the on a Depth-Temperature-Resistivity chart (Fig.
value of the geothermal gradient (courtesy of Schlumberger). 9-33).
432

NO CI

Q TNT"AT'oN

1.1
RESlSTlVlTY OF SOLUTION (OHM-METERS)

-
Example R, is 1 2 at 7S'.F (point A on chart).Follow trend of slanring liner (constant salinities) to find R, a1 other

-
temperatures; for example. at Formation Temperature (FT)= 16O:F (point B) read R, = 0 S6. The conversion shown
in this chin i s approximated b j the Arps formula: R r I = R-.. f 75' 7 ) (FT(in ' F ) 7 ) .

Fig. 9-32.- Determination of mud resistivity at temperarature Tz, knowing its value a t temperature TI.

0 -E
aP
-
c

1000
4
Fig. 9-34.- Example of a mud log.

3 9.9.3. Determination
t75c .__- ....
of the Mud Filtrate Resistivity R,t
2ooc 22
2 Resistivity microdevices including the majority
of porosity or lithology tools, having a poor inves-
tigative depth, record in invaded zones and are
1
ResistiviWcurve thus more susceptible to mud filtrate than to
formation fluid. This emphasises the need to
300C Temperature(OF determine the filtrate parameters as well as the
0
,,'0200' 360 need to relate these to the temperature and
pressure opposite the levels being studied. This
determination can be done either directly or from
Fig. 9-33.- Depth-Temperature-Resistivity diagram. logs.
 433

9.9.3.1. Measurement by Resistivity meter

As in the case of the mud, this measurement is
-
Rwo
.01 . l 1
-__----
Rmfa
10 100
FR/ FS
...__
.?- soI 100

carried out by the servicing company’s engineer

using a sample of the filtrate, itself taken from a
mud sample using the Baroid press. The tempera-
ture of the filtrate should also be taken when the
measurement is made. It is important to ensure
that the container used for the filtrate sample is
clean, that is thoroughly rinsed with distilled water
and dried.

9.9.3.2. Deduction from the Resistivity

of the Mud
This empirical method is only recommended
when there is no possibility of determining R m f
using direct means or from logs. To determine Rf,
one uses a chart or an equation such as :

Rmf = Km(Rm)’.’’ (3)

with K m varying between 0.847 and 0.35 for a mud
density varying between 10 and 18 Ib/gal (c.f.
Schlumberger chart GEN-7).

933.3, Determination from Logs

The shallow depth of investigation of the
microresistivity tools means that they respond
mainly to the zone invaded by mud filtrate in
formations which are porous and permeable. This
is the case with non-clay formations when the
borehole pressure exceeds the formation pres-
sure.
Rmfa Method
This is an extension of the R w a method descri-
bed in paragraph 5.1.4. of Chapter One.
The Archie equation gives :
(4)
from which we get
Fig. 9-35. - Values of Rmf. and R,. plotted as a function of depth
in order to determine Rmf, R, and the depth of the oil-water
contact.
This method does not give a representative
value of Rmfwhere there are neither water-bearing
zones nor invasion. Furthermore, it will not do so
if the formation contains clay or if F is not well
determined due to imprecise lithology or incorrect
values of the rn and a factors relating F and Ip.
R, vs. I p (or pb, or At) Crossplot Method
In clean formations the general Archie equa-
tion may be expressed as:

moreover :
In water-bearing zones, S,, being equal to 1, R m f is FR = -
a
obtained directly if R, is known. The latter is @
obtained from a microlaterolog or a microspheri- giving :
cally focused log. F may be deduced from a
porosity measurement (combination of neutron- Ips:, =
density : &N, or sonic : &).
The method consists of continuously calculating
R m f a as a function of depth assuming the zones to It follows that, if S,, is equal to 1 and Rmr is
be water-bearing. In such a case, in a clean constant, then I p is proportional to
interval which shows a water-bearing zone to be
sufficiently invaded, the lowest value of Rmfa will 1
(7)
give R m f (Fig. 9-35). VR?,
434

Thus if one plots #, or the log parameters which Thus in a given clean interval showing a suffi-
h or b),on an linear
are related to it ( p b , At, q ciently invaded water-bearing zone, if one plots
scale as a function of l/"'jR,,, the preceding (on the grid previously defined) porosity # or a
equation is represented by a line joining the points parameter which is directly linked to it such as pb
or At as a function of RxO,then the water zones are
( # = 0, R, = W) and ( # = l.,Rxo = -)Rmf those which show, for a given porosity, the lowest
s:, resistivity. Their representative points fall along
(Fig. 9-36). the line joining the points which show the maxi-
From equation (4) it follows that for a given mum slope ( # = 0, R, = m ) and ( # = 1, R, = a
value of F (thus of #) the lowest value of R, is Rmf).

obtained when S, = 1. For any point on this line one can write

40 46 52 58 64 70

Limitations
The method cannot be used for formations
containing clay, since clay acts as a conductor and
affects the measurement of P b At and qh
(Fig. 9-37). In such cases, one can use GR to
eliminate all values presenting a GR value higher
than the threshold value. Similarly, if the minera-
logical composition varies, e.g. in the case of
carbonate formations, one may be tempted to
bend the slope of the line of points of lowest
resistivity and thus end up with a value of Rmf
which is too high. This can be partially avoided by
using either qh or bD.
Finally, if the formation does not show water-
bearing zones the determination of Rmf will be
incorrect.

Atma
0
I At -
5% 10%
- 6 9.9.3.4. Critic of the Various Methods
If the various methods for determining R,,
Fig. 9-36. - Plot of the values of R,, as a function of &, P b or produce much the same value, then this value will
At in order to determine R,,. be deemed to be representative. If, however, they

40 46 52 58 64 70 29 2.7 2.5 23 2.1 2.0

pma 400 160 44.5

F = 1/62

Fig. 9-37. - Influence of clay on the position of the points on the diagram (a) in the case of At and (b) in the case of pb.

produce different values a critic of the results will
have to be undertaken in order to establish the
cause of this divergence and make the appropriate
choice.
9.9.4. Determination of the Filtrate Salinity
Knowing the resistivity and the corresponding
temperature it is a simple matter to establish the
filtrate salinity using the chart in Fig. 9-32.
9.9.5. Determination of the Filtrate Density
Knowing the salinity, temperature and pressure
at a given depth, filtrate density a t this depth can
be determined using the chart in Fig. 9-38.
TEMPERATURE(CENTIGRADE)T°C
TEMPERATURE(FAHRENHEIT)TOF
Fig. 9-38. - Relationship between water density and salinity,
pressure and temperature.
9.9.6. Determination of Mud-cake
Resistivity R,
Due to their shallow investigation, the microre-
sistivity devices are affected by the mud-cake. The
degree to which the mud-cake exerts an influence
depends on its resistivity, thickness, and density.
435
9.9.6.1. Measurement by Resistivity meter
This measurement is usually carried out by the
service company engineer on a sample of mud-
cake obtained either by means of filtrate press, or
taken from a core sample using a tricore type tool
(Dresser-Atlas) or a diamond core slicer (Schlum-
berger). This measurement must be made imme-
diately, in order to avoid any risk of the mud-cake
sample drying out, the consequence of which
would be false resistivity values.
9.9.6.2. Deduction from Mud Resistivity
This is done by using either Schlumberger chart
GEN-7 or the following empirical equation
9.9.7. Determination of the Formation Water
Resistivity R,
A precise knowledge of R, is essential in order
to correctly determine the water saturation in a
reservoir. It is therefore important to take great
care in its determination by matching and compa-
ring the results obtained from various methods.
9.9.7.1. Measurement by Resistivity meter
This is done on a test sample. Since it is the
most precise measurement, the value of R, obtai-
ned will thus take precedence over all others.
However, from the outset it is essential to ensure
that the sample is representative. For this to be the
case the following conditions should be met :
- the nature and origin of the sample should be
in no doubt;
- the quantity of fluid should be sufficient;
- the removal of the sample must have followed
the correct procedure.
It is also necessary to specify the temperature
of the sample at the time of the measurement.
9.9.7.2. Determination using Chemical Analysis
on a Test Sample
The comments made above concerning the
nature and origin of the sample apply here also.
Bearing this in mind there are several empiral
methods.
DUNLAP method
The various ions featured in the composition of
the formation water during its chemical analysis
can be converted into NaCl equivalence by multi-
plying the value in ppm-expressing the ionic
concentration of each ion-by an appropriate
conversion factor which may be either fixed or
varied depending on the concentration (Fig. 9-39).
436

ANIONIC CORRECTION FACTOR

TOTAL Y X l D S CONCENTRATION,ppm
*YIIIIDIII.*#ch*lOnOlr-lorl~om-(..
I* .bMl O . O m W .n% . Ik be n n n d n.m

Fig. 9-39. - Determination of the correction coefficients accor-

ding to the type of ion (courtesy of Schlumberger).
_-
CORRECTION FACTOR CA

SlNCLAlR methods
These vary according to the mode of expressing
Fig. 9-41. - Anionic correction factors (adapted from Desai &
Moore, 1969).
the chemical analysis. When results are expressed
as molecular concentrations, the chart in Fig. 9-40
is used. The conductivity of each of the consti-
tuents of the total concentration is determined CATIONIC CORRECTION FACTOR
first, following which the conductivity of a salt is
multiplied by the percentage of this salt. Finally,
the results are added up in order to obtain the total
conductivity of the mixture. To obtain the resisti-
vity one only has to take the reverse of the
conductivity. If the results are expressed by ionic
concentrations, then the charts in Fig. 9-41 and
Fig. 9-42 are used. These allow the determination
of anionic and cationic factors (Moore, 1966).

-6 1

I
CONCENTRATION, ld PPM CORRECTION FACTOR C

Fig. 9-40. - Determination of the conductivity of a solution

knowing the concentration of salts (from Desai & Moore, Fig. 9-42. - Cationic correction factors (adapted from Desai &
1969). Moore, 1969).
 431

Activities method The method of calculation is given in the first

Chapter (cf. Paragraph 5.3.1 .).
When the chemical analysis is expressed in
ionic concentrations one can use the concentra-
Limitations of the Method
tion of cations, expressed in ppm, t o define the
ionic activity which corresponds t o each type of There are several limitations :
cation. This is achieved by means of the chart in - limitations connected with the type of mud :
Fig. 9-43. From this total activity one can proceed Gypsum mud : this type of mud contains diva-
to the resistivity in equivalent NaCl using the chart lent cations (Ca'+), and it is well known that these
in Fig. 9-44. ions influence the SP deflections according to the
square root of their activity :

0
>
k
1 It is thus necessary t o go back over the activities
+
u using an ionic analysis of the filtrate.
a
0 Lime-treated mud : since the quantity of cal-
cium in solution is very small, such mud is inter-
preted in the same way as NaCl treated muds.
00
- Limitations connected with formation water :
(PPMc,+ PPM,,) or PPM,,
Water containing divalent ions (Ca2+, Mg'+,
L see I/I" I b . I. Fez+); in the absence of knowledge about their
existence or concentration, an errar is introduced
- 9-43
Fia - RelationshiD between concentration and activitv
into R, by treating them as NaCI.
(Courtesy of Schlumberger).
Water whose salinity varies as a function of
depth. This represents a limitation only if one has
10 not correctly analysed the SP curve.
7 - Limitations connected with the formation.
5 Clay formations and very thin beds: in such
3 cases the SP deflection is incomplete, thus one
2 cannot read the SSP and in consequence there is
m an error in calculating Rw.
c
& 1.0 Changes in the clay base line : again this is a
;
w .7
.5 limitation only if one has not noted the fact when
E analysing the SP curve.
r .3
0 .2
x
c
'5 0. I 9.9.7.4. R, Method
.-
c
'"
In
a,
Lz This method has been described previously (cf.
Chapter 1, Paragraph 5.3.2.).
01
.oI .I .2 .3 .5 a 10 2 3 5 7 10 Limitations
Na, Activity (Gr-ion / l i t e r , total N a ) In the following cases the value obtained by this
method is incorrect :
Fig. 9-44. - Relationship between resistivity and activity (Cour-
tesy of Schlumberger). - the interval contains clay;
- the invasion is too great, in which case the
macroresistivity devices are subjected t o too great
9.9.7.3. SP Method an influence by the invaded zone;
- absence of water-bearing zones;
Without going over all the theory of sponta- - the value of the formation factor F is incor-
neous potential (cf. Volume 1, Chapter 4)we may rect.
recall that the deflection of the static SP (SSP) is
linked t o water resistivity by the following equa-
tion : 9.9.7.5. Rxo vs Rt Crossplot Method

SSP = - K l o g (R,f), This method was explained in Chapter 1, Para-

((Rw)e) graph 5.3.3.
438
9.9.7.6. Methods combining Porosity
and Resistivity Tools
These were detailed in Chapter 1. Their limita-
tions are similar to those found with the R,,
met hod.
9.9.7.7. Methods Combining SP or GR and RJR,
These methods were analysed in Chapter 1 .
9.9.7.8. The Pickett Method
This method was developed by Pickett (1960), a t
one time a geophysicist with Shell, then Professor
a t the Colorado school of mines, Golden, near
Denver.
Basic Theory
Pickett likens clay to a porous rock for which the
Archie equation would apply. Thus one could
state :
which could also be expressed as :
He established that m is a function of R, :
m = 2.54 - 2.62 R,
Fig. 9-45. - Determination of R, from
The equation relating R, to Rsh and (L$h is thus :
Furthermore, he postulated that (L$h could be
determined from Atsh. Thus using the charts in
Fig. 9-45 it would be possible to determine R, once
Rsh and Atshwere known. In theory, there are two
answers but the ambiguity is usually easily resol-
ved.
Discussion of the Method
Pickett's method is empirical and is not recom-
mended in the following cases :
- compact clays : in such cases it is not possi-
ble to consider them as porous rocks whose
conductivity would be related only to interstitial
water. It is important to note that in such a case
bound water conductivity takes on an added
significance;
- clays containing hydrocarbons : the presence
of hydrocarbons modifies resistivity and sonic
travel time, but it does so in such a way that the
representative point does not move on a curve of
equal R,, but virtually follows a perpendicular
which results in an overestimation of R,;
- washed-out zones : these are frequently
found opposite clays. They can lead to a reduction
in resistivity and thus to an increase in sonic travel
time.
Rsh and Atlh (Pickett method, 1960).
 439

9.9.7.9. The Tixier Method Discussion of the method

Like Pickett, Tixier - formally an engineer with Comments on Tixier’s method are the same as
Schlumberger - sets out an empirical equation those for Pickett’s.
relating R, to the resistivity of the clays and to
sonic travel time :

According to work by the IFP, we have :

Cs h = @h cw + C@h
(1 7)

so that replacing Rsh by the value derived from C sh

gives :
R, = @h
(18)
csh - c @h
Fig. 9-47. - Determination of R, from Rshand &h in the case of
#sshis deduced from the sonic as before, C@h is illite (Tixier method).
deduced from Fig. 9-46, and m depends on the
nature of the clayyThe chart in Fig. 9:47 enables us
to calculate R, in the case of an illite. 9.9.7.10. Critic of the Different Results
Where the different methods of calculating R,
1.0 1 I a produce much the same value, we can take this

-5 I
0‘
c value to be representative of formation water
E +Koolinitc ~
resistivity.
On the other hand, if there is divergence
9, between the values then we must try to establish
LJ
the cause of these differences and to develop a
0.5 critic of each of the methods used. In such a case,
preference will be given, first to the value derived
from a measurement taken from a test sample,
followed by the value derived by the ,R, method,
and finally to the value derived from combining
n R,,/R,. As a last resort the value obtained by the
0.5 1.o SP method may be used.
#rh (%I
9.9.8. Determination of Formation Water Salinity
b
Knowing the resistivity and the corresponding
temperature it is a simple matter to deduce salinity
by using the chart in Fig. 9-32.

9.9.9. Determination of Formation Water Density

Having established salinity, temperature and

pressure a t a given depth, the density of the fluid
a t this depth may be determined by using the
chart in Fig. 9-39.

9.9.10. Determination of the a, m and n

Parameters

Archie (1942) was the first to put forward an

empirical equation relating the formation factor,
Fig. 9-46 - (a) Determination of c@hfrom &h.
derived from resistivity, to porosity and saturation,
(b) determination of &h from Atrh. expressed by the well-known equation :
440

s, = (F)””
where :
F=-a 100

v
For Archie a = 1 and rn varies as a function of 10
grain size and distribution or as a function of the
complexity of the channels linking the pores.
Following HUMBLE’Swork, it is generally accepted
that a and rn are respectively equal to 0.62 and 2.15 1

in non-consolidated sands. In consolidated sands

the values are 0.81 and 2. For carbonates with
good to average porosity the values are generally
taken to be 1 and 2. Other researchers (Carothers
1958; Carothers and Porter, 1970) have proposed
relating the values of a and rn to the nature and
age of the reservoir (shaly sands, calcareous 0.01
0.01
sands, carbonates, Miocene, and Pliocene sands). @N-d
For limestone with low porosity SHELL proposed
Fig. 9-48. - Relationship between Rt and @ i n order to calculate
for rn an equation which depends on porosity : m.

m = 1.87 +-
0.019
(211
4 or if the invasion is too great. Nor can it be used
Finally for compact fractured formations rn varies
between 1.3 and 1.4. The saturation factor n varies
between 1.8 and 2.5, but is generally taken to be
equal to 2. The values of a and rn can be determi-
ned by crossplots or measurements made in the
laboratory on samples of rocks.
9.9.10.1. Rt vs. 4 Method
This method is based on the Archie equation,
which may be expressed as follows :
in water-bearing zones S, = 1. Using logarithms
the above equation can be expressed by :
log R, = log (a.R,) - m.log 4 (23)
This method cannot be used if the interval is shaly
in the absence of water-bearing zones. The
method is not applicable when the salinity of the
water in a reservoir varies and when the formation
is complex. In the latter case, rn varies from one
type of rock and porosity to another.
9.9.10.2. Laboratory Measurements
Having cleaned the rock to eliminate all traces
of hydrocarbon and then impregnated it with
water of known resistivity, plugs taken from core
rock are used to measure porosity and the forma-
tion factor. The data are plotted, each as a func-
tion of the other, on a log-log grid (Fig. 9-49) from
which rn and a derived. To determine n a rock of
known porosity is impregnated with a specific
quantity of hydrocarbon. Thus the saturation is
known and resistivity is measured each time. The
measurement may be repeated for different satu-
rations and porosities.

Thus, by plotting R, or RIL on a log-log scale as a

function of 4 or &VD (Fig. 9-48) the preceding
equation is represented by a line of slope rn, the
locus of the points representing for each value of
4 the lowest resistivity. For 4 = 1 we have :
Rt ( for 4 = 1.) = a.R,

Knowing Rt (for 4 = 1) and R, we can deduce a.

Finally, knowing for a value of 4 the corresponding
value of Ro we have

m = log (a.R,) - log R, Fig. 9-49. - Plot of the values of R, as a function of @ in order
(24)
log 4 to calculate m and a.
 441

9.9.10.3. Choice of Parameters

In certain cases, such as homogeneous thick
formations or intergranular type porosity, these
parameters may be taken as constant and thus
determined for a whole interval. In other cases,
especially in hydrocarbon-bearing formations, we
can no longer take these parameters as constants,
since they vary as a function of porosity and
especially of the geometry and distribution of
pores and of the channels which link them. The
parameters have to be determined or estimated
bed by bed as a function of the lithology and
facies.

9.9.11. Determination of Hydrocarbon

Parameters
Where reservoirs contain hydrocarbons, it is
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
necessary to determine the petrophysical parame-
GAS PRESSURE x 1000 in psi
ters of these fluids. One can assume that in a gas
Fig. 9-50. - (a) Determination of ph from the values S r h and of
or oil reservoir, the nature of the hydrocarbons will the ratio qkSNPs/&o. (b) determination of pg as a function of
not vary. The first parameter to determine is the temperature and pressure (courtesy of Schlumberger).
density ph. Two possibilities exist :
- the lithology is known or can be defined in the or from a histogram of pha values (Fig. 9-51).
water zone below. In this case p h can be determi- Schlumberger suggest the following equation for
ned directly either by using the chart of Fig. 9-50, ph
442

where
h I: LlhESTUNE LITHOLOGY

A is the excavation factor or coefficient of

invasion taken as equal to 1 for the SNP tool, or 1.3
for the CNL tool; P is the salinity of the filtrate
expressed as parts per unit :

concentration in ppm NaCl

P=
1 O6
- the exact lithology is not known, but some idea
can be obtained of two or three of the rocks Fig. 9-51. - Histogram of the values of pha in order to determine
present (limestone and dolomite, limestone and ph.

sandstone). The p h for the two extreme types of

lithology is calculated and a histogram of the
values of each type is established (Fig. 9-52).Thus R
40

O
one has two average boundary values ( p h ) l and H
V
(ph)2. Desbrandes (1982)recommends taking the 35

average. Schlumberger analyses the correlation 6

coefficient of hydrocarbon density and porosity, 0
1
30

and selects the least correlated value, the density

of the hydrocarbon being ideally independent of 25

the lithology.
For my part, I propose to examine the crossplot 10

relating density p h to porosity 0 (Fig. 9-53)together

with the histogram of the values of ph, established 15

for each type of lithology (Fig. 9-54).A mistake in

lithology tending to values of p, which are too low 10
will result in values of ph which are too high.
Conversely, values of pmawhich are too high result 5
in values of ph which are too low. In interpreting
histograms it is thus necessary to select the lowest 0
and the least correlated values for the lighter ,000

lithology and the highest values, though still the

least correlated for the densest lithology.
In the examples of Figs. 9-53and 9-54,this gives
(ph)l = 0.3 and (ph)2 = 0.25.These two values are
still too distant, due no doubt to the fact that the
hypothesis of the presence of a pure dolomite is
improbable. A slightly calcareous dolomite would
be more probable and would thus give a value of
ph closer to 0.3,which is the value finally chosen as
representative of the hydrocarbon present in the
rock.
As for reservoirs which contain both a gas zone
and an oil zone, the histogram shows two quite
distinct modes (Fig. 9-55).The histogram interpre-
tation allows one to determine the density of the
two types of hydrocarbon and to plot the values of
ph as a function of depth (Fig. 9-56). This allows us
to locate the transition zone and the depth of the
gas-oil contact.
Once the density of the hydrocarbon has been
established one determines the value of the
neutron-hydrogen index of the hydrocarbon from
the following empirical equation :
Fig. 9-52. - Histogram of the values of p h a calculated for two
types of lithology in order to specify the median value of p h .
 Start=6260.00 Plot'd=61 Below orlqlnIr~-O Mean -0.2010
PXEQUENCY CROSS-PLOT Stop -6230.00 Absent=O Beyond endpt 1s)-0 StdDev -4.8921
Starr=6260.00 Plat'd-61 Below originlsl-0 Drop th =O
Stop -6230.00 Absent-0 Beyond endpt 1s)-0 Dropped =O

Start-6260.00 Plot'd-61 elo ow orlqlnIs)=O Mean ~0.3447

Stop 16230.00 Absent=O Beyond endpt Is)-O StdDev -5.6273
FREQUENCY CROSS-PLOT
Start=6260.00
Stop -6230.00
Plot'd-61
~bsent.0
Below oriqrnIsl=O
Beyond endpt 1.1 -0
Drop th -0
Dropped =0
Fig. 9-54. - Histograms of the values of ph. established for two
types of lithology and their use in the determination of the
Fig. 9-53. - Relationship between ph and @. most probable value of ph.

20 +-----.---+--------.*--------i---------*+ISTOG*~
R 1 I I I I I Start-2679.65
0 I I I I I I Stop =2573.27 errnlnatlon o f p h top and
by I Least Square R w t

1 U I I I I I
10 +--uuU.-..+.........*--------i--.---...-+-------..+ Right of endpt
I UUU I 1 I I I 0
I UUUU I I I I I tnns!tlon zone
I UUUU I I I I I
U UUUUU I I I I I
5 U--UUUUU--+.---..--.+---------+.-.-----u+-u.------+
UU UUUUU I I 1 UU UlUU 1
UUUUUUUU I I I UUUIUUU I
UUUUUUUUU U 1 I UUUU UUUU U U I
"uUUUUUUU U U U I U U U UUUU UuUUUuUU U I
0 UUUUUUUUUUU-UU-U--U-UUUU--U-U-+UUUUUUUUUuuuuuuuuu-u
0 0.2000 0.4000 0.6000 0.8000 1.000

Fig. 9-55. - Histogram of the values of ph. showing the Contact IS found by means
of a Steppnng funcrlon x
existence of two different hydrocarbon zones, one gas #

(ph = 0.1), the other oil (ph = 0.8).

Fig. 9-56. - Plot of the values of ph as a function of depth in)

order to locate the contacts between the hydrocarbons.
444
9.9.12. Determination of the Clay Parameters
In any given interval within a single environ-
ment, it is reasonable to suppose that the type of
clay will not change radically. The parameters of
the shale (psh, I H s h , Thsh, Ksh, GRsh, h h ) are
determined to obtain an interpretation in terms of
sand-silt-clay. This is necessary for the quantita-
tive interpretation when shale beds are intercala-
ted in the reservoirs. The determination is esta-
blished by interpreting the different crossplots
(Fig. 9-57a) using 2-plot techniques as well as
envelope techniques together with an analysis of
trends and possibly extrapolations if the shale
beds are too thin or if the clay is mixed in with
other minerals (Fig 9-57b).
When the object of the interpretation is to
determine the percentage of clay minerals then it
is necessary to first identify their nature by analy-
sing the various crossplots and to introduce the
log parameters of one or all the minerals present.
An example of such an interpretation is given in
Fig. 9-58. When the clay is not pure the determina-
tion of the depositional environment should give
an idea of the nature of the clay or rather, of one
or all the clay minerals likely to be present.
9.10. DETERMINATION
OF WELL LOG MEASUREMENTS
BELONGING
TO EACH SAMPLE LEVEL
9.10.1. Environmental Corrections
As explained in Chapter 1, each raw measure-
ment is the sum of the signal from the formation
opposite the tool, and a ‘noise’ of variable intensity
related to the influence of the borehole and of the
tool itself, e.g. statistical variations and vertical
resolution. If the latter is small, part of the res-
ponse will come from the shoulder-beds, that is,
the level above or below the electro-bed or the
sample level. This part of the response will be
stronger when the electro-bed is thin.
Such a measurement is thus not totally repre-
sentative of the electro-bed and has to be correc-
ted as far as possible before the interpretation
proper is undertaken.
The service companies usually provide correc-
tion charts for borehole effects and the influence
of shoulder-beds (cf. Chapter 1). These charts
should be used when doing a manual interpreta-
tion. When a computer interpretation is used there
are programs which automatically correct the raw
data. Fig. 9-59 gives an example of automatic
correction of the induction curve for the influence
of shoulder-beds.
9.10.2. Corrections for the Influence of Invasion
In order to limit the risks of blow-out the mud
density is such that the pressure of the mud
column is higher than that anticipated in the
formations. Because of this the excess pressure
applied to the formations leads to an invasion of
the reservoir zone by mud or filtrate which drives
out the fluids in the permeable pore space. Thus,
it is necessary to correct this effect, especially in
the case of resistivity tools, in order to obtain the
proper representative values of the virgin forma-
tions. This entails the calculation of the invasion
diameter di and then of R, and Rt, that is if the
nature of the mud and the set of logs are suitable.
Before considering these calculations it is im-
portant to note briefly the phenomena involved in
the process of invasion. It may be self-evident but
invasion only occurs when the rock is permeable.
Thus it is neither useful nor sensible to calculate
its diameter opposite compact rocks such as halite
and gypsum or impermeable rocks such as shales.
There are several phases in the process of
filtrate invasion :
- Initially there is mud invasion which rapidly
leads on to the formation of mud-cake, the solid
particles being blocked by the very narrow chan-
nels.
- Then comes the dynamic filtration of the
filtrate which occurs when the mud-cake reaches
a certain balance of thickness.
- Finally, static filtration occurs when the circu-
lation stops.
The last two phases of filtration reduce over
time (Fig. 9-60). However, one should note that
with each running of the bit some mud-cake is
removed and thus the process begins again.
When discussing invasion two parameters have
to be considered : depth and profile. The depth of
invasion depends on several factors :
- the type of drilling mud : the quantity of free
water which in turn depends on the viscosity and
thus of the number of particles in the mud, that is,
the efficiency of the mud-cake as an impermeable
barrier;
- the difference in pressure between the mud
column and the formation. The former must be
sufficient to overcome the capillary forces. The
narrower the channel linking the pores, the stron-
ger the capillary forces will be. Thus, the degree of
invasion depends also on permeability, the higher
the permeability the greater the invasion, as in the
case of fractures;
- porosity: for a given volume of water relea-
sed by the mud per unit of time, the lower the
porosity the greater the volume of rock has to be;
- surface tensions between non-mixing fluids,
e.g. water invasion of an oil reservoir, or the
invasion of a water reservoir by oil in the case of
an oil-based mud;
- mobility of fluids: the movement of the
rock-bit creates a piston effect which either sucks
up the fluids when the rock-bit is moving uphole.
 445

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A1 Ai "

Fig. 9-57. - Crossplots for determining shale parameters.

 Fig. 9-57. - Crossplots for determining shale parameters.
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-:
ENCRUSTATIONS
, (Urn,), (b/crn3) i ;
.. : t t +
.....+...........***..-l-f-...."'-

5 10 15 20
. .
*
25
0
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Fig. 9-58 - Various plots which allow the type of minerals present to b e specified
448

2500
BENTONITE MUD
OVNANIC FILTRATION
API 3 0 m m F I L T E R LOSS lo=
TEMPERATURE 75.F
MU0 DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE boapv
FILTRATION
LOSS I A b I L R FERCUSSON A h 0 K L O T Z I

i&mrJlWsm:i

0 10

T I M E Ihrl - 20

FIG ? 8
0 1 BENTONITE MUD
MUD STATIC F I L T R A T I D N
FILTRATION U I 3Omm F I L T E R LOSS 91cc
L o 9 D I F F E R E N T I A L PRESSURE 4Wpri

AFTER 21 H R D Y N A M I C F I L T R A T I O N
2600 W I T H EOU(L1BRIUM RATE OF
0 114ccim,nllWrm'

-
10 20
TIME F R O M T E R M I N A T I O N O F C I R C U L A T I O N
91, lhri

Fig. 9-60. - The two phases of filtration.

successive passes together with the relative per

2700
Fig. 9-59. - Automatic correction for the influence of shoul-
der-beds on the resistivity from the ILD tool. The automatic
correction is given by the SHOIND program (courtesy of
Schlumberger).
This causes invasion fluids and even original
formation fluids t o flow into the well. Conversely,
the pressure may be increased when a bit is being
run into the well. The formation of the annulus
phenomenon can in part be explained by these
meabilities of the fluids present.
The invasion profile also depends on severa
factors :
- grain size sorting : if it is poor, then the
invasion profile will be irregular; if it is good it will
be more abrupt;
- the formation fluid : for a given degree of
sorting, the invasion profile will be more abrupt in
a gas reservoir than in an oil reservoir where one
may even have isolated zones without invasion,
especially if the sorting is poor. This is also linked
with the surface tensions and no doubt explains
the more or less continuous profile between the
invaded zone and the virgin zone.
Thus, the calculation of the invasion diameter
only gives an average value which has to be
analysed as a function of the other parameters.
Generally, one assumes an abrupt invasion profile
such as that shown Fig. 9-61, with a invaded zone
of resistivity R, invaded by a mud filtrate of
resistivity R,f possibly showing a residual hydro-
carbon saturation (Sh, or its complement S,,),
together with a virgin zone of resistivity Rt with a
conductive fluid of resistivity R, and a water
saturation of S,.
 449

I
Borehe - l
D I STANCE

Radial Distribution of Fluids in the

Vicinity of the Borehole Oil-Bearing Bed
(Qualitative1

Fig. 9-61

The degree t o which the tool responses will be

affected by one zone or the other will depend on
the invasion depth and on the depth of investiga-
tion of each tool.

9.10.2.1. Influence of Invasion on Porosity Tools

Because of their different depths of investiga-

tion, density and neutron tools (Fig. 9-62) do not 0 20
analyse exactly the same volume of formation.
This is of no consequence when the formation is
0 4 8 12
homogenous and when the fluids in the two DEPTH SATURATED
volumes can be taken t o be identical and as having Inches Frcm Borehole Wall
the same percentage. Such conditions exist in
detrital formations when the invasion is low t o Fig. 9-62. - Depths of investigation of the neutron and density
tools (courtesy of Schlurnberger).
zero or, on the contrary, very deep. The conditions
also exist when the filtrate‘s characteristics re-
semble those of the formation fluid, that is when
fore, must be corrected before they can be combi-
it has the same density, same neutron-hydrogen
ned in order t o establish the mineralogical compo-
index and the same resistivity. However, if the
sition and the porosity. This means calculating
proportion of the fluids present in the pore space
correction factor for each tool as a function of
varies from one volume to another, then one
hydrocarbon type as well as its average content
cannot combine their measurements without t a -
(porosity and saturation) in the volume investiga-
king these differences into account because the
ted by each tool (Fig. 9-63a).
neutron and density tools are not then affected by
For the density tool we have :
identical percentages.
This is particularly significant in the case of
formations containing light hydrocarbons and
especially gas. When such a case occurs, the or assuming the values of Cmf and c h :
neutron tool measurement is much more affected
by the virgin zone because of this tool‘s greater
depth of investigation. The measurements, there-
450

For the neutron tool we have As a first approximation we assume that the
saturation S, is given by the equation :

'.
where Srh = (1 - S x 0 ) These corrections can also
R, being measured by a microdevice such as MLL
be determined by using charts (Fig. 9-63b).
or MSFL. However, in order to take into account
the varying depth of investigation it would be
better t o calculate different values of S x , using
MLL or MSFL tools for the density tool, and PL or
possibly SFL: tools for the hydrogen index.
Based on laboratory tests, Suau (1981) put
forward a correction for the two measurements
using an integrated geometric factor D(X,) for the
b' density tool, and N(X,) for the neutron tool, both
functions of the depth of invasion XI (Fig. 9-64) :

K N o [ ( l - S x o ) N(Xt)] + K No[(1 - S w )
GAS CORRECTION
6& =

0 10 20 30 40 (1 - "XI)] (32)
4N where Do and No correspond t o the maximum gas
b effect for each tool and depends on porosity; D(X,)
and N(X,) are the integrated geometric factors for
each calculated depth of invasion XI; K is an
empirical correction factor usually taken to equal
0.9 which is constant for the well-defined charac-
teristics of gas. X, may be derived from a combina-
tion of the resistivity tools, that is, DLL-MSFL and
of the invasion diameter d, thus calculated. It is
given by :
dt - dh
x, = ___ (33)
2
dh being the hole diameter. By applying the
different parameters t o the same value of porosity
curves shown in Fig. 9-65 are obtained. The satura-

\ OEPTH OF INVASION

t g X , (INCH)
0 apre5 Sih,"mberp.,

Fig. 9-63. - (a) Corrections of pb and @ ., for the effect of

hydrocarbon. (b) charts for calculating Apb and A h .

' Schlumberger suggests a slightly different equation : Fig. 9-64. - Neutron and density corrections for X, (from Suau,
Shr =(1 - ( S x o ) m n - 0.05). 1981).
 45 1

tion S, is derived from the value of R,,. However,

when the invasion is shallow it is wrong to assume
that the microdevice is not affected by the virgin
zone and R,, must be corrected for invasion
(Fig. 9-66).
Furthermore, R,, has to be taken into considera-
tion when calculating the invasion diameter (Chart
'b in Fig. 9-67). The procedure is iterative, and a
preliminary value of di is determined from the
value of the MSFL. This value is combined with the
ratio RLLD/ R,, in order to establish whether or not
2M 1 R,, needs to be corrected. If it does need to be
1 1 corrected then the new corrected value are substi-
I
I
I tuted for the previous ones and the process is
2 I0 repeated.
-5 5 I5 21 15

*" The final corrected value of R,, is used to

calculate S,, which in turn is used together with di
Fig. 9-65. - Chart for determining X, and S,. for a porosity of to correct the density measurements and the
3 3 % (from Suau, 1981). neutron-hydrogen index. The saturation Sw is
determined from the value of R,, but as a first
approximation it may be taken to be equal to zero.

9.10.2.2. Excavation Factor

Based on laboratory studies, Segesman and Liu
(1971) noted that gas had a greater effect on the
neutron tool response than it should have had.
They called this the 'excavation effect'. It is caused
by the presence of a second formation fluid with
a hydrogen index below that of water. The neutron
response equation thus becomes :
1 ' 6 = $J [Hlgaz (1 - S x o ) + Hlf Sxo] -A h e x (34)
X , (INCH)
The correction for the excavation effect is given by
the following equation, or may be determined
using the chart in Fig. 9-68 :
Fig. 9-66. - Correction of R., for invasion (from Suau, 1981).
Ahex = +
K [2 @ S ~ H 0,04 41 (1 - S ~ H ) (35)

where K is a lithology coefficient (K = 1 for

sandstone, 1.046 for limestones and 1.173 for
dolomite) and :

$ /
9
-I ; V X
f
O //
/' -
- --.-LIMESTONE!
- SANDSTONEI
/ / t
II i ,/ I Adu-.
l o o k ' 100

8" BOREHOLE
RXo/R, = 10

10, I

Fig. 9-68. - Correction for excavation effect as a function of S,

Fig. 9-67. - Computation of R, from LLD and LLS and R,. (from for three values of porosity and three lithologies, assuming
Suau, 1981). that HI, = 0 (from Segesman & Liu, 1971).
The term excavation effect is derived from the
comparison of a water saturated formation with
another formation containing the sarne quantity of
water but with a greater porosity filled with gas of
zero hydrogen index. According to their hydrogen
index the two formations should have the same
neutron porosity response (Fig. 9-69). However,
the second formation differs from the first due to
the fact that the space filled by the gas seems to
be greater, as if the solid part of the rock had been
excavated. The excavation effect is greater when
there is a strong contrast between the hydrogen
indices of the two fluids, when porosity is high and
when water saturation is moderate.

Fig. 9-70. - Conditions for selection of resistivity measurement

tools (courtesy of Schlumberger).

Furthermore, the apparent resistivity read by

Fig. 9-69. - Formations (a) and (b) contain the same quantities
of hydrogen. However, the matrix volume of (b) is less than
that of (a) as if it was excavated by the gas (Segesman & Liu,
1971).
9.10.2.3. Influence of Invasion
on Resistivity Tools
any sort of device is given by the following
equation :
where J(di) is the pseudo-geometrical factor of the
resistivity tools depending on the invasion diame-
ter (Fig. 9-71). Similarly for conductivity (induction)
tools we have :

As an initial a ~ ~ r o x i m a t i oone
n acceDts that the
invasion zone and the virgin zone appear to be in
parallel to the induction currents, and in series to
the currents produced by the resistivity tools. Thus
the induction' tools are more influenced by the
conductive zones and the resistivity tools are more
influenced by the resistive zones. It follows that if
Rxo > RI then the induction tools are a priori better
placed to measure Rt than the resistivity tools and
we have :
where G(di) is the geometrical factor for the
induction tools (Fig. 9-72) and C is the conductivity
(the opposite of resistivity C = 11R). We note that
there are three unknowns (di, Rxo and Rl) and
therefore at least three different measurements
are needed in order to determine these unknowns
unless certain assumptions can be made about
some of them.

Rt < RILD< RLLD< RLLS< RMSFL< Rxo

If Rxo < Rt then the resistivity tools will give a
reading closer to Rt in which case we have :

Rxo RMSFL< RLLS< RILD< RLLD< Rt

unless, that is, the invasion diameter and the
resistivity are both low in which case we can have :

Rxo< RMSFL< RLLS< RLLD< RILD6 Rt

This determines the preferred areas for use of

induction tools and laterologs, as shown in Fig. 9-71. - Pseudo-geometrical factors of the resistivity tools
Fig. 9-70. (courtesy of Schlumberger).
 453

Diameter di (Inches)

Fig. 9-72. - Geometrical factors of conductivity tools (courtesy

of Schlumberger).

Case of Oil-based Muds

If oil is the continuous phase of the mud then it
will not conduct an electrical current. Thus, only
electromagnetic tools can be used (IL or EPT). In
such a case, if the water, possibly in suspension in
the oil, does not invade the formation, we can
assume that the diameter of invasion will be
virtually zero (di = 0, G(di) = 0) and thus that the
induction tool will measure the conductivity of the Fig. 9-73. -Chart for the determination of R, and d,. DLL-R.0
virgin formation, giving R,. However, there could combination (courtesy of Schlumberger).
be slight oil invasion which would be detected by
the EPT tool.
Comment :A separation of oil and water in the
mud column may occur leading to invasion of the only for checking, since their use is tedious and
lower part of the well due to the segregation by there are programs which will automatically pro-
density difference between oil and water. This duce the same results.
invasion cannot be evaluated since no resistivity When there are a t least three measurements of
measurement would be available. resistivity taken with three different devices they
may be combined in order to determine di, R,, and
Case of Salt-saturated muds R,. Iterative methods may be used by combining
the three response equations from the three
In such cases, these muds and their filtrates are devices, for example :
extremely conductive and the induction tools are
thus more affected by the invaded zone than the
virgin zone which has a much lower relative
conductivity (Cx0*Ct). It is then preferable to use
resistivity tools such as laterologs or tools with
spherical focusing. Running them in combination
with a microresistivity device such as MLL or
MSFL - giving a measurement taken to be R,, -
allows di and R, to be determined either by using Starting from a value close to Rt (above RLLDif RLLD
charts (Fig. 9-73) or by calculations based on the RMSFL,below RLLDotherwise) a value close to R,, is
known pseudo-geometrical factors. calculated using the first equation, and this value
is used in the second equation to obtain the
Intermediate Cases pseudo-geometrical factor of the LLS from which
the invasion diameter may be calculated, which in
Given the dependence of resistivities on poro- turn gives the pseudo-geometrical factor of the
sity and saturation, and the effect of changing MSFL device. This factor is applied in the last
formation water salinity, it is advisable, in such equation together with the value of R,, previously
cases, to run the two types of tool in combination established, in order to produce the value of Rt.
so as to get closer to Rt and in certain circumstan- The process is repeated by applying the new value
ces to obtain a better value of R,, than that given of R, to the first equation. The process ends when
by a MLL or MSFL tool. Charts (Fig. 9-74) are the difference between the last two values of R,,
available for this, but the charts are to be used or di is lower than a certain level.
454

A similar method is to introduce uncertainties

into the measurements and to place constraints on
them. In the latter case a minimal incoherence
factor is computed. This method, introduced by
Schlumberger, is used in the RTGLOB ( R t Global)

Dual Laterolog Micro SFL

Induction Log
__ ___ Deep Laterolog
_______ShallowLaterolog
Micro SFL

Fig. 9-74. - Charts for the determination of Rt and d,. (a)

ILd-ILm-LL8 combination. (b) ILd-ILm-SFL combination (cour- Fig. 9-75. - Calculation of Rt, R.. and d, using the GLOBAL
tesy of Schlumberger). program (courtesy of Schlumberger).
 455

program. An example of the results obtained by

the GLOBAL program is given in Fig. 9-75 (refer to
the following paragraph for a fuller description of
the program).

9.10.3. Determination of Lithology,

Porosity and Saturation
The determination of lithology and porosity go
together since both these parameters are closely
linked and any error in the choice of rock type
results in an erroneous porosity which can be
significant especially if clays minerals are present.
For example, if we ignore the presence of micas
and feldspars in the interpretation of a sand, and
go on to interpret radioactivity as an indicator of
clay content, then the log responses will be
corrected by allowing for a percentage of clay
which is far too high. This will result in a propor-
tionate reduction of porosity and hydrocarbon Fig. 9-76. - Calculation of porosity and of the percentage of
saturation. clay in the case of a formation with a simple lithology.
Similarly, as well as defining the lithology and
porosity, the water or hydrocarbon saturation must
be determined, since the latter may have a consi-
derable influence on the tool responses, to the
extent of concealing the true lithology and giving
a false measurement of porosity.
In the case of oil or water bearing reservoirs the
determination of the nature of the minerals pre-
sent may be done manually using crossplot tech-
niques, as we have already shown. But, unless the
lithology is simple (limestone and dolomite, or
sand and clay) it is not easy to calculate the
percentage of the principal minerals making up
the rock if there are more than three of them.
Given a simple mixture it is easy to calculate
porosity even when there is a clay effect (Fig. ON -
9-76). If, on the other hand, the reservoir contains
light hydrocarbons or gas the determination of Fig. 9-77. - Corrections for clay and hydrocarbon effects prior
lithology necessitates a prior correction of the log to determining the lithology
responses (cf. paragraph 9.10.2) and this entails (courtesy of Schlumberger).
lengthy and tedious manipulations if they have to
be repeated many times over (Fig. 9-77). Clearly it
is preferable to use computer methods. 9.10.3.1. The SARABAND Progrem
There are several programs produced either by
the service companies or the oil exploration This program, described by Poupon et a/. (1970)
majors. These programs calculate porosity and and commercialised by Schlumberger, provides an
water saturation in the invaded and virgin zones, interpretation of sand-clay sequences from a
and provide a reasonably accurate determination combination of tools which include density measu-
of the lithology or mineralogy, clay content, log rements, neutron-hydrogen index, total gamma-
matrix density, nature and percentage of principal ray, SP, resistivities and possibly sonic travel time.
minerals and the density of the hydrocarbons, if The log matrix is assumed to be known, composed
present. of quartz, as grains of sand and silt size, and
The choice of the program to be used will be clay-size minerals (clay minerals, quartz, mica).
based on both the set of available measurements The program calculates the clay content (Vclay),silt
and the geological complexity of the reservoir. The index (Isill) defined as the ratio V s d v s h , porosity (#),
latter will be reflected by a previous analysis of all hydrocarbon density (ph) and saturations (Sxoand
the log data, including information provided by S,.,). Fig. 9-78 provides an example of the results
dipmeter and Formation Microscanner tools. obtained with this program, and Fig. 9-79 gives a
There follows a description of the programs schematic of the model. On a crossplot like this,
developed by Schlumberger, which have more or three zones are differentiated :
less inspired all other similar programs. Thus we
will concentrate on the Schlumberger programs. Mark of Schlumberger.
456

- zone A corresponds to sands and shaly-

sands;
- zone B is taken to be the shale zone;
- zone C, generally with few points, corres-
ponds to readings affected by collapses or diffe-
rent lithologies such as coal and limestones.
From this crossplot we can determine
h D s d = q h S d 3: &ax, and the coordinates &clay and
of the clay, as well as the coordinates of
point Sho (qho and &,).
The program executes three passes (Fig. 9-80).
The first analyses only zones A and B assuming
them to be water zones. Thus, no correction is
made for possible hydrocarbon or lithology ef-
fects. An approximate value of 4 and Vclayis
derived from the following equations :

& = Q + V c I a y &clay (39)

qh = Q + V c l a y &clay (4)
Finally a silt index is calculated from the equation :

This equation is represented by the chart of

Fig. 9-81.

VARABAND: S A R A B A N D PROGRAM
*I
-
SWEEP I -
SWEEP 2
PRELIMINARY CALIBRATION FINAL CALIPATION INTERPRETATION

INPUT
YEV
'
PARAh'ETERSyLOG DATA LOG DATA 7
4
ETE
vLOG DATA

BYPASS
'UNLIKELY DATA' '
I
BvbASS
'UNLIKELY DATA'
I
CHECK h CORRECT
'UNLIKELY DATA'

1
CORRECT 0N, 0 D FOR 1 CORRECT 0 N . 0 D FOR
HYDROCARBON EFFECT I HYWIOCARBON EFFECT

c c0,
01 LITHOLOGY FFFECT or LITHOLOGY EFFECT
I
Fig. 9-78. - Results of an interpretation carried out using the COMWTE 0, Vsh , It1 1 I

I
COMPUTE I,( FROM COMPUTE V,h, 1'1
I CORRECTED ON, 0~ I
I
SARABAND program (courtesy of Schlumberger). FROM ON, 80

I t
RECONSTRUCT SP 6 GR

FROM 0. Vsh, Id I
t
PRINT RECONSTRUCTION I COMUJTE S,
MERIT FIGURE I SHALE DISTRIBUTION,

I
PERMEABILlTY
I
SHALE RESISTIVITY /I
I
STATISTICS /
(Rclay)2 / RECONSTRUCT SP, GR, Re
(R cl.y)x.Z
I FROM 0, vshr I d s Sxo

1
PRINT RECONSTRUCTION

I
WRIT FIGURES

SELECT M l N l W M
VALUE OF Ph
FOR EACH ZONE

Fig. 9-79. - Logic of the SARABAND program : definition of the Fig. 9-80. - The three passes of the SARABAND program
zones on a pb - qh, crossplot (courtesy of Schlumberger). (courtesy of Schlumberger).
 457

GAMMA RAY 5 ohm-m

+N (P.U.1 -
Fig. 9-81. - Empirical chart for the determination of the ratio of
silt for a certain value of &,., V,, and 4 (courtesy of Schlum-
berger).

During the second pass the approximate values

previously established are used in the equations to
determine the clay-content indicators. For
gamma-ray we have :

GR pb A + B Vailt + C Vclay (42)

A, B and C are coefficients evaluated in the clays

and water sands. For the SP we have :

where, WCI,, is the fraction of the wet clay volume

occupied by water, and KI is the coefficient giving
the reduction of SP deflection due to the clay-
content. Fig. 9-82. - SP and gamma ray curves reconstructed using clay
percentage and parameters and a comparison with the real
This allows us to re-evaluate the percentage of curves in order to evaluate the quality of the interpretation.
clay. Thus each level of reading is corrected for
hydrocarbon effects given the saturation in the
zone investigated by the tools (cf. above). Each
In water zones, porosity and permeability are
level is also corrected for lithology before being
calculated from &, and &. In hydrocarbon zones,
used to calculate an improved value of 4, VcIayand
clay-content is evaluated by using clay-content
lailt. From these results and a value of Sxo,we can
indicators, including those derived from resistivity
construct synthetic SP and gamma-ray curves and
and sonic travel time (cf. the article cited). Porosity
compare them with the real curves. This allows us
and permeability are then calculated from &,, &
to eliminate, if necessary, the clay-content indica-
and Sxo.Finally, the clay distribution is determined
tor, which would show a curve too far removed
by the method illustrated in Fig. 9-83, and permea-
from the real one (Fig. 9-82). In such a case a
bility is deduced by using the equation advanced
minimal value of Ph is chosen.
by Wyllie and Rose (1950) :
The third pass interprets all the levels. Vciay is
re-evaluated using the final calibrations of the clay
indicators. Further corrections for hydrocarbon (45)
effect and lithology are also done. For each
corrected point we determine the silt index and where C, x and y are determined from measure-
calculate S ., As a final measure of control, the SP ments taken on core samples or fixed at. ( 1 0 0 ) ~
and gamma-ray curves are reconstructed. x = 4.5, and y = 2.
458

composition as a sand and corresponds to the

quartz, at least on a p b vs &, crossplot, is only valid
for a very few places. The 'silt' fraction has, in fact,
a composition which includes feldspars, micas,
heavy minerals (other than quartz) and even clays
(Fig. 9-84). This produces a density and a neu-
tron-hydrogen index generally higher than that of
quartz, as well as higher thorium and potassium
contents which in turn give higher total radioacti-
vity, as indeed the authors of the article have
shown. This is evident, in the article itself, from the
crossplot for which I give my interpretation in

-
Fig. 9-85. Nor is any allowance made either for the
possibility of cement other than quartz or for the
+N(P.".)
fact that the sand may also have a different
composition to that of the quartz as a result of the
frequent presence of other mineral in more or less
Fig. 9-83. - Graphical determination of the clay distribution fixed percentages, e.g. feldspars, micas, heavy
(courtesy of Schlumberger). minerals, shell fragments, etc.

The interpreter will choose the appropriate

equations for saturation depending on the availa-
ble information. CONGLOMERATE SAND SHALE
For laminated clays (shown up clearly by the Siltstone Claystone

dipmeter) the value of saturation S, is obtained

from the following :

Q s; ---
-1=
+- Vshl
(46) -- I ---
(1 - VShi) a RW
QUARTZ
Rt Rshi

To calculate S,, Rt is replaced by Rxo, and S, is

replaced by S,, in the above equation. v s h and R s h I
MICA

represent respectively the percentage volume and

resistivity of the laminated shales.
For dispersed clays the de Witte (1950) equation
is used : I I

Fig. 9-84. - Composition of clastic sediments according to the

size of the grains (from Krumbein & Sloss, 1963). Cf. also Fig.
7-1, Chapter 7.

(47)
where q is the fraction of non-matrix porosity &,
occupied by the dispersed clay and Rshd is the
resistivity of the dispersed clays. The Simandoux
(1963) equation may also be used :

_1 -- Q Si +- vsh s w

Rt a RW(1 - v s h ) Rsh

ay'
Discussion int

Given the available measurements when this

program was first developed, it was not possible
to increase the number of unknowns. Thus, it was
necessary to simplify the interpretation model and
to make certain assumptions about the nature of "Silt" point
the log matrix. However, it should be noted that
the initial hypothesis that the silt has the same Fig. 9-85. - Re-interpretation of the crossplot in Fig. 9-79.
 459

Furthermore, it is probably not correct to accept

that the proportion of clay may be determined by
a linear interpolation between the CI point and the
sands line, since because of a shift in the silt point
towards higher values of density and hydrogen
index, the points below the sands line reveal the ' C W

presence of silt and of clay. For the same reasons 4,

it is not possible to determine the percentage of
the different classes of clay by analysing this
crossplot (Table 9-7).
Similarly, the clay point (CI) is not representa-
tive of pure wet clay minerals but rather of wet c .10 a0 40 .W

shale which itself contains, on average, 20 to 30 O h

quartz and other minerals, micas, carbonates,
lignite etc. (Table 9-5). The true CI point has to be
extrapolated. To define the true theoretical 'silt'
and wet clay points we must use Z-plot techniques
with GR, SP and CAL as well as the envelope
method (Fig. 9-86).

Table 9-5a
Average composition of shales (from Pettijohn,
1975).
Clarke Leith and Yaalon Shaw and
Constituent (1924) Mead (1915) (1962a) Weaver (1965)
'S.nd'
Pol",
Quartz 22.3 32 20 36.8
Feldspar 30.0 18 8 4.5
Clay minerals 25.0 34. 50 66.9
Iron oxides 5.6 5 3 <0.5
Carbonates ' 5.7 B 7 3.6 Fig. 9-86. - Definition of t h e silt and w e t clay points using
Other minerals 11.4 1 3 <2.0 2-plots and t h e envelope method. (a) SP on t h e Z-axis. (b) GR
Organic matter - 1 - 1 on t h e Z-axis.

Kaolinite and clay minerals 10, sericite and paragonite 16. chlo-
rite and serpentine 6.

Table 9-5b 9.10.3.2. The CORIBAND Program

Calculated mineral composition of size fractions of
Schlumberger introduced this program in 1971
clays and shales (from Pettijohn, 1975).
(Poupon et a/., 1971). CORIBAND is used in the
Size fraction of "clay"' quantitative interpretation of complex lithological
sequences containing two important mineraIs
Coarse Fine
Constituent Siltb clayb clayb other than clay. The various stages of the program
are described in Fig. 9-87. The log matrix density is
Kaolinite and clay minerals 7.5 17.0 23.2 not known, but the hydrocarbon density must be
Sericite and paragonite 16.6 21.2 22.1 supplied. This may be obtained either by measu-
Quartz 36.7 19.3 13.1 rements taken on samples, from prior calculations
Chlorite and serpentine 0.2 10.3 7.3 or from some knowledge about hydrocarbon type
Limonite, hematite, and pyrite 3.0 5.5 8.0 as well as the pressure and temperature condi-
Calcite and dolomite 10.5 7.5 5.7 tions.
Feldspars 12.6 7.2 7.3 The choice of the two main minerals is based on
Zeolites 3.0 7.5 6.9 a detailed study of the crossplots. Without kno-
Titanite a n d rutile 1.7 2.0 1.7 wing the specific identity of these minerals, it will
Carbonaceous matter 0.2 0.9 0.6 be sufficient to calculate an apparent matrix
Moisture 0.9 density (prna)a.
- -1.3
- 4.1
The first stage of the calculation consists of
Total 100.9 99.7 100.0
establishing the percentage of clay for each level
.Includes 1 residual c!ay, 1 Ordovician shale, 2 C r e t e of reading, using a sequence of clay content
ceous clays, a n d the r e m a i n d e r (8) of glacial o r Recent indicators.
origin.
b"Fine clay" is u n d e r 1 m i c r o n ; "coarse clay" is 1 t o 5
microns: a n d silt is 5 t o 50 microns.
Source: After Grout (1925). Mark of Schlumberger.
460

Resistivity as a Clay Indicator

I
INPUT DATA:
LOGS
WELL PARAMETERS
1
1
INPUT
This is used in clean, hydrocarbon-bearing
formations :
I

1
( C O R R E C T LOG D A T A
1
ETERMINE +,ppfio, FROM N - D PLOT where, Rlim is the maximum resistivity observed
-
AND Ri FROM OIL OR DLL
i -
PRE INTER
opposite clean hydrocarbon intervals and b varies
between 2, when RcIay/Rt is very small, and 1, when
DETERMINE Rw 8 R m f PRETATION
FROM R i a 8 R m f o CURVES it is above 0.5.

SP as a Clay Indicator
LITHOLOGIC UNITS AND
The equation is :

EVALUATE INTERVALS- SELECT

BY CROSSPLOTS
L I tholog?, P o r o r ~yt Type,
Hydrocarbon E l l c c l r , C l o y Poromr
PARA-
METERS
AND This indicator gives good results when the R m t is
quite different from R ,, and when the shales are
structural or laminated. When they are dispersed
the value of VcIay is overestimated.

Gamma-ray as a Clay Indicator

The equation is :

CORRECT FOR LIGHT This indicator is incorrect when there are radioac-
HYDROCARBONS tive minerals other than clay. Strictly speaking,
gamma-ray readings should also be compensated
for formation density.
LEVEL
TEST CONVERGENCE BY Neutron-hydrogen Index as a Clay Indicator
LEVEL
c INTERPRE- This indicator is calculated using the following
COMPUTE R t TATION empirical equation :
I COMPUTE S,l

&
COMPUTE PSOlidS
(cloy included)

It only gives satisfactory results when there is high

gas saturations or low porosity.

Clay Content deduced from Crossplots

The interpretation of crossplots allows an esti-
mate clay content as soon as the clay point and
the clean formation line have been determined

I - [ EVALUATE RESULTS
STAT ISTIC ALLY
EVALUATION
(Fig. 9-88).
The lowest value of these indicators serves as
the final clay content value, and the density and
neutron readings are corrected accordingly. The
corrected values of density and hydrogen index
a s FILM or LISTING: RESULTS are then used to determine porosity, from which
Porositv. Flulds. L i t h o l o g y
the saturation in the invaded zone may be obtai-
ned. This can then be used to correct for hydro-
carbon effect. Finally, # and (pma)a are computed.
Fig. 9-87. - The different stages of the CORIBAND program A convergence test is done by repeating the
(courtesy of Schlumberger). saturation calculation in the invaded zone.
 461

The last stage consists of calculating S, from Rt

2.2 using the most suitable saturation equation. An
example of CORIBAND results is given in Fig. 9-89.

2.4 9.10.3.3. PlCARDlA Program

>
b Used by ELF and CFP this program was written
0
z in 1971. It integrates the core sample data, which
2.6 thus allows either a calibration of the log respon-
ses, or access to certain parameters derived from
Y
-I the core samples. The interpretation results can
3
m also be compared with the core sample measure-
28 ments (Serra er a/., 1977). There are two options :
either the matrix density is known and we then use
0 10 20 30 40 a procedure known as NEUDER which is somew-
NEUTRON POROSITY
I hat similar t o SARABAND, or the hydrocarbon
density is known and one has the "LITHO 1"
procedure similar to that of CORIBAND which
Fig. 9-88. - Determination of clay content on crossplots.
uses iterative methods together with convergence
tests. The various stages of the two procedures
are shown in Fig. 9-90.

@ Vnh=Vsh mi @ Vsh=Vsh mi

@ Computation of hn,
i":
@
2 Computation of Ichart)$b,

Computation of S*
0
@ Computation of
@ Computation of IVJP

@ Correctionforexcavation effect
0
@ Computation of A ~ , A ,
0
@ Computation of pm,
Q
@ Correnionforsxcsvnion~ f f s c t
0
@ Cornputstionof va
9

*
0 Testofconvergenceonp,.

-
nonconvergence convergence
2
- t
0 S,.%
End

Fig. 9-90, - Logic of the PlCARDlA sub-programs NEUDER and

LITHO 1 (from Serra et a/., 1977).

This program also has a procedure which allows

the beds to be separated in a way which is closer
to the geological reality and allows a possible
correction for shoulder-bed effects.

4 Fig. 9-89. - Example of results obtained using the CORIBAND

program.
462

9.10.3.4. The VOLAN *' Program

This Schlumberger program analyses forma-
tions in terms of the percentage volume of the
components (Fig. 9-91). VOLAN program is based
on the same lithological model as the SARABAND
program but VOLAN program uses a "dual water"
model inspired by the work of Waxman and Smits
(1968).

Waxman and Smits Model

According to the authors a shaly formation may
be considered to be a clean formation with the
same porosity, tortuosity and fluid saturation, but
appearing less resistive than its water salinity I 1
1 1
would suggest, as if this water were more heavily & (Bulk Volume Hydrocarbon.)
impregnated with salts and thus more conductive. &I (Bulk Volume Form Water)
Unlike most other minerals (except native metals,
sulphurs, hematite and graphite), clay minerals are #& (Bulk Volume Bound Water)

not infinitely resistive. This is related to the fact V& (Bulk Volume Dry Clay)
that they are phyllitic particles. They are very thin,
Vd (Bulk Volume Silt)
sheet like particles (a few Angstroms), with a very
large specific surface, which in turn depends on
the mineral (Table 9-6). There is a deficiency of VN (Bulk Volume Matrix)

positive electrical charge creating a powerful

negative field which attracts cations (Na+, K+,
Ca2+)and repels anions (CI-) present in the water. I I I

This would be represented by an ion distribution as

shown in Fig. 9-92, calculated on the basis of the
theoretical Gouy model. The zone close to the
I #.=&+A

= m, A
Effective Porosity
Porositi affective
Total Porosity
+ +
Porositi totala
surface of the phyllite clay where there is an
excess of Na+ over CI- constitutes the diffuse
layer. Its thickness xd is, in theory, related to the
I Sh=-
b
4
Bound. Water Saturation
Saturation d'aau lib

Total Water Saturation

sw = (&?++l &,)
salt concentration < n > by the equation : Saturation d'eau totale

h Effective Water Saturation

%= Saturation d'eau affective
(h+ A )
Volume of Clay
*' = '* +

Volume Sargila
Volume of Shale
v* = vd + a
' Volume d'argilita
with xd in Angstroms and < n > in mole/litre. In I k lndu
l a = k lndla d. 81k
fact, according to the Stern model, the Na+ V#h
compensation ions of the diffuse layer are held a t
a certain distance from the phyllite surface by the Fig. 9-91. - Representation of the VOLAN model (courtesy of
hydration water around each cation and by the Schlumberger).

Mark of Schlumberger.
In addition to the clay indicators of the SARABAND
program, VOLAN provides indicators derived from other
measurements, in particular the Natural Gamma-ray Spectros-
copy tool. The equations are :
LOCAL
t

1
IONIC
CONCEN-
TRATION
Th - Th,,,

1
(n)
(vsh)Th= Th,, - Th,,,

[ a k T A N c E FROM CLAY SURpCE

x-
K,, Klh, Th,,., CGR,,. and CGR., must be determined by
crossplots (see for example Fig. 3-21 of Chapter 3). CGR is the
gamma-ray response with the uranium contribution removed, Fig. 9-92. - Diagram of ionic concentrations in the diffuse layer
because uranium is not a clay indicator. (Gouy model) (from Clavier et a/., 1977).

Table 9-6
Characteristics of clay minerals.
adsorbed water on the surface. These ions are
situated in a plane parallel to the surface of the
phyllite known as the outer Helmholtz plane (Fig.
9-93) located at a distance XH which is greater than
xd if the water salinity is greater than
< nl.xH = 6.18 Angstroms for Na' ions.
The sum total of these compensation ions is the
CEC (Cation Exchange Capaciv) expressed as
meq/gr of dry rock. It is also expressed in terms of
meq/m3 of the total volume of pores by the symbol
CX.. The CEC is related to the specific surface of
clays and thus depends on the type of clay mineral
(Fig. 9-94 and Table 9-6). The CEC is lowest in
ADSORBED
SCH EMAT I C
WATER
OUTER MOLECULE
HELMHOLTZ
PLANE I
Fig. 9-93. - Sketch of the outer Helmholtz plane (from Clavier
et a/., 1977).
463
kaolinite and highest in smectites and vermiculi-
tes. The concentration of excess charge in the
water filling the pore space is equal to QJS,
where S , is the water saturation as a volumetric
fraction of the total porosity. The effective water
conductivity is then :
C, = C, + B- 0" (54)
S,
where, B represents the equivalent conductivity of
the compensation ions, and BQ,,,/S, is the addi-
tional conductivity due to cationic exchange. The
conductivity of a clay rock is then expressed by the
following general equation :
F'
c,=~[c,+B-$j (55)
where F+ is the formation factor of the shaly
formation and is given by :
m * is the tortuosity factor of the clay formation
and depends on the clay ratio as shown in Fig. 9-95
where :
Y=Q(&J (57)
Y being a crude measurement of the percentage of
clay expressed as a fraction of the unit volume of
solids. m+ varies between 1.6 for very clean forma-
 18.0

>L
E

4 1H

Ei

Fig. 9-94. - Relationship between the cationic

exchange capacity and the specific surface of
clays (from Patchett, 1975). BUL CEC M E P / ~ O O
g~

+
m*=- LOG F*
tions to more then 2.9 in the clays. The conducti-
vity Co of a water-saturated clay formation is a
function of conductivity C, of the formation water
LOG 4, (Fig. 9-96). It is clear that CO becomes a linear
function of C, when this value is greater than CI
and when B is independent of C ., This constant
value of B is called BOand expressed as :
-,
Bo = -cx (58)
Qv

-
In fact, BOis not constant and increases with CL as
Fig. 9-97 shows.
. For values of water conductivity below CI the

'
+T curve moves away progessively from the line. This
Y=Qv-
, #T suggested to Waxman and Smits that the com-
15.; ' .2 .4
.6 .8 pensation ion mobility decreases with water sali-
nity, thus reducing B. Clavier et a/. (1977) argued
Fig. 9-95. - Relationship between m' and the percentage of that this was due t o the expansion of the diffuse
normalised clay, Y (from Clavier et el., 1977). layer beyond XH.

WATER- SATURATED
FORMATION

/
CONDUCTIVITY
i,co Cx INTERCEPT
mho/m

0 0 WATER
0
0° I CONDUCTIVITY
C

CI

Fig. 9-96. - Relationship between conductivity COof a shaly

formation saturated with water and the conductivity of the Fig. 9-97. -Relationship between C, and Q. showing that Bois
formation water R, (Clavier et a/., 1977). not a constant (from Clavier et a/., 1977).
 465

-
Table 9-7
Types of clay in a formation and their influence on reservoir characteristics.
INFLUENCE OM
RESERVOIR
CHARACTERISTICS
POROSITY PERMEABILITY
WELL LOGGIMG 01 k
GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION SCHEMA CLASSIFICATION
H W

---
Grains of mudrtone or 0 It-
floccule
Granular rhalar
Biogenic pellets lrometimes
glauconitimdl
-
-,-y'.
\;
Structural shales

i
ALLOGENIC Randomly distributed
CLAYS
Oatrital clay minaralr
laminated Laminated ahalea
--\
I I I

The Dual Water Model In a salt environment, a = 1 and the conducti-

vity of bound water is independent of clay type
Based on the work of Waxman and Smits, and concentration of compensation cations. C
,, is
Clavier et al., put forward another model for a universal parameter for sodium clays and de-
water-saturated clay formations, namely, that this pends only on temperature (Fig. 9-98).
type of formation behaves as if the formation
contained two types of water :
- water close to the clay ("clay water", denoted
by the subscript cw) occupying a fraction of the
porous space, (f#)cw= a Vg Q. This water is salt
free but contains all the compensation cations
with a concentration expressed as a fraction of the
pore space, Q, and an equivalent conductivity B.
The apparent conductivity of this type of water is
given by the equation :

c,, I -
BQ I -
B (59)
(fo)cw a va

where a is the expansion factor of the diffuse

layer,
- - 5t .
a = min(1,d < nl > / d < n > (60)

va = VXH = A,xH/Q (cm3/meq) (611

100 200 300 400 OF
A, is the specific surface of the clays by unit Fig. 9-98. - Variation of C, with temperature (from Clavier et
volume of porosity (mZ/cm3). a/., 1977).
466

- "Far water" (fw) which occupies the fraction

(f& of the pore volume.
LOG FO
(f&, = 1 - (fs)cw= 1 - a v a Q, (62) LOGT
2.5-,
Its conductivity is that of the formation water thus
..
I
C., The clay formation behaves as if it contained
an effective water conductivity ,C ., where :
"
+ (f@)CWcc,
or :
cw. = (f4)fw c w (63) ,
. .
+ POv
.
. *
,C
, = (1 - a V g Q,) C, (64)
Its conductivity Co when water saturated is expres- 1. I
sed as follows : 1.5b- ' .2 .4 .6 .8
1
Co=-[(1 -avvgQV)Cw+ Pa] (65) Fig. 9-99. - Correlation between Mo and Y (from Clavier et a/.,
1977).
F O

where, FO= $Pt, mo being related to Y (Fig. 9-99).

By comparing the expressions of conductivity
given by Waxman and Smits and Clavier eta/., we
deduce (for a = 1 ) :

F' = Fo (66)
1 - VQ 0,
and
Bo = B (67)
1 - va Q,
In hydrocarbon zones this becomes :

Equations used in the VOLAN program

The effective conductivity of the formation
water of a clay interval may again be expressed
as :

Fig. 9-100. - Evaluation of the percentage of clay as a function

of the dry clay point, using the VOLAN program.

where C,,+ is the free water conductivity and Cwb

the bound water conductivity
to determine Cwb and C,.Awe calculate a ,C, using
= P
- the following equation and plot it as a function of
Cwb (70)
a va Swb (Fig. 9-101):
Swb is the bound water saturation = & b / q . k
S, is the total water saturation = (&b +
&)I&;
h = & + & + &b;
4. is the effective porosity = qL + &; This crossplot allows us to evaluate the quantity of
S, is the effective water saturation = bound water and the total water saturation as well
&/(& + bl); as the free water saturation (Fig. 9-102).The
A "dry clay" is first defined on a Pb - $?h interpretation procedure is shown in Fig. 9-103.
crossplot (Fig. 9-loo),which allows us to deter- The volume of dry clay is given by :
mine a clay volume VcI which is equal to :
vdc- Swb h (vdc)cl (73)
VcI = vdc + &wb (711 h d
 467

:
i ............................................
1 .

20
. j
I 1

. , I .
1 ,

I .
. !
, I
I , I ..

0 25 50 75 100

Fig. 9-101. - Crossplot of C

., as a function of Swbin order to
determine cd and C w b (courtesy of Schlumberger).

Fig. 9-103. - Interpretation logic of the VOLAN program

(courtesy of Schlumberger).

'wb /
/
50 /

0 20 40 Swb - 60 80 100
#JD

Fig. 9-102. - Determination of S

, and S,, by interpretation of
the .C, vs. Swb plot after determining the c w b and C,., points
(courtesy of Schlumberger).

a /
The value S w b is the median value determined from n .
50
the 36 average binary values obtained by combi-
ning pairs of the eight indicators of S w b . This
technique, known as the Hodges-Lehmann estima-
tor, eliminates the excessive influence of an
estimator which gives too low a value.
The correction of the clay effect is determined
by the following equations : Fig. 9-104. - Visual representation of corrections on the
crossplot (courtesy of Schlumberger).
A& = Vdc h ~ d c (74)
A& = V d c &dc (75) correction moves the point from PI to Pz. To
determine the percentage volume the initial point
q h d c and &dc are the coordinates of the dry clay P is moved by a vector P - P3 equal and parallel to
point. The correction for the clay effect is shown PI - Pz. An example of results obtained by the
in Fig. 9-104 (point P to PI). The hydrocarbon VOLAN program is given in Fig. 9-105.
468

Discussion I SULK VOLUME ANALYSIS

% OF BULK VOLUME

VOLAN and SARABAND programs use the

same lithological model, but the former presents
certain advantages :
- it integrates data from the new tools LDT, EPT
and NGS;
- it overcomes the limitations of the shaly sand
models as well as the problems related to a poor
choice of clay parameters.

9.10.3.5. A Mathematical Model :

I-----
the GLOBAL ’ Program
A detailed and correct description of a reservoir Hydrocarbon
often requires more parameters than the number 4. Sn. ih
of available measurements. Thus the model
usually has to be simplified in order to obtain the
fundamental parameters of porosity, saturation,
hydrocarbon type, clay content and lithology. In so
doing it is of interest to estimate the quality of the
interpretation and thus the validity of the chosen
model. This can be done by using the GLOBAL
program developed by Schlumberger (Mayer and
Sibbit, 1980). GLOBAL may be described as a
series of processes using the response equations
given by the tools and introducing a degree of
uncertainty to the measurements and to the zoned
parameters used, together with pre-defined, geo-
logical and local constraints, as well as calculating
an incoherence function.
The tool response model is expressed as a
system of equations as follows :
{ai = fl (x)}
(76)
where the a’s corresponds to the tools or inputs,
x is the vector of the unknowns or outputs. Thus
in the RTGLOB program we get
a = (RLLD,RLLS, RILD, RMSFL) (77)
C ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
x = (Rtt R x o , di) (78)
and in the RIG program we have
Fig. 9-105. - Example of results obtained using the VOLAN
a = (Rt, R x o , Pb, I&, At, GR, SP, Pe,...) (79) program (courtesy of Schlumberger).

X (4, s w , s x o , Vshr pma) (80)

Uncertainty or measurement dispersion is caused
by several factors : the equipment itself (statistics,
electronic noise, etc.), corrections made by the
surface recording system and environmental cor-
rections. This uncertainty is defined for each tool
by a spread which is designated bi.
Uncertainty in the response function of the tool
fi is also determined and has a spread which is
designated zi.
The constraints are expressed as inequalities on
the results and are independent of the measure-
ments
gi (XI2 0
Mark of Schlumberger.
The constraints may themselves allow a certain
tolerance and their spread is designated 3.
The incoherence funcion is expressed as :
where g,(x) is the negative element of the function.
Once estalished the incoherence function is
minimised by an iterative algorithm using its
partial derivatives. Iteration proceeds until conver-
gence is achieved. Quality control of the result is
achieved by comparing the original logs with the
ones recomputed from GLOBAL results. The inco-
herence curve is also reproduced and when it is
higher than 1, then the model chosen is unable to
 469

RECOMPUTED DAT,

Fig. 9-106. - Example of results obtained using the GLOBAL program and presentation of reconstructed curves making it possible
to judge the quality of the interpretation in relation to the model chosen (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference, India,
1983).

correctly represent the tool responses. A low the result is correct but only that the model
incoherence is only representative when the sys- satisfies the measurements made. Fig. 9-106 gives
tem is overdetermined. This does not mean that an example of results and output parameters.
470
Discussion
This program is a powerful mathematical tool
adaptable to all types of interpretation models,
since data from any new tool or exterior parameter
may be introduced. All one need do is enter the
response equations. Thus, for a recording by a
GST tool one can enter the measurements made
by this tool and thereby get a much sharper and
more exact interpretation (Fig. 9-107). Comparison
with the measurements made on core samples
verifies the quality of this interpretation. If the
model introduced can be guided by evidence
derived either from the geology or the results of
processing by a LITHO and SYNDIP or by a
FACIOLOG (Suau and Spurlin, 1982) then the
chances of obtaining correct results are increased
by reducing the number of unknowns per lithology
type, as well as by adapting the equations to the
actual models, eg. type of distribution of clay or
porosity. We are then in a favourable situation,
having a model which is overdetermined and
adapted to reality and not dependent on chance.
Examination of the incoherence curve can help
to check the quality of interpretation even though
it only represents the coherence between measu-
rements and model. If incoherence is higher lo-
cally this may indicate that a t this point the model
is not wholly adequate. One must then analyse a
log or the logs in order to try to establish the
reason for the discrepancy. Thus, if the recompu-
ted density and the P. value are too low compared
with the measurements made by the tools, this
may indicate the presence of a heavy mineral not
included in the model, eg. pyrite or siderite. The
interpretation of the facies and the environment
will be helpful in choosing between these hypo-
theses. We can introduce an increasing percen-
tage of the new mineral and first check if this
improves the incoherence or not. If it does then we
stop when the incoherence begins to increase
once more.
The choice of program depends on the com-
plexity of the geological model. It is however,
useful to interpret an interval using several mo-
dels : a mineralogical model to determine the
percentage of minerals and to give a more precise
idea of the rock composition (Fig. 9-108); a textural
model (Fig. 9-109) giving an idea of grain size
(sand, silt and clay) to obtain an idea of sorting
and permeability.
9.10.4. Thin Reservoirs
For such reservoirs most open hole logging
tools do not have sufficient vertical resolution to
attain the true value of each bed individually. The
measurement is influenced by each of the beds in
the investigation zone of the tool as a function of
the fraction of the total which they represent.
Moreover, since vertical resolution is not the same
for each tool, the volumes analysed are no longer
GAMMA RAY
0-150 API BULK VOLUME
6_-_________
CALIPER IN
16 ' 0 ANALYS'S 0
0 eEFFECTlVE
LIMESTONE
POTASH
FELDSPAR
0 SANDSTONE
8 CLAY
ILLITE
CHLORITE
AvCLAV (CORE)
"LS (a€)+
0EFF
Fig. 9-107. - Example of an interpretation using the GLOBAL
program, combining the measurements made by the GST and
NGT tools (from Flaum & Pirie, 1982).
identical. The same is true for compensated tools
- the near and far detectors do not analyse the
same volume. All these factors together make the
interpretaion of these reservoirs difficult.
A first step towards resolving this problem
requires a higher sampling rate, every 3 crn or 1.2
inches (Fig. 9-110). Traditional tools are comple-
mented with tools having good vertical resolution
such as the short spacing (4.5 inches) sonic tool,
EPT tool, microresistivity devices and especially
the dipmeter which makes it possible to detect
beds clearly (Fig. 9-111). Deconvolution, or at least
a correction of the readings for bed thickness may
be made using the dipmeter to determine thick-
ness. An empirical method consisting of giving the
thin bed, regardless of thickness, the value of this
same bed when it has a thickness greater than the
vertical resolution of the standard tools may be
used. Furthermore, an average porosity may be
defined by drawing a line joining the clay point to
the representative point on a p b - & crossplot
and reading the porosity on the corresponding
clean lithology curve (Fig. 9-112). To calculate
saturation we can use the resistivity value deduced
from the depth-matched dipmeter curve (Fig.
9-113) and the Archie equation.
For slightly shaly formations the calculation of
shale percentage may be done by comparing the
cumulative thickness of the shale beds as defined
by the dipmeter curves with those derived from a
p b - & crossplot within a certain window corres-
 47 1

Fig. 9-108. - Example of results obtained using a textural model (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference, India, 1983)
472

DEPTH RECOMPUTED DATA FROM QLOBAL RESULIS follYAllOW HYDROCARMY '~::f$~

ClUUCRRlSllCS *W*LysIS )y VOLUW~
THE SHADIN REPRESENTS CONF OENCE NTERVAL FOR BOREHOLE-CORRECTED DATA
*
me, e3
_______.._.....
5 0 adloo O**Ail *CI /rm *I

POTA RECOMPU-ED IpT RECOMPUTED 4rRECOMPUTEO Pb RECOMPUTED R RECOMPUTED RECOMPUTED SP RECOMPUTED

0
FROM
GLOBAL RESULTS
om. r 3 0
FROM
GLOBAL RESULTS
"lh. 1oeo
FROM
GLOBAL RESULTS
P Y 102
FROM
GLOBAL RE,SULTS
em. 3 0 2
FROM
GLOBAL RESULTS
ahmrn 20002
FROM
GLOBAL RESULTS
Vhrnrn zoc-ri
FROM
GLOBAL RESULTS
mY 5017
AVERAGEGRNN
DENSITY
3200
_ _ _ _ --- _ _
HYDROCARBON
VOLUME
0 30PlllDYLL UYVlD , *A7

-_ _ - -_ -
HYDROCARBON 'ym~'''o*
WEIGHT
---
THOR RECOMPUTED EATT RECOMPUTED 00 01~1100 5

L
FROM
GLOBAL RESULTS
PPrn 16 0
FROM
GLOBALRESJLTS
dB T 2000 ,6!
_ _ _-a-
T O T A L PERMEABILITY
- T G ~ ~

Fig. 9-109. - Example of results obtained using a mineralogical model (quartz, feldspars, biotite, clay) over the same interval (from
Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference, India, 1983).
 473

I .4" I 6 " I

O ' P
RESISTIVITY
INCREASES

I
0'
DIP ANGLE AND
DIRECTION

10'
S I
1

20' 30' 40°30'60"70'~0'80' 1 l a

2
Pads

Buttons

2 2a 3
3

3a
1
I 48

Fig. 9-110. - Illustration of the effect of sampling rate on the

appearance of the curves (Suau ef a/., 1984).

ponding to the average vertical resolution of

density and neutron tools (2 feet). If the two
percentages are very close then it is reasonable to
conclude that the reservoir beds are clean. If the
percentage of shale obtained from the crossplot is
higher than that obtained from the cumulative
thickness, we may conclude that this gap is
caused by a certain percentage of clay in the
reservoir beds which is either in a structural or a
dispersed form. The percentage is given by the
difference between the two values. If the percen-
tage derived from the crossplot is lower than that
derived from the thickness, this may be linked to
a poor choice of clay point, or to local depth
mismatching of the various logs. The saturation
equations are then applied using the shale values
this derived.
Suau et a/. (1984) have also analysed the thin
bed problem and put forward solutions for various
possible cases :
- standard sampling (every 6 inches or 30 cm);
- absence of tools with very good vertical
resolution (EPT, microdevices, dipmeter); Fig. 9-111. - Example of thin beds which are very cleary
- presence of gas or oil. They use pattern detected by the dipmeter resistivity curves (from Delhomme &
Serra. 1984).
recognition methods to detect reservoir beds and
their fluid content. The results are presented on an
expanded depth scale (1/40).
474

9.10.5. Fresh Water Reservoirs

,..Q\ / In such cases, since the formation water is itself

resistive, it is often not easy to distinguish bet-
ween a water-saturated reservoir and an oil reser-
voir using only traditional logs. Usually data recor-
ded by an EPT tool or GST tool make it possible to
resolve this problem.
The EPT tool measures the propagation time
and the attenuation of a very high frequency
electromagnetic wave (1.1 GHz). The propagation
time, expressed in nanoseconds per metre, is a
function of the electrical permittivity of the rock,
the attenuation being dependent on the rock's
conductivity. The electrical permittivity of the
water, whose unit is the farad per metre, is
virtually independent of its salinity and it is very
high (78.3) compared with that of hydrocarbons (2
for oil and 1 for gas) as well as that for common
minerals (between 4 and 9). Thus, a water reservoir
30' ; 10 10 I0 40
will give a much longer travel time compared with
that for a reservoir containing hydrocarbons
+CNL I p.u.)
(Fig. 9-114, and Table 9-8). If we plot the travel
Fig. 9-112. - Interpretation of pb - &, crossplot in the case of time as a function of porosity (Fig. 9-115) it is clear
thin beds.
that the water saturation can be determined in the
zone analysed by the tool. However, we should
note that this tool's depth of investigation is poor,
and so it will be difficult to detect hydrocarbons if

;??- i&- 2-1

4g. 9-113. - Comparison of the dipmeter resistivity curves and
he resistivity curve given by the SFL tool (from Delhomme & Fig 9-114 - Example of a recording made with the EPT tool
Serra, 1984). (courtesy of Schlumberger)
 475

Table 9-8 t
Interpretation Chart
Dielectric constant and propagation time of an
E PT -t
electromagnetic wave for various minerals and
fluids (courtesy of Schlumberger).
49

45 based on:
2-
-0
40
tp, =+tpf +(l-+)tprno
Mineral 1; = C'/1" i P , (nanos/m) 33
Sandstone .30 I Hfl
4.65 7.2 1 100 %
Dolomite 6.8 8.7
Limestone 7.5-9.2 9.1- 10.2
Anhbdrite 6.35 8.4
Halite 5.6-6.35 7.9- 8.4
Gypsum 4.16 6.8
Muscovite 8.3- 9.4
Biotite ' 7 I - 8.2 Stlola
Talc 7.1- 8.2 NaC
LS
K-Feldspar * 7 - 8.2
Sidente 8.8- 9.1 - -- SS

Limonite 10.5-1 1.0

4
------
----------
----- r----
100% 01
Svlvite * 7 2- 7.3 Go8
or PI?
Apatite 9.1-10.8 PI,

r
Sphalente 9.3- 9.5
Rutile ' 31.8-43.5
Petroleum 2.0-2 4 4.7- 5.2 OO 10 20 30 40
Fresh water
(@ 2 5 ° C ) 78.3 29.5 Porosity, p.u.
kalues estimated from published literature. not venlied b) large Fig. 9-115. - Plot of the travel time tpl of an electromagnetic
measurements
wave as a function of porosity (from Calvert et a/., 1977).

I
the formation is heavily invaded by filtrate, unless
there is significant residual hydrocarbon satura-

I
0 35r
tion. Conversely, if the drilling mud is oil-based,
hydrocarbons may penetrate the reservoir and be sw
detected. Finally, the measurement is very suscep- I 0301 fcl

tible to borehole rugosity and to the presence of

clay.
The GST tool analyses the induced gamma ray
spectrum created either by non-elastic collisions

.-
of very high energy neutrons with the nucleus of
the atoms, or by absorbtion of thermal neutrons. 0 10
Hence the amounts of carbon and oxygen in s102 04
particular are detected. It is obvious that in hydro- 0 05 06
carbon-bearing zones there will be a shortage of 08
oxygen, and consequently the carbonloxygen ratio "'
10
0 01 0'2 03
will be higher. The reverse is true in water-bearing
zones, an the ratio may even be zero in detrital =#+POROSITY -t

quartz reservoirs. The water saturation in the zone

analysed by a tool which has a greater depth of
investigation than the EPT may be determined by
plotting this ratio (COR) as a function of porosity
(Fig. 9-116).
The measurements made by these tools may be
interpreted by either the VOLAN or GLOBAL
programs (Fig. 9-1 17).
As previously mentioned, a complete and relia-
ble interpretation of a reservoir requires a kno-
wledge of its internal organization (textural and
structural). As seen in chapters 3 and 4, this
information can be obtained by the analysis of the
dipmeter or Formation Microscanner data. These
tools often clearly indicate the level of homoge-
neity of the reservoir. The analysis of the dipmeter
curves in combination with the dips, or better still
the images provided by the Formation MicroScan-
ner tool, enables determination o f :
Fig. 9-116. - Plot of the carbon/oxygen ratio (COR) as a
function of porosity in order to determine saturation (from
Westaway & Hertzog, 1980).
- the shale distribution : in a shaly reservoir
(slightly radioactive) structural shales (clay galls,
flaser, shale grains) will generally appear as dark
dots, while laminated shales will be characterized
by more or less thin beds. Reservoirs with disper-
sed clays will seem more homogeneous;
- the presence of permeability barriers : com-
pact beds, healed fractures, stylolites;
- the porosity distribution : intergranular if any
dark dot is visible on the images, presence of vugs
if dark irregular dots are observed in a clean
carbonate;
- high permeability paths (open fractures).
476

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SUAU, J., & GARTNER, J. (1979). - Fracture
detection from the logs. SPWLA, 6th European
Symp. Trans., paper L.
SUAU, J. (1981). - An Improved Gas Correction
Method for Density and Neutron Logs. Trans.
SPWLA, 22.
SUAU, J., & SPURLIN, J. (1982). - Interpretation of
Micaceous Sandstones in the North Sea.
SPWLA, 23th Ann. Log. Symp. Trans., paper.
SUAU, J., ALBERTELLI, L., CIGNI, M., & GRA-
GNIANI, U. (1984). - Interpretation of very thin
gas sand. SPWLA, 25th Ann. Log. Symp. Trans.,
paper A.
THOMAS, E.C. (1976). - The Determination of 0,
from Membrane Potential Measurements on
Shaly Sands. SPE J., June.
TIMUR, A. (1968). - An investigation of Permeabi-
lity, Porosity, and Residual Water Saturation
Relationships for Sandstone Reservoirs. The
Log Analyst, 9, 4, p. 8- 17.
TIMUR, A. (1968). - Effective Porosity and Permea-
bility of Sandstones investigated through NMR
Principles. SPWLA, 10th Ann. Log. Symp. Trans.
TIMUR, A. (1969). - Pulsed Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance Studies of porosity, movable fluid
479
and permeability of sandstones. J. Petroleum
Technol., 21. p. 775-786.
TIMUR, A. (1969). - Producible Porosity and Per-
meability of Sandstones investigated through
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Principles. The
Log Analyst, 10, 1, p. 3- 11.
TIMUR, A. (1972). - Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
Study of Carbonate Rocks. SPWLA, 13th Ann.
Log. Symp. Trans., paper N.
TIXIER, M.P. (1949). - Evaluation of Permeability
from Electric-Log resistivity Gradients. Oil and
Gas J., 48. p. 113.
WAXMAN, M.H., & SMITS, L.J.M. (1968). - Electri-
cal Conductivities in oil bearing shaly sands.
S.P.E.J., June.
WAXMAN, M.H., &THOMAS, E.C. (1974). - Electri-
cal Conductivities in Shaly Sands. SPE J., Feb.
WESTAWAY, P., & HERTZOG, R. (1980). - The
gamma spectrometer tool : inelastic and cap-
ture gamma ray spectroscopy for reservoir
analysis. SPE of AIME, paper SPE 9461.
WHARTON, R., HAZEN, G., RAU, R., & BEST, D.
(1 980). -Electromagnetic Propagation Logging :
Advances in Techniaue and Intermetation. 55th
Ann. Fall Techn. Conf. SPE of AIME, paper SPE
9267.
 Chapter 10

RESERVOIR EVALUATION
(Petrophysical characteristics : dynamic behaviour)

10.1. OBJECTIVES
OF RESERVOIR EVALUATION

This section of our study of reservoirs has the

following objectives :
- appraisal of the production potential of the
well, that is, the flow rate potential;
- appraisal of ultimate recovery, that is, the Maltrix blocks '+
optimal flowrates to be acheived in order to
ensure maximum recovery of the hydrocarbons in
place. This evaluation depends on the reservoir Fr acturos-

1
-b
model (size of blocks, Fig. 10-I), total and relative
permeabilities, both vertical and horizontal, fractu- MODEL RESERVOIR
ring, formation pressure, type of hydrocarbon and
the residual hydrocarbon saturation.
Flow can only occur when the formation is
permeable due either to a permeable matrix or
fractures. The flow rate depends on permeability, Matrix
formation pressure, viscosity of the fluid and the
saturations of the various fluids present.
-Vugs

10.2. PERMEABILITY DETERMINATION

ACTUAL RESERVOIR

10.2.1. Definition

The permeability of a medium is its capacity to
permit the flow of a fluid (gas, oil or water). If the
fluid is homogeneous and has no major chemical
influence on the surrounding media, then the
permeability is said to be absolute. It is represen-
ted by the symbol k, and the unit of measurement
is the darcy.
Absolute permeability is derived from the equa-
tion governing the flow of a fluid in a porous
medium (Darcy's law) :
Fig. 10-1. - Reservoir model showing how theoretical blocks
are defined (courtesy of Schlumberger).
where Q is the flowrate in m3/s, p is viscosity of
the fluid in Pascal/s, S is area in mz through which
the flow occurs, h is the thickness of the material
in m traversed by the fluid, PI and PZ are the
pressures, in pascal, upstream and downstream of
the flow respectively (i.e. on both sides of the
material) and k is the absolute permeability in mz
(1 darcy = 10-'2mZ).
482
10.2.2. Water-Rock Contact Phenomena -
Capillary Phenomena
The pores of a rock are usually linked by fine
channels of very small diameter, and possibly by
fissures and fractures. Because of their very small
bore (a few microns) the channels act as capillary
tubes and the fluids they contain are subjected to
capillary forces.
Capillary pressure is a force per unit of surface
expressed by the Laplace equation :
P, = 2 T cos0
r T1.2 %Ti - T2
where
P, is the capillary pressure in pascal;
T is surface tension of the liquid (liquid-air
separation surface) in dynes/cm or in newtons/m
in SI units;
0 is angle of contact (in degrees) between the
meniscus and the wall of the capillary tube.
T = 73 dynes/cm a t 20°C and 8 = 0 if the liquid
wets the solid perfectly;
r is capillary radius in cm.
This shows that on contact with a solid surface,
the liquids may be attracted or repelled to a
greater or lesser extent depending on whether or
not they wet the wall. We know that if we plunge
a capillary tube into water, the water will rise in the
capillary as a result of the forces of surface
tension (Fig. 10-2). The height, h, to which the
water rises is given by the Jurin’s law :
2Tcos 0
h =
rP 9
where h is height of the column of liquid in cm,
p is the density of the fluid in g/cm3 and g is the
acceleration due to gravity.
The height is also linked to the capillary pres-
sure, so that we have :
I some of the factors on the interfacial tension
Fig. 10-2. - Water rising in a tube due t o capillary forces.
10.2.3. Interfacial Tensions
When two fluids are present, two new concepts
are introduced. The first is the concept of a
wetting liquid, generally water which fills the
angular parts of the pores and covers the solid
particles with a film. The second is the concept of
interfacial tension between two non-mixing liquids
(e.g. oil and water, the oil being almost never in
contact with the rock). This tension is more or less
equal to the difference between the surface ten-
sion of each liquid relative to air :
The difference in density also comes into play
and we have
h = 2(T1 - Tz) cos 8
r(P1-P2)9
where pl and p2 are the respective densities of
the two fluids present.
From this equation we may deduce that water
will rise in the oil-impregnated zone. All the more
so when the difference in density between the
fluids is low and the radii of the capillaries are
smaller, given that the surface tension of the water
is two or three times that of flowing oil. This
explains why the water-oil transition zones are
longer than those of water-gas or oil-gas which
are usually very short. Similarly, poor sorting (of
the rock matrix) will result in a longer zone than
would otherwise be the case (Fig. 10-3).
Perrodon (1966) describes the influence of inter-
facial tensions in geology and petroleum explora-
tion as follows :
“In migration phenomena, as in hydrocarbon
exploration, the displacement of hydrocarbons
appears to depend on water-hydrocarbon contacts
and more especially, on the values of the interfa-
cial tensions which separate the two fluids. The
greater the interfacial tensions, the greater will be
the difficulties of moving phases which involve
surface deformation and which are very difficult ...
”Levorsen (1956) summarises the effects of
between the oil and water in reservoirs :
- increased temperature reduces interfacial
tension;
- increased pressure reduces interfacial ten-
sion;
- the more dissolved gas there is in the oil or
water above the bubble point, the lower will be the
interfacial tension. The less dissolved gas there is
below the bubble point the greater the interfacial
tension;
- a reduction in the difference in viscosity
between the oil and the water reduces interfacial
tension;
- the presence of dispersants in the water or oil
will result in a reduction of interfacial tensions.
 EFFECT Of CAPILLARY

m
PLRYEABILITY 111O POROSITY MESSUIIE CURVES
I
*I@* UC*U LO.

r l m l u w QDSUC ~EOUIMD FOR

P E W A m I T Y 8 R1109TY

-- - - - ---- --
- ---=-
--
Saturation -- - - - Saturation --
a b 6

uturation I

Watar saturation wdttr

EFFECT OF
DClSlTY DlfFEO(WCt CAPILLARY
CILSSW amES

Fig. 10-3. - (A) Effect of capillary tube radius on the height of the water column, and on the capillary pressure curves (from Arps,
1964). (B) Effect of sorting on the length of the transition zone, (a) with capillaries of equal radius representing good sorting and
(b) capillaries of different radii representing poor sorting. ( C ) Effect of different fluid densities, (a) the distribution of water and
gas or oil in the transition zone. For a given set of conditions, the smaller the difference in density, the longer is the transition zone;
(b) effect of density difference on the transition zone and the capillary pressure curves (from Arps, 1964).
484
For water-flooding to be effective, it is impor-
tant that the water displaces the oil. The liquid
which wets the rock surface occupies the space
next to the rock in the pores and the fine intersti-
ces, while the non-wetting liquid occupies the
interior of the pores".
10.2.4. Effective and Relative Permeabilities
Quoting again from Perrodon (1966) : "In most
sediments which are usually wet firstly by water,
oil cannot enter the pores filled with water unless
it has a force greater than the capillary pressure of
the water-oil interface (Fig. 10-4). In other words,
in the case of rocks showing high capillary forces,
that is, rocks with very fine channels, there will
have to be a strong pressure on the oil for it to
displace the water. Under normal circumstances
these rocks will be impermeable to the oil. Thus
the concept of impermeability appears to be
wholly relative, that is, an equivalent rock which is
permeable to water and impermeable to oil, is
impermeable to a given pressure but becomes
permeable if one of the fluids is subjected to a
pressure greater than the capillary forces".
Fig. 10-4. - Diagram showing the progressive entry of oil in the
pores of a sandstone under the influence of increasing
pressure, PI < P? < P3 (from Hill et a/., 1961).
The Darcy's law assumes that only one fluid
flows through the porous medium. However, it
often happens that a reservoir contains two or
even three fluids (water, oil, gas). We must then
introduce the concepts of diphasic flow and of
relative permeability. In fact, if the formation
contains two or more fluids, their flows interfere
and when this occurs the effective permeability of
each of the fluids(k,, k, k), is less than the
absolute permeability.
The effective permeability of a fluid is a mea-
sure of the ease with which this fluid may pass
through a reservoir in the presence of other fluids.
Effective permeabilities depend not only on the
rock itself but also on the respective percentages
of the various fluids present in the pores.
The relative permeabilities (k,,, kro, )k
, express
the ratio of the effective permeabilities to the
absolute permeability. These permeabilities vary
between 0 and 1. They are generally expressed as
percentages (Oh),for example :
k, = k,-
k
The values of relative permeabilities vary with
saturation. Fig. 10-5 shows the type of variation
found in an oil-water system. It shows that when
the oil saturation increases, the relative permeabi-
lity of the oil increases while that of the water
decreases. This results in a strong inflow of oil and
a weak inflow of water, which may even cease
when the minimum water saturation (%)mi" rea-
ched. Conversely, when the water saturation in-
creases, the relative permeability of the oil decrea-
ses while that of the water increases and for a
certain value of this saturation there will only be an
inflow of water.
sh ' SATURATION 0
Fig. 10-5. - Relative permeability as a function of saturation
10.2.5. Relationship Between Permeability
and Saturation
Capillary forces result in the retention of bound
water in the capillaries and in the sharpest angles
created by the piling up of grains. This interstitial
water is called irreducible water because it cannot
be evacuated by the forces acting upon the fluids
which occupy the larger pores. Thus hydrocarbon
reservoirs show an irreducible water saturation
(S,),,,, which is greater when the grain size is small
and hence the permeability is lower while the
capillary forces are stronger (Fig. 10-6).
10.2.6. Influence of Clay Content and Distribu-
tion on the Permeability of a Reservoir
Because the grain size of clay minerals is
generally very small, the size of the pores and of
the channels linking them is also very small which
results in enormous capillary forces and very low
permeabilities. Thus, any presence of clay in a
 485

PERMEABIUTY DIPS CORRELATIONS

.O 10 20 30 40 5'0 60 70 80 90 100"
SATURATION. S,%

Fig. 10-6. - Relationship between water saturation, permeabi-

lity and capillary forces (from Wright & Woody, 1955).

reservoir may have direct consequences on the

reservoir's permeability. However, the distribution
mode of the clay in the reservoir rock must also be
taken into account.
If the clay is of the structural type it will have
little bearing on permeablility as long as it remains
below a reasonable percentage (25 to 30%).
If the clay is in thin layers (Fig. 10-7), it will have
a very important effect on the vertical permeability
but very little effect on the horizontal permeability
of the reservoir beds however narrow they are. Fig. 10-7. - Fine intercalations of shale destroying vertical
If the clay is dispersed through the porous permeability or the communication between different reser-
space, even a small percentage can have profound voir levels.
consequences on the permeability making it fall
very quickly in quite a spectacular fashion. But
here again we must take into account the type of relationship between porosity and permeability on
clay mineral and its distribution in the pore space. the type of rock or even better on the type of
Large kaolinite crystals grouped in "books" (Fig. facies and environment.
10-8a) will have much less effect than an equiva- Furthermore, since, as we have seen, irreducible
lent volume of chlorite or montmorillonite coating water saturation is a function of grain size, and
the quartz grains (Fig. 10-8b), and even less than hence of permeability (Fig. 10-11), several equa-
an equivalent volume of illite with crystal filaments tions have been proposed in order to estimate
creating bridges between the grains (Fig. 10-8c). permeability from measurements of porosity and
Hence the importance of the type of distribution irreducible water saturation (Wyllie & Rose, 1950;
and the nature of the clay in reservoir evaluation. Schlumberger, 1962; Timur, 1968).
Wyllie & Rose proposed :

10.3. PERMEABILITY FROM WELL LOGS

10.3.1. Relationship Between Permeability, where the factor C depends on the density of
Porosity and Saturation the hydrocarbons (C = 250 for oils of average
density ph = 0.8 g/cm3, and = 79 for gas).
Numerous researchers have noted that in detri- Timur proposed :
tal rocks there is often a good correlation between
porosity and permeability, (Fig. 10-9). Chilingar km, =
0,136 q4
(1964) pursued this research as a function of grain (sw)fr
size and he produced the type of relationships
shown in figure 10-10. These relationships show The chart in figure 10-12 shows the relationship
that it is highly preferable to base an empirical proposed by Schlumberger (1962).
486

Fig. 10-8. - The three types of distribution of dispersed clay in the pores of a sandy reservoir (from Neasham, 1977).

Note :This figure, identical to Fig, 7-15, is intended to illustrate the influence of the type of authigenic clay and the way in which
it fills the pores on the permeability of a reservoir.
 487

POROSITY (percent) POROSITY, % POROSITY, #, P.U.

a b C

Fig. 10-9. - Three examples of relationships between porosity and permeability (a) from Fuchtbauer, 1967; (b) from Dupuy et a/.,
1963; (c) from Timur, 1968.

Fig. 10-10. - Relationship between porosity and permeability for various grain sizes (from Chilingar, 1964). A much smaller dispersion
is observed in each category.
488

I
! I
500

*.-
250

I I *.*

Fig. 10-12. - Crossplot for determining permeability from a

I- t combination of porosity and irreducible water saturation from

logs (courtesy of Schlumberger).
I 1

10.3.2. Relationship w i t h Resistivity Gradient

Starting with the preceding statements about

Log Grain Sizr ( p )
the relationship between the thickness of the
transition zone, the formation permeability and the
hydrocarbon density, Tixier suggested an empiri-
cal equation combining permeability with a norma-
lized resistivity gradient and the difference bet-
ween the water density and that of the hydrocar-
bon :

where Ah is the difference between the exit

depth of the irreducible water saturation and the
entry depth into the zone where water saturation
reaches 100 %. This equation is shown by the chart
in figure 10-13.

10.3.3. Relationship Between Permeability

and Acoustic Attenuation

Lebreton et a/. (1977) have proposed the calcu-

lation of an attenuation index I, defined by the
equation :

b where V1, VS and VB are the amplitudes of the

first three peaks of the compression wave (Fig.
10-14). According to these authors this index

(t)+
would be a function of the permeability :
Fig. 10-11. - Relationship between permeability and grain size.
(a) from Pettijohn t3t a/., 1972 based on data from von I, = a l o g p
Engelhardt, 1960; (b) from Krumbein & Monk, 1942.

For&= 1.025(seawaterl
Fig. 10-13. - Relationship between permeability and the
normalised resistivity gradient for various hydrocarbon densi-
ties represented by their API gravity (courtesy Oil & Gas
Journal).
WaVesP
_L
A, mud Stoneley
waves waves
S end Reyleighwaves
I by the nuclear magnetic resonance (NML') tool.
A, : P-wave amplitude.
A. : S-wave amplitude.
A, : maximum amplitude.
Fig. 10-14. - Schematic of the theoretical acoustic signal from
the formation showing the peaks normally used to measure
amplitude and to calculate the attenuation index.
c1 and being constants for a tool in a given
well. In fact this index reflects the acoustic signal
attenuation which, according to the work of
Morlier & Sarda (1971), would be a function of the
permeability :
where 6 is the attenuation in decibels per
centimetre, f is the frequency in hertz, p is the
viscosity in centipoise, S is the specific surface in
cm2, and pf is the density of the interstitial fluids.
489
10.3.4. Empirical Relationship Between
Resistivity and Permeability
As shown in Chapter 4, the dipmeter resistivity
curve may be related to grain size and thus to
permeability (Fig. 10-15).This means that a calibra-
tion of the resistivity curve using permeability
measurements made on core samples would
provide a means of establishing permeability
directly from resistivity for all the wells in a given
field which show common characteristics.
*..\
4--(00 ''2 100%
5--10
(frommre)
6--1
7--0.1
6 I. 0
RimDT)
Fig. 10-15. - Theoretical relationship between permeability and
the resistivity derived from the dipmeter.
10.3.5. Measurement of the Free Fluid Index
The FFI, sometimes written (h is derived from
the measurement of proton relaxation time made
The relaxation time of the non-free protons of
hydrogen (within the crystalline network of the
solids or bound to the surface of the crystals) is
extremely short compared with that of the protons
in the hydrogen ions of water or in the movable
hydrocarbons. By delaying the observation of the
signal by 25 to 30 milliseconds after the start of
free precession, only the free (or "mobile") fluids
are detected. The greater the permeability the
more abundant these fluids will be (Fig.10-16).We
then have :
FFI = 6 = ( S x o - (Sw)irr +
srh) 4
and
from which we get
or
490

I WATER I

0 20
& - FFI
TIME
DELAY

B q i n i q of S q n d O b u n r l o n
Fig. 10-17. - Crossplot of fllvs 4 - q$ (or FFI)
T i m 01 C u r n t Cutoff Miming 01 R a a u o n
for determining the irreducible water saturation (from Herrick
et a/., 1979).
Fig. 10-16. - Schematic representation of the signals involved
in the nuclear magnetic resonance measurement
(from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference,
United Arab Emirates, Qatar, 1981).

For clean formations situated above the water-

hydrocarbon transition zone and thus in the irre-
ducible water saturation zone, this last equation is
combined with the Archie equation. We then
have :

By plotting - qh as a function of 1/1/Rt(Fig.

10-17), all the points from the irreducible water
saturation zone will fall on a single line. Using this
value of (S,.,),,, and introducing it into the permea-
bility equations proposed by Wyllie & Rose or by
Timur, we can calculate the permeability. In the
example in Fig. 10-18, good agreement is observed
with the measurements made on core samples.

10.4. PERMEABILITY FROM THE RFT

The pressure profiles recorded using the Repeat

Formation Tester (RFT *) tool (Fig. 10-19) give, in a
qualitative way, excellent estimates of the forma-
tion permeability in the vicinity of the packer.
However, a more quantitative measurement may
be made by analysing pressure changes.
Two different techniques may be used to de- Fig. 10-18. - Example of permeability derived from the
duce the permeability from the measurements measurements of the NML tool compared with that derived
made during pretests. from cores (from Herrick et ah, 1979).
 49 1

. -
1 I 1 1 I I I 1 I I
-. I
I I I I I I I I !

- . ,
I
*-

I I

1 i 1 l

' 1
I I I I I 1 I 1 I I

V)I i I
I
I

I -L
1 I I ! I
-t
A I ~ i ' f l
1
1
I

If
I 1
I
1

1 I 1 I
J ,
ABOUT 10 md b
Fig. 10-19. - Four examples of analogue measurements during pretest showing different ranges of permeability (courtesy of
Schlumberger).

10.4.1. Analysis of the Drawdown

'
Assuming a spherical flow from the formation
towards the packer and the sampling probe (Fig.
10-20), implying a small volume of formation,
equilibrium conditions are usually reached very
early in the drawdown period, thus the fall in
pressure may be expressed by the equation :

where
Ap, is the pressure drop in psi during draw-
down; the factor C depends on the type of flow;
q is flow volume in cm3, which may be estimated
by dividing the volume of the pretest chamber by
the corresponding flow time; p is the fluid visco-
sity in centipoise; rp is the probe radius in cm; re

is the external radius of the pressure perturbation.
The ratio rp/reis very small, rp being very small
compared to re. Also, the factor C/2np represents
the type of flow, which is not entirely spherical
depending on the packer characteristics. It is equal
to 5660 for the standard probe/packer assembly
and varies down to 1107 (for the large area packer)
as a function of the packer and probe geometry.
Thus we have :
kd = 5660-
APS.
The measurement of permeability carried out by
this method has two limitations :
- a t very high permeabilities the pressure
drawdown is too small to be accurately measured
by the strain gauge manometer whose resolution
The assumption of a spherical flow is acceptable in an
isotropic infinite formation, an approximation only approached
in thick very well sorted, mature quartz sands.
I jPBORE
I
HOLE AXIS
Fig. 10-20. - Spherical flow model (courtesy of Schlumberger).
is 1 psi (0.1 psi with the RFT-B tool). This resolution
may, to an extent, be improved by using a quartz
manometer such as the Hewlett-Packard gauge
whose resolution is 0.01 psi (0.002 psi for the
R FT-B ).
- a t very low permeabilities the pressure may
fall below the bubble point. When this happens the
gas (or the vapour) comes out of solution and the
quantity of liquid coming from the formation is
less than the volumetric displacement of the
pretest pistons. There are several factors which
must be taken into account :
492
10.4.1.l. Skin Effect
The probe does not penetrate the formation
very deeply and its orifice is located in the thin
annular region of the formation affected by the
mud invasion. This results in two side-effects :
firstly, the penetration of the probe which may
induce permeability by creating micro-fissures;
secondly, solid particles may penetrate the pore
space as a result of the compression applied by
the packer and the probe, causing a reduction
inpermeability. This has led to the concept of "skin
effect" S, (refer to the Schlumberger document :
"RFT - Essential of Pressure Test Interpretation",
1981).
10.4.1.2. Upper Limit on the Measurement of
Flow during Drawdown
The upper limit of permeability which can be
successfully measured is determined by the
maximum flow through the probe without the
pressure falling below the bubble point. This
maximum flow is a function of permeability, the
difference between the formation pressure and
the bubble pressure, the viscosity, the factor C and
the skin effect S,. If the volume variation in the
chambers due to the displacement of the pistons
exceeds the maximum flow, then the pressure falls
very quickly to the bubble point. In such circums-
tances the analogue recordings of the pressure
appear as shown in figure 10-21. This phenomenon
occurs in formations with very low permeability.
M . 1 -
Fig. 10-21. - Pretest measurement in which the pressure fell
below the bubble point (courtesy of Schlurnberger).
10.4.1.3. Radius of Investigation
The flow through the probe is essentially sphe-
rical and most of the pressure drop occurs very
close to the probe. 50% of the pressure drop
occurs within a radius equal to that of the probe,
i.e. roughly 0.55 cm for the standard tool. Conse-
quently, the fall in pressure is mainly affected by
the properties ot the formation very close to the
probe. These can be significantly different from
those of the virgin formation.
10.4.1.4. Water Saturation
Since relative permeabilities change with water
saturation, the total effective permeability in the
invaded zone which has a saturation close to the
residual oil saturation, may be significantly below
the absolute permeability, as is shown in figure
10-22.
-t 0 7
1 0 6
z
:
E
0 5
=t 0 4 down r.nq.
03
0 2
01
-
0
0
S, Water saturation. fraction S., r,nqc
Fig. 10-22. - Relationship between absolute and relative
perrneabilities.
10.4.2. Analysis of the Pressure buildup
In this case the pressure wave extends to a
much greater depth than previously, hence its
significance. However, the type of flow is impor-
tant.
10.4.2.1. Spherical Flow
When the two pretest chambers are full, no
flow can occur. The increase in pressure then
spreads spherically, a t least if the formation is
thick, homogeneous and isotropic. When a per-
meability barrier is encountered, either vertically or
horizontally, the spherical flow is altered and
becomes cylindrical (Fig. 10-23).
10.4.2.2. Cylindrical Flow
When the reservoir in front of the packer is thin,
the permeability barriers are very close, and so the
flow rapidly becomes cylindrical.
In order to establish which mode of flow is
involved, it is necessary to examine the dipmeter
resistivity curves which will reveal the presence or
absence of these barriers and give their positions
in relation to the probe, their parallelism and their
slope. It is advisable to choose the location of the
packer after consulting traditional logs as well as
the dipmeter readings.
In order to establish whether the pressure
buildup is spherical or cylindrical, we need to plot
the pressure measurements as a function of time.
In the case of a spherical flow, this time function
is given by the following equation :
 493

Fig. 10-23. - (a) Spherical propagation of the pressure

disturbance; (b) cylindrical propagation of the pressure
disturbance (courtesy of Schlumberger).

For a cylindrical flow the equation becomes :

i
f, = log
TI + TZ + At + *log Tz At
T2 + At 91 At

where T1 is sampling time for ql;

T2 is the sampling time for q2;
qt is the flow during the first sampling period
and q2 is the flow during the second;
At is time elapsed since start of sampling;
Plotting these times as a function of the pres-
sure gives a linear relationship for f, if the flow is
spherical, and a linear relationship for f, if the flow
is cylindrical. This is shown by the diagrams in
figure 10-24. Though these two cases can exist
they are in fact idealised. In practice, we are 12 .a A f,IhlII'V2I 0

usually in an intermediate situations in which one

Fig. 10-24. - Plots of pressure build-up as a function of time (a)
barrier is closer that the other. We then get a plot in the case of a spherical flow, and (b) in the case of a
of the type shown in figure 10-25. cylindrical flow (courtesy of Schlumberger).
494
*NoMp+ws €AWfTlhlE I
I
U W WERIUL
aarrx, BUILD-UP
SLW€.m
1 resolution) and 20 m for water and a quartz
VT, + T, + At
Fig. 10-25. - Typical pressure build-up plot showing the
different regimes and their interpretation (courtesy of
Schlurnberger).
1 0.4.2.3.Calculation of Permeabilities
In the case of a spherical pressure build up, the
permeability is given by :
where 4 is the formation porosity;
k, is the permeability for spherical flow;
Ct is compressibility of the fluid in the non-
contaminated zone in psi;
m is slope determined from the crossplot in
figure 10-24;
ql is the flow during the first sampling period in
cm3/s.
In the case of thin beds the pressure buildup,
which is essentially cylindrical, is only affected by
the horizontal or radial permeability. The permea-
bility is derived from the pressure buildup equation
which is then given by :
where
pi is initial formulation pressure in psi;
pc is probe pressure in psi;
k, is the permeability for a cylindrical pressure
buildup in md;
h is the distance between the two permeability
barriers in cm.
Thus we get :
kr = 2 6 8 7 w
mh
10.4.2.4.Depth of Investigation
The permeability calculated by this method and
from the slope defined on the crossplot represents
an average value in a certain volume. It is impor-
tant to be able to specify which volume has really
I
I
PI contributed to the calculation. Though in theory
I P. the rise in pressure may be extended indefinitely,
the pressure variations in fact become so small
that they cannot be measured. Thus the depth of
investigation depends on the resolution of the
pressure gauge (Ap). This radius of investigation is
given by
(471 )”’
I
I
I
ri = 0,6
6P 4 ct
+
T being the duration of flow (TI T2).Hence the
depth of investigation is not dependent on per-
meability but the pressure gauge resolution. The
greater the resolution, the greater the depth of
investigation. It thus varies between approximately
0.4m for oil and a strain gauge manometer (1 psi
manometer (0.002 psi resolution with the RFT-6).
10.4.2.5.Maximum Measurable Permeability
The maximum permeability measurable by this
(gr(y)”
method is given by the following equation :
,,k, = 390
Thus maximum permeability depends on the
viscosity of the fluid, compressibility, gauge reso-
lution and porosity. It varies between 1 md for
water and the strain gauge manometer to around
1000 md for viscous oil and the quartz manometer.
10.4.2.6.Comparison of the Two Types of Analy-
sis
Generally, results obtained from the analysis of
pressure buildup are more reliable than those
obtained from drawdown analysis. Nevertheless
the limitations of the method have to be conside-
red :
- in formations with average or high permeabi-
lity, that is, above a few millidarcy, the pressure
buildup is so rapid that it cannot be analysed
quantitatively ;
- the possibility of spherical or cylindrical flow
complicates the interpretation. In the case of
spherical flow we need to know the porosity and
the compressibility of the fluid. In the case of
cylindrical flow we must have some idea of the
thickness of the reservoir. Finally in the case of
anisotropic formations we also need to know the
horizontal permeability, assuming the flow to be
horizontal.
10.5. PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS
The R F T tool allows repeated pressure measu-
rements to be made during a single descent into
the hole. These pressure measurements may be
made during the formation pretests, or while a full
sample is being taken, using a pressure gauge and
for greater accuracy preferably a quartz gauge.
 495

By systematically measuring opposite each
reservoir and then plotting the pressures as a
function of depth (Fig.10-26) we can :
- identify the nature of the fluid (gas, oil or
water) by analysing the pressure gradient which
should follow that of water when the continuous
phase is water, that of oil when the continuous
Phase is O i l and that of gas when we enter the gas
zone;
- specify depth of the gas-water, gas-oil, or
oil-water contacts by studying the abrupt changes
in pressure on the pressure gradients;
- evaluate the degree of communication bet-
ween the various reservoirs or conversely their
isolation.

RESERVOIR PRESSURE (psi)

Fig, 10-26. - Hydrostatic and formation pressure profiles in a well in the Triassic province of the Sahara, Algeria (from Schlumberger
Well Evaluation Conference, Algeria, 1979).
496
Knowing these pressures allows us to establish
a production program and a program for secon-
dary recovery by injection. The pressures also
allow us to correlate reservoirs from one well to
another and to detect lateral permeability barriers
due to fields running between the wells.
10.6. REFERENCES
ARPS, J.J. (1964). - Engineering concepts useful in
oil finding. Bull. Amer. Ass. Petroleum Geol., 48,
2.
ASQUITH, G.B. (1982). - Basic Well Log Analysis
for Geologists. Amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geol.,
Methods in Exploration Series.
BEARD, D.C., WEYL, P.K. (1973). - Influence of
texture on porosity and permeability of uncon-
solidated sand. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petroleum
Geol., p. 349-369.
CHILINGAR, G.V. (1964). - Relationship between
porosity, permeability, and grain-size distribu-
tion of sands and sandstones. In : L.M.J.U. van
Straaten (ed.) - Deltaic and Shallow marine
deposits, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
CHILINGARIAN, G.V., WOLF, K.H. (Eds) (1975).
-Compaction of Coarse-Grained Sediments.
Developments in Sedimentology, 18 A, 18 B,
Elsevier, Amsterdam.
COATES, G.R., DUMANOIR, J.L. (1974). - A new
Approach t o Log-Derived Permeability. The Log
Analyst, 15, 1.
DELHOMME, J.P., SERRA, 0. (1984). - Dipmeter-
derived Logs for Sedimentological Analysis.
SPWLA, 9th Europ. Intern. Format. Eval. Trans.,
paper 50.
DESBRANDES, R. (1968). - Theorie et Interpreta-
tion des Diagraphies. Technip, Paris.
DESBRANDES, R. (1982). - Diagraphies dans les
so nd ages, Technip, Paris.
DICKEY, P.A. (1979). - Petroleum Development
Geology. Petroleum Publishing Co., Tulsa.
DUPUY, J.P., OSWALDT, G., SENS, J. (1963).
-Champ de Cazaux - Geologie et Production.
Proc. 6th Wld Petrol. Cong., Frankfurt, sect. 2,
p. 199-212.
FRASER, H.J. (1935). - Experimental study of
porosity and permeability of clastic sediments.
J. Geol., 43. p. 910-1010.
FUCHTBAUER, H . (1967). - Influence of different
types of diagenesis on sandstone porosity. Proc.
7th Wld. Petrol. Cong. Mexico, p. 353-369.
HERRICK, R.C.,COUTURIE, S.H., BEST, D.L. (1979).
- An Improved Nuclear Magnetism Logging
System and its Application to Formation Evalua-
tion. 54th Ann. Tech. Conf SPE of AIME, paper
SPE 8361.
HILL, G.A., COLBURN, W.A., KNIGHT, J.W. (1961).
- Reducing oil-finding costs by use of hydrody-
namic evaluation. In : Economics of Petroleum
Exploration, Development and Property Evalua-
tion. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jer-
sey.
Comment
Pressures and flow rates can be measured by
production tools. The information they provide
leads to detailed discussions concerning reservoir
and production engineering, which is beyond the
scope of this book. Specialist articles and books
should be consulted.
LEBRETON, F., SARDA, J.P., TROCQUEME, F.,
MORLIER, P. (1977). - Essais par diagraphie
dans des milieux poreux pour evaluer I'influence
de leur permeabilite sur des impulsions acous-
tiques. SPWLA-SAID, 5th Europ. Log. Symp.
LEBRETON, F. et a/. (1978). - Logging tests in
Porous Media to Evaluate the Influence of their
Permeability on Acoustic Waveforms. SPWLA,
19th Ann. Log. Symp. Trans., paper 0.
LEVORSEN, A.I. (1956). - The Mid-Continent re-
gion. In : Symposium sobre yacimientos de
petroleo y gaz. lnt. geol. Congr. Rep. 20th sess.
(Mexico), 3, p. 221-233.
MORLIER, P., SARDA, J.P. (1971). - Attenuation
des ondes elastiques dans les roches poreuses
saturees. Rev. Inst. Frang. Petrole , 26, 9, p. 731
a 756.
MORRIS, R.L., BIGGS, W.P. (1967). - Using Log-
derived Values of Water Saturation and Poro-
sity. SPWLA, 8th Ann. Log. Symp. Trans., pa-
per 0.
NEASHAM, J.W. (1977). - The morphology of
dispersed clays in sandstone reservoirs and its
effect on sandstone shaliness, pore space and
fluid flow properties. 52nd Ann. Fall Meet. SPE
of AIME, paper SPE 6858.
PERRODON, A. (1966). - Geologie du petrole. Pres-
ses Univ. France, Paris.
PERRODON, A. (1980). - Geodynamique petroliere.
Genese et repartition des gisements d'hydro-
carbures. Elf-Aquitaine et Masson, Pau et Paris.
PRYOR, W.A. (1973). - Permeability-porosity pat-
terns and variations in some Holocene sand
bodies. Bull. amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geol., 57,
p. 162- 189.
RAYMER, L.L. (1981). - Elevation and Hydrocarbon
Density Correction for Log-derived Permeability
Relationships. The Log Analyst, May-June.
Schlumberger Ltd (1972). - Log Interpretation. Vol.
I. Principles.
Schlumberger Ltd (1974). - Log Interpretation. Vol.
II. Applications.
Schlumberger (1979). - Well Evaluation Confe-
rence. Algeria.
Schlumberger (1980). - Reservoir and Production.
Fundamentals.
Schlumberger Ltd (1981). - The Schlumberger
Cyber Service Unit.
Schlumberger Ltd (1981). - Data Processing Servi-
ces Catalogue.
Schlumberger (1981). - RFT - Essentials of Pres-
sure Test Interpretation.

Schlumberger Middle East S.A. (1981). - Well
Evaluation Conference. United Arab Emirates/
Qatar.
S.P.E. Schlumberger (1982). - Well Evaluation
Developments. Continental Europe.
Schlumberger Technical Services, Inc. (1982). -Es-
sentials of Natural Gamma ray Spectrometry
Interpretation.
Schlumberger (1983). - Well Evaluation Confe-
rence. Afrique de I'Ouest.
Schlumberger Technical Services, Inc. (1983).
-Well Evaluation Conference. India.
Schlumberger Middle East S.A. (1984). - Well
Evaluation Conference. Egypt.
Schlumberger Offshore Services (1984). - Evalua-
cion de Formaciones en Mexico.
Schlumberger Well Services (1984). - Log Interpre-
tation Charts.
SERRA, 0. (1979). - Diagraphies Differees. Bases
de I'lnterpretation. Tome 1 : Acquisition des
Donnees Diagraphiques. Bull. Centres Rech.
Exp1or.-Prod. Elf-Aquitaine, Mem. 1. 328p.,
360 fig., 35 tableaux, 7 annexes.
SERRA, 0 . (1984). - Fundamentals of Well-Log
Interpretation. Volume 1 : The Acquisition of
Logging Data. Developments in Petroleum
Science, 15 A, 440 p. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
497
TIMUR, A. (1968). - An investigation of Permeabi-
lity Porosity, and Residual Water Saturation
Relationships for Sandstone Reservoirs. The
Log Analyst, 9, 4, p. 8- 17.
TIMUR, A. (1968). - Effective Porosity and Permea-
bility of Sandstones investigated through NMR
Principles. SPWLA, 10th Ann. Log. Symp. Trans.
TIMUR, A. (1969). - Pulsed Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance Studies of porosity, movable fluid
and permeability of sandstones. J. Petrol. Tech-
nol., p. 775-786.
TIMUR, A. (1969). - Producible Porosity and Per-
meability of Sandstones investigated through
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Principles. The
Log Analyst, 10, 1, p. 3- 11.
TIMUR, A. (1972). - Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
Study of Carbonate Rocks. SPWLA, 13th Ann.
Log. Symp. Trans., paper N.
TIXIER, M.P. (1949). - Evaluation of Permeability
from Electric-Log resistivity Gradients. Oil and
Gas J., 4%. p. 113.
WRIGHT, WOODY, (1955). - AIME, Symposium on
Formation Evaluation.
WYLLIE, M.R.J., ROSE, W.D. (1950). - Some theo-
retical Considerations Related t o the Quantita-
tive Evaluation of Physical Characteristics of
Reservoir Rock from Electrical Log Data. Trans.
AIME, 189.
 Chapter 11

FRACTURED FORMATION EVALUATION

In view of the influence of fractures on tool

responses, and of their contribution to the produc-
tivity of formations, it is appropriate to devote a
whole chapter to the study of fractured forma-
tions.

11.1. INTRODUCTION
Undeformed Deformed by simple shear @
Fracture is a general term that indicates all
breaks or ruptures in a rock, whether accompanied
by a displacement or not. It corresponds to a
surface along which there is a loss of cohesion.
These ruptures are caused by tectonic forces
(tension, compression or torsion), or by changes of
temperature, by drying out, or by leaching in the
plane of stratification or schistosity.
Generally grouped in the category of fractures
are :
- crack is a partial or incomplete fracture;
- fissure is a surface of fracture or a crack
along which there is a distinct separation, often
filled with crystals;
- joint is "a surface of fracture without displa-
cement; the surface is usually plane and occurs
with parallel joints to form part of a joint set' Fig. 11-1. - En Bchelon tension gashes produced by simple
(Glossary of Geology, 1980); shear. (a) : Theory. (b) : Photograph of an actual case (from
Ramsay, 1967).
- gash is a small-scale tension fissure of several
centimetres to a few decimetres in length, and
several millimetres to a few centimetres in width. fractures which are of interest for production,
It may be gaped or, most often, filled with crystals. because they create substantial permeability, and
Several gashes are most frequently arranged in en a preferred flow path for the fluids. The latter are
echelon (Fig. 11-1). They are produced by simple largely caused by tension or torsion, while closed
shear; fractures are generally associated with compres-
- fault is "a fracture or a zone of fractures along sion.
which there has been displacement of the sides Fractures are usually perpendicular to the plane
relative to one another parallel to the fracture" of stratification, and are usually more or less
(Glossary of Geology, 1980). planar. Moreover, the occurrence of fractures is
Calling a joint or fault a fracture depends on the not random (Fig. 11-2). In a constrained formation,
scale of observation. the fractures appear as interconnected systems,
The fractures may be cemented (filled with each system consisting of a group of more or less
crystalline material) or open. Clearly it is the open parallel fractures. They result in the rock being
500

L longitudinalfractures-f .normal faults and tension fissures in tension zone

-
f reverse faults in compressionzone

T transverse fractures tension fissures associatedwith

Ds sinistral diagonalfractures /

/ Dr

Fig. 11-2. - Fracture systems related to folding. Outer layer in tension, inner layer in compression, separated by a neutral layer. L :
Longitudinal fractures, normal fractures and tension fissures in the outer layer, inverse fractures in the inner layer. T : Transverse
tension fissures related to stylolitic peaks S' in the inner layer. Ds : Sinistral diagonal fractures. Dd : Dextral diagonal fractures.
S : Stylolites with vertical peaks (often more numerous in the outer layer) and associated with small vertical fissures S' : Stylolites
with peaks parallel to the bedding planes (subhorizontal).

broken up into small volumes or parallelepipeds
which can be broken off by the drill-bit or the
rotating drill-pipe.
The average gap of a fracture, or fracture
aperture, is often less than 0.1 mm, and so the
porosity of fractures is generally negligible (less
than 2 %). Boyeldieu et a/. (1982) have estimated
that, if the fracture system breaks the rock into
cubes with 10 cm edges, a gap of 1 mm would be
necessary to create a porosity of 3%.
Fractures appear predominantly in brittle rocks,
hence in consolidated formations. Very often they
disappear on entering formations which are more
plastic (clays or halite), or friable (sands).
11.1 .l. Fracture Orientation
It has frequently been observed that the frac-
ture system, or network, in a given region tends to
have the same orientation as the fault system.
However, although the orientation may be statisti-
cally significant, it must be remembered that there
can be considerable dispersion.
11.1.2. Importance of Fractures
In formations of low porosity and permeability,
the production potential relies on an extensive
system of open fractures. The productivity will vary
greatly according to the number, extent and
opening of the fractures and to the porosity and
permeability of the matrix.
As already mentioned, the porosity of fractures
is insignificant in all but a few exceptional cases
(highly compacted rocks), and makes no signifi-
cant contribution to the reserves. However, the
presence of fractures may significantly enhance
the drainage surface, and thereby the contribution
of the matrix porosity to the production. Open
fractures considerably increase the permeability
 501

but may cut the potential output of a reservoir if

they are not taken into account during the secon- a b
dary recovery phase. Tension Compression
A subvertical fracture system may be fed by an m I
underlying reservoir. Finally, in the case of injec-
tion to maintain pressure, they act as preferred
paths for the injected fluids with the risk of
-1-
- Ic
isolating formation blocks which are still hydro-
carbon-saturated, and of having early production
of injected fluids.

11.2. REVIEW OF GENERAL CONCEPTS ebx---r

E - Elongation F .Contraction

Fracture creation and propagation being de- d

C
pendent on mechanical behaviour of rocks, it is
'. Distortion Torsion
useful to review the general concepts involved ci

11.2.1. Concepts of Stress

Every element of a rock is subject to a series of Y.V No Rotation

bu bv
forces. These forces are of two types : -=-
by bx
- The first type corresponds to the forces that
are applied to the whole body of the rock. These
are called body forces, and are proportional to the
mass of the substances, e.g. gravity, centrifugal
B
forces, magnetic forces. They are measured in
'.
bv
EXY = - with variation in rotation
force unit per unit volume (dimension : mLT-') bx with regards with a same
- The second type are known as surface forces. Change in shape axis.

They act on the surface of a body and, because of

this, are measured in force units per unit of
surface area (dimension : mLT-'/L' = mL-'T-').
"In a solid, the force per unit area, acting on any
surface within it", is termed stress (Glossary of
Geology, 1980). Stress is equivalent to a pressure,
in which the SI unit is pascal. Taking into conside-
ration all the elements of a rock or bed (Fig. 11-3),
Fig. 11-3. - Surface forces acting on a body.
' This chapter has been reviewed by Prof. F. Proust and Dr.
A. Etchecopar. I want to extend my thanks to their unvaluable
contribution which helped me to issue a text without errors or
mistakes.
* m = mass, L = Length, T = Time.
Fig. 11-4. - The four types of forces which can act on a body.
the surface forces acting on any imaginary surface
are represented by :
- the weight of the above sediments, or the
geostatic pressure, S, and the reaction of the
material below;
- the fluid pressure pp; if the fluid is in equili-
brium (no movement) the fluid pressure is equal to
the hydrostatic pressure;
- the tectonic forces, T.
One must distinguish between the external
forces that act on a body, and the resulting
internal actions and reactions that constitute the
stress. If the forces acting on a body are equal on
all sides, the body is in equilibrium. The all-sided
pressure is called the confining pressure, C.
In many cases the forces acting on a body are
not equal in all sides. This will cause deformation.
If the external forces tend to pull a body apart, the
body is said to be under tension. If it is subjected
to external forces that tend to compress it, it is
said to be under compression. If two equal forces
act in opposite directions in the same plane, but
not along the same line, we have a couple, and the
body is said to be under distortion (Fig. 11-4).
Torsion is "the state of stress produced by two
502

Fig. 11-5. - The resolution of pressure, 3, acting on a point, A,

of a surface, Z, into two components : 0,normal to Z, called
the normal stress, and T, parallel to Z,called shear stress.

Fig. 11-6. - The stress components acting on the faces of a

force couples of opposite moment acting in diffe- cube (from Rarnsay, 1967).
rent but parallel planes about a common axis" (Fig.
11-4d).
Let us take A as a point in a rock (Fig. 11-5), and
C as a small plane surface, defined by the intersec-
tion of+a plane P passing through A. A pzssure, o, maximum
+ principal
p = AFIAC will act on C.We can break the p down
into two components : (6)normal to C, called the
normal stress, and (t), parallel to C, called shear
stress. --+
Generally, the pressure p, as well as 0 and t,
vary in magnitude and direction depending on the
orientation of the surface on which they are
applied. The set of all the pressures exerted on
point A on all planes that pass through this point
is called the state of stress.
The state of stress a t any point may be descri-
bed in terms of nine stress components of which
only six are independent if the body is in equili-
brium. The stresses on each face of a cube (Fig.
11-6) can be resolved into three parts, one normal
stress, and a shearing stress which itself can be
resolved into two components parallel to the
direction of two of the coordinates.
There is no direct way to measure the stresses
in a body, but they may be calculated if the
external forces are known. Fig. 11-7. - Principal stress axes and the stress ellipsoid.
But it is possible to calculate all the stresses a t
any point of the body if the applied stresses a t this
point on three mutually perpendicular planes are
known. It is also possible to demonstrate that a t - least or minimum principal stress, 03;
each point A, there exist three orthogonal planes, with 01 > 02 > 0 3 .
called principal planes o f stress, for which t = 0, When the normal stresses are equal no shea-
and therefore the stress is perpendicular to them. ring stresses exist in the material. This state of
They constitute symmetry planes for the state of stress is known as hydrostatic stress. When they
stress. are different, shearing stresses appear. The geo-
The three normal vectors to these planes are metric representation of the state of stress a t a
called the principal stress axes. On these three point is known as the stress ellipsoid (Fig. 11-7).
mutually perpendicular axes, the three principal One can demonstrate that six planes of maximum
stresses are as follows (Fig. 11-7) : shearing stresses exist associated in pairs each
- greatest or maximum principal stress, ol; pair countaining one of the principal axis, and
- intermediate principal stress, 02; forming between them an angle of 900 (Fig. 11-8).
 503

Fig. 11-8. - Planes of maximum shearing stress.

7 n'

i
0
.
)
a

Fig. 11-10. - Mohr stress circle.

Fig. 11-9. - Planes of maximum shearing stress (S1 and S2) and
planes of rupture (F, and F2) forming an angle 0, close to 300 the magnitude of shear stress ITI and normal stress
to the maximum principal stress. 0 is :

The greatest shearing stress always occurs on the where zo is the cohesive strength (sometimes
planes which contain 02 axis (T is maximum the expressed as c for cohesive);
stress difference, o1- 0 3 being maximum), and p being the coefficient of internal friction of the
make an angle of 450 to the principal stresses 01 material which is related to the angle of internal
and o3 irrespective of the signs or values of the friction Q by :
principal stresses (ruptures and slippages are
produced more or less along these planes, Figs. P = ts9
11-7 and 11-9). In fact, fractures form an angle 9
less than 450 and close to 300 with the principal Q being related to 9 by the following equation :
axis. By reference to Coulomb's work, this can be
related to the concept of internal friction which 8 = 9
450 - -
suggests that, a t failure, the relationship between 2
504

3
Instable stress

E 2
2
5 1
.-E
-
In
g o
.-cP 1
m
c
* 2

Ix
3
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
a Normal stress in kilobars

1nstabeI~;;s~~~ ~ A
states

Stable
stress
CT states

Instable stress/
r states/

t,
Fig. 11-11. - Marble cylinder deformed in a laboratory by
compression. (a) : undeformed; (b) : 20 % strain, 270 atm.
confining pressure; (c) : 20 % strain, 445 atm. confining pres-
sure. o, indicates the direction of maximum principal stress
(adapted from Press & Sever, 1978). stress
states

Fig. 11-12. - (a) : Mohr stress envelope (adapted from Billings,

The relation between stress and rupture may be
determined graphically by the Mohr stress circle
(Fig. 11-10) which is a graphic representation of
the state of stress. To determine the cohesive
strength and angle of internal friction, a series of
experiments with different values of the confining
pressure must be run on cylinders submitted to
compression tests (Fig. 11-11), and the results
reproduced as a Mohr stress circle (Fig. 11-12).
The lines drawn tangent to the successive circles
define the Mohr stress envelope. Their intersection
with the vertical axis define the cohesive, or shear,
strength of the rock zo, which corresponds to the
“inherent strength of a material when normal
stress across the prospective surface of failure is
zero” (Glossary of Geology, 1980). The slope of
each of these tangents defines the angle of inter-
nal friction @, for each state of stress.
Strain is the deformation caused by stress. This
deformation may correspond to a change in vo-
lume which is called dilation or compression. lt
may also result in a change in shape : distortion.
1972). (b) : Different types of Mohr stress envelopes in relation
with the rock type : (A) : wet clay; (6) : dry sand; (C) : rock
materials (adapted from Ramsay, 1967).
1 1.2.2. Mechanical Behaviour of Rocks
Every stress field imposes a strain field, but the
resulting deformation also depends on the nature
and the mechanical behaviour of the deformed
medium.
There are three mechanical behaviours :
- Elastic behaviour :
This is characterized by a possible return to the
initial state. Deformation appears immediately
after the force is applied and strain does not build
up. The deformation obeys Hooke’s law, which
states that strain is proportional to stress. The
solid regains its dimensions and its shape when
the stress is removed (Fig. 11-13). However, this
return to the initial shape is not necessarily imme-
 505

Strrsr
/ a3 = 5 Kb

Fig. 11-13. - Linear elastic stress-strain law (adapted from

Ramsay, 1967).

Brittle
' I
op = 0
Sharp fault
c A p o r t i o n a l elastic l i m i t 5 10
.E 40,000 Oh E
r //Ultimate strength
Brittle - Ductile Transition at fixed E
VSincreased confining pressure
increase E; field boundaries m o v e t o higer stress
increase I; field boundariesrnove t o lower stress

Fig. 11-14c. - Differential stress ( 0 , - a,) versus strain diagrams

explaining the transition from brittle to ductile behaviour when
the confining pressure increases ( 0 3 ) .

diate, and may indeed take some time. An elastic

Strain-shorteningin percent solid stands up until a certain limiting stress, called
the elastic limit. If this is exceeded, the solid does
Fig. 11-14a. - Stress-strain diagrams for different rock beha-
viours. A : elastic; B : elastic-plastic; C : elastic-plastic with
not return to its original shape. When the stress
strength hardening; D : actual elastic-plastic (from Billings, exceeds the elastic limit, the deformation is plas-
1972). tic. It means that the solid only partially returns to
its original shape. When the stress increases, a t a
certain value the solid fractures. We reach the
A B C D E rupture point. The relation existing between stress
Typical strain
before fracture
I 1 I I I and strain is expressed by a stress-strain diagram
or fauitmg <1 1-5 2-8 5-10 >10
(percent1 (Fig. 11-14).
The resistance of a material to elastic deforma-
Compression tion is defined as the stress-strain ratio. This ratio
,TI > 102 = ,I3
is the Young's modulus E :
t

with :
0 = stress
Typical E = strain. E is equal to the ratio of the change
stress - strain
curves
in length, AI, to the original length, I,

& = -
Al
Brittle
10

Brittle ductile
t I
transition Rigidity measures the resistance to change in
Ductile
shape.

Fig. 11-14b. - Spectrum of behaviour illustrating the transition

from perfectly brittle (A) to perfectly ductile (E)behaviour. The
shape of the specimen is indicated along with the manner in
which it deforms under compression or extension, and the
shape of the stress-strain curve (adapted from Griggs & where G is the rigidity modulus, z the shear
Handin, 1960). stress, and y the shear strain.
506

Fig. 11-15. - Rheologic model of elastic strain : elastic spring Fig. 11-18. - In a viscous material its strain is a function of time
(from Ramsay, 1967). (a), and the rapidity of its strain is a function of its viscosity (b).

Strrss

(r

strrir

Fig. 11-16. - Stress-strain relationship for a plastic body. Fig. 11-19. - The rate of shear strain y is measured by the
angular shear variation y ~ .

Table 11-1
Some values of viscosity in poises for different
L 1
fluids and rocks
(from Billings, 1972).
Fig. 11-17. - Rheologic model of plastic strain : a sliding (from
Ramsay, 1967).
~ ~ ~~

Water at 100°C and one atmosphere 0.00284

Water at 30°C and one atmosphere 0.00801
Water at 0°C and one atmosphere 0.01792
G may also be expressed in another way : Corn syrup, room temperature and pressure 7 x 102
Roofing tar, ready t o apply 3 x 107
E Lava, Mt. Vesuvius, 1400°C 2.56 X 10’
G =
2(1 + v) Lava, Mt. Vesuvius, 1 100°C
Rock salt, near surface
Rocks i n general
2.83 x 104
1017
1017 to 1022
Mantle of earth 1023
where v is the Poisson’s ratio equal to the ratio
of transverse strain to axial strain in elastic defor-
mation by uniaxial stress.

where Ad is the change in diameter.
The bulk modulus or incompressibility K is given
by :
where Ah is the change in hydrostatic pressure,
and AV the change in volume compared to the
original volume V.,
The rheologic model of an elastic body is a
perfect spring without mass (Fig. 11-15).
- Plastic behaviour :
As previously explained, deformation is perma-
nent only above a certain threshold. Before this
point is reached the substance behaves elastically
(Fig. 11-16). Plastic deformations result from pro-
cesses such as intergranular movements, disloca-
tion glide (intragranular movements), and recrys-
tallization (including diffusion).
The rheologic model is a mass moving with
friction. Movement will only take place above a
certain value of traction (Fig. 11-17).
- Viscous behaviour :
In viscous material deformation appears imme-
diately and the strain is unrecoverable (Fig. 1 1 -18).
 507

A
Shale
U

be
Sandstone
t

. ._. .......
......
.

Fig. 11-20. - Rheologic model of viscous behaviour : a damper.

c Anhydrite
C
8
Viscosity,7, is the property that has a substance
nf Dolomite

to offer internal resistance to flow. It is equal to

the ratio of the shearing stress, T, to the rate of Quartzite

shear strain, y , per unit of time, or dy/dt. The rate Slate

of shear strain, y, is measured by the change in

angle y~ per unit of time t (Fig. 11-19) : 0 500 1000 1500 2000
confining pressure in bars
Y = tgv Fig. 11-21. - Effect of confining pressure on the ductility of
several common rocks (after Donath, 1970).
The viscosity unit is called poise. Viscosity is
very high for rocks but decreases when tempera-
ture increases (Table 11-1). Viscosity is an impor-
tant property in geological processes. It determi-
6000 -
nes, for example, the flow of magma or lava during
intrusive or volcanic activity, and the velocity of 5000 -
displacement in plate tectonics.
The rheologic model for viscous behaviour is a
damper, a perforated piston moving without fric-
tion in a.fluid (Fig. 11-20).

11.2.3. Factors Controlling Rock Behaviour

In addition to their inherent properties (minera-

logy, texture), the mechanical behaviour of rocks is 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
controlled by several factors such as confining -
Strain Shortening in percent
pressure, temperature and time.
Fig. 11-22. - Effect of temperature on deformation of marble
(from Griggs, 1939).
11.2.3.1. Confining pressure
The strength of a rock increases with the
confining pressure. Figure 1 1 -21 illustrates the
effect of confining pressure on the breaking 11.2.3.2. Temperature
strength of several standard rocks. At low confi-
ning pressure, all the rocks deform only a few The elastic limit decreases when the tempera-
percent before fracturing. Under a high confining ture increases. Moreover, less stress is necessary
pressure, we observe a different behaviour for the to produce a given strain when the temperature
rocks. increases (Fig. 11 -22).
When fractures appear a t less than 3-5 Oh plastic
deformation, the rocks are said to be brittle. When 11.2.3.3. Time
rocks are able to sustain, under a given set of
conditions, 5-10 Oh plastic deformation before frac- Time plays a very important part in the beha-
turing, they are ductile. Ductility is "a measure of viour of the rocks. Rocks may exhibit elastic
the degree to which a rock exhibits ductile beha- behaviour if they are subjected to very short
viour under given conditions, commonly expressed duration stresses, becoming plastic if these stres-
by the strain at which fracture commences" (Glos- ses are applied over a long time. This effect is
sary of Geology, 1980). As a consequence, when observed in creep experiments, where a small load
the confining pressure increases a brittle rock applied for a sufficiently long time produces a
becomes ductile (i.e. limestone). strain that may continue and eventually cause
508

c
al

Fig. 11-24. - Change in shape without change in volume under

shear stress. (adapted from Leet et a/., 1978).
Primary
rl
HA S=A + B log t + Ct + D Table 11-2
Compressive, tensile, and shearing strengths of
some rocks
Time I (from Billings, 1942).
Fig. 11-23. - Ideal creep curve. A : instantaneous deformation.
B : primary creep. C : secondary creep. D : tertiary creep (from ~ Rock Compressive Tensile
Billings, 1972).
~ ;:",",":,:::::: 500 t o
400 to
1500
1400
10 to 30
30 to 60
50 to 150
100 to 200
Granite ................ 1 000 to 2 800 30 to 50 150 to 300
Diorite ................ 1 000 to 2 500 ........................
rupture. The same stress in instantaneous tests Gabbro ................ 1000 to 1 900 ........................
would not cause any measurable strain. Figure Basalt .................. 2 000 to 3 500 ........................
11-23 illustrates an ideal creep curve. Felsite.................. 2000 to 2900 ....................
Marble ................ 800 to 1500 30 t o 90 100 to 300
Slate .................... 700 250
1 1.2.4. The Actual Behaviour
of Rocks
11.2.5. Types of State of Stress
In nature, rocks have a complex behaviour of all
three types of response visco-elasto-plastic. One
of these components may dominate according to These are three types of state of stress :
physical conditions (temperature and pressure)
- tension or traction : stretches the material and
and the way the stress is applied. may increase its volume;
At low temperature the elastic deformation of - compressional: leads to a decrease in the
the crystal of quartz shows an almost perfect volume of the material;
reversibility. - pure shear stress: produces a change in
Rocks which show a good reversibility and shape, but not in volume (Fig. 11-24).
admit the greatest elastic deformation are :
- quartzite, plutonic rocks; 11.2.6. Rock Strength
- slates.
Such rocks are brittle. Rocks are more or less resistant to stresses. The
Some other rocks are more or less ductile, or strength of a rock corresponds to the stress a t
show an elasticoplastic behaviour. Few rocks, such which the rock starts a permanent deformation.
as halite and undercompacted shales, may have a Rocks show different types of strength, be-
plastic to viscous behaviour. cause they respond differently to various stresses.
According to the previous factors, it is possible Hence, there is, for each rock, a compressive,
to determine the different kinds of strain following tensile and shear strength.
the depth : The compressive strength for a brittle rock is
- an upper zone, where most of the rocks have sometimes 10 to 30 times more than its tensile
an elastic (brittle) behaviour; strength (Table 11-2).
- an intermediate or middle zone, where the
rocks have an elasticoplastic to elasticoviscous
behaviour (ductile); 11.2.7. The Results of Stresses :
- a deep zone, where rocks will show a plastic Strains
behaviour. This zone is characterized by the ap-
pearance of schistosity, and then of foliation. It The reaction of rocks to stress falls into two
corresponds to anchimetamorphism and to meta- categories :
morphism. This type of rock has no interest in oil - continuous strains which are folds and flows.
exploration, since porosity and permeability disap- They will be studied in the chapter : Information on
pear. Tectonics;
 509

- discontinuous strains which are fractures

(studied here after), faults (studied in the chapter :
Information on Tectonics), and pressure-solution
(stylolites) studied in the chapter : Information on
Diagenesis.

11.3. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

EVALUATION FROM LOGS

Knowledge of the mechanical properties of a

rock is required in several domains.

11.3.1. Mechanical Behaviour of the Reservoirs -

Stress Computations

To know if reservoirs require tubing or gravel

packing, or if they can be produced in open-hole
conditions, or if they will collapse, it is necessary
to estimate the critical wellbore pressure P., It can
be demonstrated that P, is expressed by the Fig. 11-25. - Example of borehole damage due to breakout
following relation using the Mohr-Coulomb failure effect along the borehole wall. On these images, obtained by
the Formation MicroScanner tool, compare the right figure to
criterion : the left one which shows a series of natural fractures in a
cemented sandstone (courtesy of Schlumberger).
1.50, - 0.50, - 0.5 a Pp

where oxand O, are the minimum and maximum

where a = 1 - cr/cb, C, and c b being respecti-
vely the rock compressibility (at zero porosity) and
the bulk compressibility (with porosity), P, is the
pore pressure, zi is the initial shear strength ( = to),
and v the Poisson's ratio. ox is the minimum
horizontal stress. It can be obtained assuming a
horizontally constrained elastic model and is ex-
pressed, following the Griffith and Mohr-Coulomb
"failure criteria, by :
Ox = (L)
1- v
(Pob - aPp) + aP,
where Pob is the overburden pressure, assumed
to be equal to o*. In the simplified Terzaghi and
"hard rock" options a is assumed equal to unity.
Only elastic constrains determine o2= Pob. The
laws of elasticity associate to this vertical stress a
minimum horizontal stress ox, and the tectonic
stresses are estimated through the value of O"
which can vary between ox ( i n a non tectonic
regime), and
11.3.2. Fracture-Pressure Computations
The fracture initiation pressure Pb is a function
of several parameters. It is expressed by the
following relation :
Pb = 30, - O, - aP, + to
horizontal stresses respectively. O, is usually defi-
ned in terms of the tectonic imbalance factor
o,/o,. Existence of tectonic imbalance can be
inferred from borehole deformation tests, or from
break-out identification with the aid of multiple-
diameter caliper logs or, better, from Formation
MicroScanner images (Fig. 11-25). Pore pressure is
obtained from measurements with the RFT tool in
new wells, or from pressure build-up tests in
producing wells. to is the tensile strength. In
Terzaghi or "hard rock" options, a is assumed to
be equal to unity.
To compute the fracture re-opening pressure Pf,
the tensile strength is set equal to zero. So we
obtain :
Pfr = 30, - - Pp
These parameters are computed and displayed
in the MECHPRO Program (Fig. 11-26).
1,.3.3. Dynamic Properties
Computation of some of the previous factors
require the knowledge of the dynamic elastic
properties. If a sonic waveform recording has been
made using a Long Spacing Sonic tool (LSS) or
the Array Sonic Service, At, and At, can be
obtained from the waveform analysis. By combi-
ning these two data with the corrected bulk
density, it is possible to compute the dynamic
510

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
WELL B-10
FRACTURE PRESSURE STRESS ELASTIC
VOLUME AIALVSIS COITAIIMEWT ElAOlEWTS HAGIITUDE PROPERTIES
MODEL USED:
FRACTURE INIT1ATlON
A. u y = ( u x
u,)/2 +
1
CLAY M A T I POROSITY
1.5 (psi/ft)
FRACTURE RE-OPENING
O.!
B. u y = u x 0
(Tanrile Strength = Zero) c. uy=uz 0
1.5 (psi/ft) O.!

I c
MINIMUM HORIZONTAL
CLOSURE STRESS 20000 (PSI) 10000

FRACTURE TOUGHNESS 22 _ _ _ _----

- _ _ _(psi/ft) _ -O.!- MAXIMUM HORIZONTAL
MODULUS (Model A)
F T M (1P
psi-I) 0.1 OVERBURDEN
0 .; 2 E L - ! E S ! L - E ! ! ?
RESISTANCE TO FRACTURING "----------
(psi/ft)

SHEAR MODULU
VERTICAL
.:.:.A,:
.:.:.:.:.
:.:.:.:..
........
.:.*:.:
:::A:*
..........
2::::::::
ILI*
<?KO _____ !??I! ____-
'0004 0 (1Vpsi)

4450

':

-
I FRACTURE PRESSURES I
L
I Computed I Test I
4

Initiation 1.00 psilft 0.96 psilft

0.95 psilft 0.96 psilft

Re-Opening
13 900 psi 14 050 psi

0.80 psilft 0.81 psilft

Closure
1 1 710 psi 1 1 850 psi

Fig. 11-26. - Example of a display of the mechanical properties of rocks computed with the MECHPRO program (from Edwards,
1985).
 51 1

~~ ~

CAVITY LOG

POISSON'S RATIO

VOUNG'S MODULUS
VYEitaorl

:I-

T
S H E I R MOOULUS
G 1 1 0 DI,, FARDETECTOR
COUNT RATES

Perforated +
Intervals
2850
Reference 4
Curve

I YME

I PR
I Potential
IG

I CB

2900

:ig. 11-27. - Example of a display of the elastic properties and formation strength computed with the MECHPRO program (from
Edwards, 1985).
512

Table 11-3 Table 11-4

Dynamic elastic parameters and how they can be Uniaxial compressional and tensile strengths for
computed from wireline log data. rocks.

DYNAMIC ELASTIC PROPERTIES Uniaxial Compressional and Tensile Strengths for Rocks
~~ ~ ~
-
Lateral slrain '%(DTS/DTC)' - 1
i/ Poisson's Ratio Longiludmal strain (DTSIDTC)' - 1

Applied stress P
Quartzite, Cheshire 46 1 28 16.5
G Shear Modulus Shear slrarn &xa Granite, Westerly 229 21 10.9
Diabase, Frederick 486 40 12.2
Sansdtone, Gosford 50 3.6 13.9
Young,s Modulus Applied uni.axia1 slress
Normal strain
2G(1 + v) Marble, Carrara 90 6.9 13.0

K, Bulk Modulus Hydrostatic pressure

Volumelric slrain
p (DTC4 3DTS')
- Lx a I Coulomb's v and c for Rocks I

I
C
Ir
I t
Bulk Compressibility Volumetric delormalion
MPa
(with porosity) Hydroslalic pressure
Granite
Sandstone
Marbre

11.4. EFFECTS OF FRACTURES

elastic parameters at each sampling level (Table
11-3). This is achieved by the MECHPRO program.
An example of the display of the results is given in
Figure 1 1 -27.
1 1.3.4. Inherent Strength Computations
The inherent rock strengths are computed by
the MECHPRO program. They are related to one
another by simple functions expressed below.
Initial shear strength zi
This parameter is derived by an empirical model
based on Deere & Miller's work (1969) and elabo-
rated by Coates & Denoo (1981).
'ti=-0~026E[0.008Vc,a, + 0.0045(1 - Vela,)]
Cb.106
Uniaxial compressive strength Co
c.='ti( 2cos4
1 - sin4
4 is the angle of friction in the Mohr-Coulomb
failure model. It is set a t 300.
Tensile strength to
The tensile strength is set at one-twelfth of Co
as the average value (Table 1 1 -4).
In addition to these applications mechanical
properties evaluation can be used for :
- mud weight control to avoid hydraulic fractu-
ring and loss of circulation;
- drillability of the formation : adaptation of
drilling parameters, choice of rock bit, of the
rotation speed, weight on the rock bit ...;
- dipmeter interpretation by enabling a choice
between the faulting or folding of rocks.
ON THE RESPONSES
OF THE LOGGING TOOLS
With the exception of the Borehole Televiewer
and the Formation Microscanner tools, which can,
in favourable circumstances, see fractures directly,
the responses of the logging tools are affected
only indirectly by the presence of fractures. It is
only by these indirect effects that the fractures
can be detected.
With this in mind, we will now examine, tool-by
-tool, the effects of fractures on their responses,
and so get an idea of the capacity of each tool for
detecting them.
11.4.1. Natural Gamma Radioactivity
To the extent that the circulation of fluids may
have contributed to the precipitation of uranium in
the fracture system, the standard gamma ray tool,
) or the spectrometry of the natural gamma ray, will
show increased activity levels or increased ura-
nium content in front of fractured zones (Fig.
11 -28).
Similarly, a comparison between two succes-
sive gamma ray measurements, the first with a
non-radioactive mud, and the second over the
same section after a radioactive tracer has been
circulated briefly in the mud, may show up fractu-
red zones. The tracers invade the permeable zones
and cause the open fractures to exhibit increased
radioactivity. A further measurement made some
time later, or after the start of production, should
show decreased radioactivity over the fractured
zones.
NOTE : In cases of deep invasion, the start of
production may cause a temporary increase in
activity by bringing the radioactive mud closer to
the borehole wall.
 51 3

GAMMA RAY
NATURAL G A M M A RAY I NATURAL GAMMA RAY SPECTROSCOPY DATA I
SPECTROMETRY

950

I G A ~ ! ~ ) R A y KiOi 12 (Th/K).I04 2001

-

Fig. 11-28b. - Natural Gamma Ray Spectrometry log over a

fractured section (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Confe-
rence. Egypt, 1984).

- an increase in hole diameter due to crumbling

of the fractured zone during drilling resulting in
chunks of various sizes falling away.
450
These phenomena can best be seen by a four-
arm caliper tool, such as the BGT, or dipmeters
rather than the standard two-arm calipers (Fig.
11-30).
An increase on only one of the diameters is due
to the presence of fractures and follows their
orientation (Fig. 11-31). The orientation can be
obtained from the inclinometry measurement. The
direction of elongation is often that of a major
system of faults and fissures, as has been shown
by various researchers (Babcock, 1978 (Fig. 11-32);
Bell & Gough, 1979; Cox, 1983).

11.4.3. Thermometer Log

The temperature gradient in the mud is affected

Fig. 11-28a. - Fractured zones in this Ordovician formation of
Algeria identified by uranium peaks (from Schlurnberger, Well
Evaluation Conference, Algeria, 1979).
11.4.2. Caliper
Fractured zones may appear on the caliper
log(s) as :
- a reduction in hole diameter in compacted
zones which are in gauge, most probably due to a
deposit of mud cake, especially if lost-circulation
material has been used (Fig. 11-29);
by the presence of open fractures due to the
invasion of the fracture system by the drilling mud
which has the effect of cooling the formations.
This phenomenon must not be confused with gas
production which also causes a drop in tempera-
ture.
The circulation of mud disrupts the normal
distribution of heat which depends partly on the
difference in temperature between the mud and
the formations, and partly on the thermal conduc-
tivity of the rocks. The latter varies considerably as
each type of rock has its own thermal conductivity
(Table 11-5 and Fig. 11-33). For this reason, a
thermometer log recorded immediately after dril-
ling and measured on the run-in can be a good
indicator of the types of rock encountered.
The mud a t the bottom of the well is usually
cooler than the formations, while near the surface
it is hotter. When circulation has been stopped for
514

-
VARIABLE DENSITY ORIENTATION
FRACTURE IDENTIFICATION LOG I

-
C- CONOUCTIVITY

CURVES 1-2
1
CURVES 3 - 4
MIC1IOSECONOS 5 ' SPACING

LOO 1200 RELATIVE BEARING

120' 240'

r 18" 16" 14" 12" 10" 8"-6"

50

Fig. 11-29. - Reduction in hole diameter and slowing in the rate of rotation of the tool in fractured zones (courtesy of Schlumberger).

Bit Size
I Clouly r p d Strply
dippinq fractures
Intenacting fractures
dipping fracture

..
-r
*
*-- c-
*- ---

Fig. 11-30. - Hole ovalisation in fractured zones (from Babcock,

1978).

some time, the mud temperature tends to homo-

genize by thermal exchange, horizontally by
conduction, and sometimes vertically too, by
convection. Thus, temperature changes at all
depths are slow, and some time is required before
the temperatures revert to their original values.
Thus, the mud becomes heated in the deeper part
B
Fig. 11-31. - Three possible reasons for the borehole ovalisa-
tion. (A) : single steeply dipping fracture; (6) : closely spaced
steeply dipping fractures; (C) : intersecting fractures.
 515

Fig. 11-32. - (a) : Relationship between the hole ovalisation and the direction of joints in outcrops (Cretaceous to Devonian
sandstones in Canada); (b) : Remarkable consistency in direction of hole ovalisation over a large region (from Babcock, 1978).

Table 11-5
Thermal conductivity of the principal rocks.

Thermal Conductivity in l o 3 Calories/sec/cm/oC

- -
Tarnparatura Incrawas

Shale 2.8 - 5.6 Gypurn 3.1 Water 1.2 - 1.4

sand 3.5 - 7.7 Anhydrite 13 Air .m
Por. Lm 4 - 7 Salt 12.75 Gas .m5
DenseLm 6 - 8 Sulphur .6 Oil .35
Dolomite .9 - 13 Steal 110
Quartzite 13 ce.mmt .7

of the well. This means that the temperature

gradient of the mud intersects the geothermal
gradient a t a certain depth (Fig. 11-34). Above this
point of intersection the mud is hotter than the
formations, while below it is cooler. Consequently,
mud invasion in the upper zone increases the
formation temperatures, while in the lower zones
they are decreased. Clearly, the interpretation of
temperature logs must take account of the posi-
tion of this point of intersection.
When a cool fluid such as the drilling mud
penetrates the formation it displaces the forma-
tion fluid. The time taken for the formation to
revert to its normal temperature will depend on the
duration of circulation and on the degree of inva-
sion (Fig. 11-35).
Zones which have been more deeply invaded
will thus appear as cooler zones on the tempera-
ture log. This will be particularly noticeable in
zones with open fractures where there has been a Fig. 11-33. - Theoretical temperature profile as a function of
partial or total loss of circulation. lithology and depth.
516

11.4.4. Formation Density

Temperature Increases

-
__c

Immediately after circulation

In the case of the compensated formation
density tool, two measurements may be conside-
red : the density measurement itself, and the
A few hours after circulation
density correction.
- - Being a pad-mounted device, the density tool
may face in different directions on two successive
12 houri after circulation
Shale (normal temmraturel
runs over a fractured interval. One would then
expect a drop in density if on one of these runs the
pad was facing an open fracture. However, the
dense, compact formations in which fractures
usually occur will produce low count rates on the
Dolomite '. '.\ detectors, and hence a high level of statistical
variations. The resulting poor repeatability bet-
ween successive runs, which is a feature of
high-density formations, whether they are fractu-
Gvpsum
red or not, makes it impractical to look for a
variation in density as an indication of the pre-
- sence of fractures across one axis of the hole.
The fact that the tool is unidirectional and not
Anhydrite \ free to rotate does not simplify matters. However,
it may be assumed that, if the hole is eccentric, the

- long axis will have the same orientation as the

vertical fractures, as long as these are more or less
unidirectional.
Sand

- 4 F i g . 11-34. - Temperature profile after drilling of a well.

Equilibrium is re-established after many hours or even days.

81 TEMPERATURE I

I I I I I I I I I Fig. 11-35. - (a) : Temperature log showing a zone of cooling.

I I I I I I I I I a (b) : Diagram and schematic logs after circulation of a cold
fluid (courtesy of Schlumberger).
 51 7

Exanple 1 I I I I

I I I I I I I r-i I ir.1 I I

, n , j, R
I ~ u

FRACTUREH=HW--~, j r . , 1 I
~

, I

LlTHODENSlTY COMPENSATED NEUTRON

OR RHO8
API om CF 2 95
Fig. 11-36. - Effect of baryte on the photoelectric capture J
cross-section index and on the density correction Ap (courtesy
of Schlumberger).
950

- The readings of pad-mounted tools will be

affected by small depressions in the borehole wall
which are the result of small pieces of rock falling
away. The short-spacing detector is more influen-
ced by the mud filling these small cavities than is
the long-spacing detector.
- In zones where the caliper indicates a smooth
borehole wall, the Ap curve will show a higher
correction than normal in the case of baryte muds
(Fig. 11-36). This is often accompanied by a very
-
low density reading, but may be localised, blurred
~~

or even hidden by the time constant of the b

measurement circuit.
- The caliper may indicate sudden changes of
hole diameter. When these changes are due to
scaling of the formation wall, they can be "seen"
by the short-spacing detector.
11.4.5. Photoelectric Capture
Cross-Section
This measurement, which is made with the
Schlumberger Litho-Density tool (LDT), is more or
less independent of porosity. Consequently it is of
no use for detecting fractures in normal muds.
Fig. 11 -37. - Fractures clearly indicated by the Pe.
However, the measurement is very sensitive to
baryte, and so can detect fractures which have
been invaded by baryte muds. When the pad of
the tool passes a fractured zone, the photoelectric
capture cross-section will show very high values
(Fig. 11 -37). This is due to the high atomic number
of barium compared to those of the elements
making up the majority of sedimentary rocks. This
property can be useful for estimating the porosity
of the fractures (see below).
51 8
11.4.6. Neutron-Hydrogen Index
This measurement responds essentially to for-
mation fluids, and so it is a measurement of total
porosity. Since the porosity of fractures is usually
small compared to that of the matrix (e. g. in chalk
or compacted clays), it is difficult to identify
fractures because the small variation in porosity is
masked by statistical variations. In any case,
because it is not a directional measurement, the
CNL tool will give a more stable measurement.
This is especially true in dense, compact forma-
tions because of higher count rates and lower
statistical variations.
11.4.7. Sonic Travel Time
In theory, the travel time of the compressional
wave is unaffected by fractures which do not cross
the shortest time path. This is the case with
subvertical fractures, or more correctly fractures
which are parallel to the tool axis, and these are
generally not detected by the sonic tool.
Whenever the fracture system is more complex,
diffraction and reflection will attenuate the com-
pressional wave to such a degree that detection
may not occur until the second or third peak in the
1 SONIC BHC
ps/foot
140 115 90 6
Fig. 11-38. - Spikes and cycle skips on the sonic indicating a fractured zone.
wave train, resulting in erratic increases in the
apparent travel time (so-called "cycle -skips", Fig.
1 1 -38). This phenomenon is detected more easily
with the older, uncompensated tools. Newer tools
are capable of detecting cycle-skip conditions and
may automatically take steps necessary to avoid
cycle skipping that may be due to presence of
fracture.
The shear wave velocity, on the other hand, is
more affected by fractures than that of the com-
pressional wave. It is seen to decrease while the
compressional velocity remains constant. Thus, by
comparing Ats with Atc possible fractured zones
can be identified when Ats increases while Atc
remains constant. These measurements can be
made with the Schlumberger Array Sonic Service.
11.4.8. Attenuation of Acoustic Waves
In general, the amplitude of an acoustic wave is
decreased when it crosses a fracture. This is the
result of a transfer of energy. The coefficient of
transmission is a function of the apparent dip of
the fracture relative to the direction of propaga-
tion. Energy transmission across a fracture de-
pends to a large extent on the efficiency of mode
conversions a t the fracture interface. For acoustic
140 90

3
5 1.5
0 30 60 90
I DIP ANGLE
~ ~~~ ~
Fig. 11-39. - Attenuation across a fracture as a function of the
angle of dip of the fracture for waves with a vertical trajectory
(from Morris et a/., 1964).
Variable Density Display
Fig. 11-40, - Example of full waveform sonic data in a fractured
zone (courtesy of Schlumberger).
energy to cross a fracture, a propagating com-
pressional or shear wave must be converted to a
fluid wave a t the first fracture interface and then
converted back again a t the second. Obviously, the
inclination of the fracture is crucial here. Figure
11-39, from Morris et. a/. (1963), is based on
experimental results and shows that compressio-
nal waves suffer little attenuation on crossing
fractures which are parallel or perpendicular to the
tool axis. The attenuation is high when the angle is
between 350 and 800. Shear waves on the other
hand, are strongly attenuated by fractures a t low
angles. According to J. Gartner (in a personal
519
memorandum) this contrasting behaviour could
suggest a conversion from one mode to the other
(compressional to shear) for certain values of
inclination of the fractures. The attenuation de-
creases with increasing dip. It becomes very small
when the dip of the fracture is above 650 (250 to
the axis of the tool or borehole).
A technique for measuring the attenuation is
the acoustic Variable Density Log (VDL). It invol-
ves presenting the shape of the wave train in a
continuous manner. The values of amplitude are
represented by varying shades of grey.
In this measurement, zones with fractures at an
I angle to the tool axis will be characterized by
distortion and interference due to reflection and
refraction at the fracture planes. This disrupts the
normally parallel appearance of the waves on the
VDL, and causes a reduction in the density of the
grey band. This is accompanied by blurring and
loss of vertical coherence in the wave train (Fig.
1 1 -40).
In addition, the appearance of chevrons, asso-
ciated with a reduction of amplitude without any
change in At may indicate the existence of fractu-
res at a high angle (Fig. 11-41).
The interpretation of these measurements is not
always straightforward, because other phenomena
can produce the same effects.
11.4.9. Stoneley Wave
The Stoneley wave, and especially its low fre-
quency component known as the Tube wave, is a
borehole fluid mode that propagates as a pressure
wave along the borehole.
The way fractures affect the Stoneley wave is
quite different compared to the way they affect
compressional and shear waves. Acoustic energy
is not lost through inefficient mode conversions,
but more as a result of moving the fluid in the
fracture system, resulting in a pressure drop in the
borehole. As a result, the direct Stoneley wave is
attenuated, and a reflected Stoneley is generated.
Three advantages of the Stoneley wave analysis
can be considered.
- In fast formations, where we generally look
for fractures, Stoneley wave amplitude is much
higher than the other two arrivals (compressional
and shear Fig. 11-40), so it is more straightforward.
- The Stoneley wave, being mainly influenced
by borehole fluid, does not react much to changes
in lithology. Thus, a strong Stoneley reflection
most likely indicates an open fracture, not a bed
boundary.
- The roughly constant Stoneley velocity eases
the signal processing task of measuring the reflec-
ted signal.
Stoneley wave attenuation may correspond to
fractures if other possibilities such as caves,
change in rigidity, and crossing a bed boundary
can be eliminated by analysing the other open-
hole logs.
Fig. 11-41. - Detection of fractures with the VDL (zones of interference and chevrons), and comparison with the other indicators
of fractures (courtesy of Schlumberger).
 52 1

Fig. 11-42, - Fracture identification from resistivity tools. The

DLL "sees" the fractures in parallel, while the induction "sees"
them in series (courtesy of Schlumberger).

11.4.10. Resistivities

The electrical system consisting of the forma-

tion, the borehole and the fracture network is
represented by the diagram in Figure 1 1 -42. The
fractures are assumed to be subparallel to the
borehole axis and invaded by a conductive fluid.
Taking into account the current distribution for
each type of device, it will be observed that, in the
case of fractures which are subparallel to the
borehole axis Fig. 11-43. - Comparison between the responses of the induc-
- the induction is unaffected by the fractures tion and laterolog in a fractured zone (courtesy of Schlumber
which only constitute a negligible part of the ger).
whole circuit since they are in series for the
Foucault currents;
- the electrode tools will be strongly affected CLAVIER'S MODEL

because the fracture network presents paths of

lowered resistance which act as shunt resistances
to the current.
In the case of fractures which are subperpendi-
cular to the borehole axis :
- the induction will be strongly influenced
because now the fractures are in parallel rather
than in series, and their conductivity is very high
compared with that of the surrounding formations;
- for the other tools, these fractures continue to a
offer paths of lowered resistance.
Thus, a comparison of resistivity values from SUAU'S MODEL
L~LDLLs 1 2 5 18

induction and electrode tools in zones containing

subparallel open fractures will show substantially I
lower resistivities on the laterologs than on the
induction (Fig. 11-43). However, we must bear in
mind that the induction measurement is not re-
commended in resistive, compact formations
because of low signal level. The analysis will
therefore rely on the relative behaviour of the two
laterologs (deep and shallow) and of the microde-
vices.
When the fratures are subparallel to the bore- b
hole axis, the apparent drop in resistivity becomes Fig. 11-44. - Current distribution in the case of a fracture which
more pronounced with decreasing depth of inves- is subparallel to the borehole axis. a) : Clavier's model; b) :
tigation although it remains constant within a Suau's model (courtesy of Schlumberger).
522

In compact zones of low porosity which are not

fractured, and therefore with little invasion, the
two measurements will read about the same

1- f 1...........
. .
, ...
,:,
J-Ea3.r.; siL..;\'\,
.n
#....................a
2
" 2 - .I:- - -'
resistivity (Fig. 11-45, top interval).
Because they are pad-mounted, the microdevi-
ces only respond to fractures in front of the pad.
But because the borehole wall tends to crumble
near the fractures, it becomes ovalised, and the
pad tends to ride the low side of the major axis.
Hence, the probability of following the fracture
network is increased. Clearly the presence of
fractures will strongly influence these devices
because of their small volume of investigation.
Moreover, this part of the fracture system will be
invaded by mud or mud filtrate, and so the resisti-
vities will be much lower (Fig. 11-45, bottom
interval). In addition, crumbling of the borehole
wall will create zones of current leakage. All this
enhances the difference in the resistivity readings
of the micro- and macrodevices.

11.4.11. Dipmeter

Several parameters must be analysed with this

tool :

1 1.4.11 . l . Resistivity Curves

As with all the pad-mounted microdevices, only

Fig. 11-45. - Example showing the responses of the laterologs
and the MSFL in a fractured zone.
fracture. Consequently the deeper-reading device
is less affected by the fracture than the shallow-
reading device. A ratio of 1.5 to 2 is commonly
observed between RLLDand RLLS.Moreover, if the
drilling mud is more conductive than the original
formation fluid (gas, oil or fresh water), the resisti-
vity of the LLS will be substantially less than that
of the LLD (Fig. 11-44).
If the mud is less conductive than the original
fluids in the fractures, the separation of LLS and
LLD is much less and may even be inverted.
the pads which are in front of the fractures will be
affected and show a drop in resistivity (Fig. 11 -46).
If the hole is ovalised because of fractures, the
usual orientation of the tool will be with two of the
four arms across the major axis, the other two
being perpendicular. Thus in compact, fractured
formations, the two opposite pads which "see" the
fractures will show a drop in resistivity, while the
other pair, which does not see them, show a high
resistivity value with little or no curve activity (Fig.
11-47), assuming that a low EMEX value has been
used.
Superimposing the resistivity curves of two
adjacent (i.e. 900 apart) pads will reveal fractured
zones whenever there is a separation between the
two curves. A visual representation of the pre-
sence of fractures is obtained by shading between
the two pairs of adjacent curves (Fig. 11-48).
This technique is known as Fracture Identifica-
tion Log (FIL), and this presentation can be obtai-
ned at the wellsite using the CSU system.
Unfortunately, the FIL is often confused by
sedimentary features such as laminations, flasers
or pebbles, and the majority of the shaded areas
correspond to beds with an apparent dip rather
than to fractures.
This problem has been eliminated with the
introduction by Schlumberger of a new program
known as DCA (Detection of Conductive Anoma-
lies). Conductive events which cannot be correla-
ted are searched for, and only these can be
interpreted as possible fractures. The events are
Fig. 11-46. - Poor repeatibility of resistivity anomalies on the dipmeter for different tool orientations
(courtesy of Schlumberger).
524

Fig. 11-47. - FIL presentation for two orientations of the sonde

(courtesy of Schlumberger).

T I
~~

HDT R A W DATA
FC 1 FC3
I-I .
255 Fc2 -255153
FC4 -357_
; '459 - --- - - - __
-51 357
C l - - - - - --
-153

24 -_
in.
52
4
24 in. 4

950

1 ow

Fig. 11-48. - FIL example (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation

Conference, Egypt, 1984).

defined during GEODIP processing. The conduc-

tive anomaly is then reproduced only if the follo-
wing conditions are satisfied :
- the conductivity exceeds a certain value;
- there is a sufficient difference between the
conductivity values;
- the anomaly is detected on a minimum num-
ber of successive intervals.
The three thresholds can be set by the log
analyst and so adapted to local conditions. The
results are presented in the form of a log. The
azimuths of pads 1 and 2 are displayed against
depth in the 1eft:hand track (Fig. 11-49 & 11-50).
The shaded areas indicate a difference between
the nominal hole diameter and the readings of the
two calipers.
The azimuths of pads 1 , 2 , 3 and 4 are displayed Fig. 11-49. - Example of the DCA presentation (courtesy of
against depth in the right-hand track. The conduc- Schlumberger).

Fig. 11-50. - Further DCA example with the SHDT tool
(Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference, Egypt, 1984).
tive anomalies are then indicated along the cor-
responding azimuth curve. The available fracture
indicators with this presentation include :
- the conductive anomalies revealed by the
DCA program;
- borehole rugosity and the axis of ovalisation;
- changes in the speed of rotation of the tool.
A polar frequency plot of the conductive anoma-
lies is also provided (Fig. 11-51). It is used to
determine the direction of the fracture network or
networks. This direction is related to the axis of
maximum constraint and to the general orientation
of the faults in the region.
When the hole is not very ovalised, the tool will
rotate because of the torque in the logging cable.
The fractures are then seen successively by the
different pads (Fig. 11-52).
The SHDT tool gives even better detection of
fractures by comparing the measurements of two
buttons on the same pad (Fig. 11-53). In certain
favourable cases, the dip of the fracture can even
be determined (Fig. 1 1 -54).
11.4.11.2. Azimuth Curve of Pad 1
As we have seen, the tool normally rotates as it
travels uphole. Any slowing, stopping or change of
525
350 380 10
340
CONDUCTIVE
SChtF 2 00% PlR OIVISlQS
Fig. 11-51. - Example of a polar frequency plot which provides
a means of orienting the fracture network (courtesy of
Sc hlumberg er).
direction in the rotation usually indicates the
presence of fractures. This phenomenon is the
result of the pad following a sort of subvertical or
oblique pathway created by crumbling of the
fractured zone for a certain distance (Fig. 11-55).
The tool then resumes its normal rotation, usually
after a brief period of more rapid rotation to
release the torsion which has built up in the cable.
11.4.11.3. Caliper
Since the dipmeter tool has two measurements
of diameter 900 apart, comparison between them
will reveal any hole ovalisation, sudden variations
in diameter, or restrictions due to deposits of mud
cake or lost circulation material in the fractured
zones (Fig. 11-29).
526

Pad 4 A 2 = 150"

I Increases . AZ = 60'
I MODIFIED SCHMIDT

LOWER HEMISPHERE

\ I
Pad 2 AZ = 330"

Pad 1
-
AZ = 240"

Speed electrode

ZONE FROM 450 10 480

Measurement repeatability
IS very good
V PDLRR SCRLE - FROM EDGE T O CENTER 90 DEGREES

. ...~
.....................................
2206
+
2207
~ ..... +I
2208
.-- -------lt
Depth (meters)
b
Fig. 11-54. - (a) : Examples of conductive anomalies which can
Fig. 11-53. - Fractures (conductlve anomalies) detected by the be detected by the SHDT tool. (b) : They can be correlated t o
SHDT. Compare the two curves recorded by the same pad determine the dip and the azimuth of the fractures (courtesy
(courtesy of Schlumberger). of Schlumberger).
 527

e CORREUTION CURVLS
ORlENTATlON S A c"YoLIc.~IYIn

Fig. 11-55. - Example of reversed tool rotation in fractured zones (courtesy of Schlumberger).

11.4.11.4. Dips

In compact fractured formations, the fractured

zones can be identified from the CLUSTER pro-
gram for the HDT tool, or the MSD program for
Unit Vectar Perpendicular
I
I
Tool Axis

-
the SHDT tool by examining the values of erratic To Bedding Plane
dips or dips of poor quality. Correlations which are Pad 2
due to conductivity peaks have no reason to
produce dips which are consistent in either dip
angle or azimuth.
When the GEODIP program is used for the HDT
tool, or the LOCDIP program for the SHDT tool,
there is a noticeable absence of four-pad dips.
There may, however, be some dips which are
erratic in dip angle and azimuth which are due to
three-pad correlations. In certain favourable cases
(e. g. a single fracture), the conductive peaks can
?' 1-11
+ ?
(
Displacement SI

Apparent Angle /3
be correlated to give the dip of the fracture (Fig.
11-54 & 11-56).

11.4.12. Formation Microscanner Tool

When one of the 54 button electrodes (two pads

of 27 electrodes each) on these pads of this tool
passes an open fracture in the formation, the
current it emits will take the least resistive path. Fig. 11-56. - Dip determination from the apparent slopes in two
This will be reflected on the corresponding perpendicular planes (courtesy of Schlumberger).
528
pad 3 trace. pad 3 image. pad 4 image.
Fig. 11-57. - Example of fractures as they appear on the images
given by the Formation Microscanner tool (courtesy of
Schlumberger).
conductivity curve as a sharp increase, while the
images will represent fractures as one or several
dark irregular lines (Fig. 11-57).
One of the major advantages of this tool is the
continuous lateral coverage it provides across
twice a 7 cm wide strip, due to the large number
of electrodes with overlap of each raw over the
surrounding raws. As Figure 11-58 illustrates indi-
vidual fractures can be identified. If borehole
coverage is built up through several passes,
between which the pad rotation has changed, their
direction and average dip can also be obtained
(Fig. 11-59).
Healed cemented fractures can also be detec-
ted, if the resistivity contrast with the surrounding
rock is sufficient. These appear as white irregular
lines on the images (Fig. 11-60).
In most cases the Formation Microscanner tool
enables distinction between natural fractures and
those induced during the drilling of the well (Fig.
11-25).
Fig. 11-58. - Example of several fractures detected by the
Formation Microscanner tool. Compare the right and the left
pad 4 trace.
images of the two consecutive passes recorded after a 900
rotation of the tool (courtesy of Schlumberger).
1 1.4.13. Spontaneous Potential
Negative "anomalies" are sometimes observed
on the spontaneous potential in fractured zones.
This is often explained by the development of an
electrofiltration potential when they have been
drilled with a fresh mud (salinity of less than 5,000
PPm).
11.4.14. Borehole Televiewer
This tool (Zemanek et a/., 1969) provides an
acoustic image of the borehole wall (Fig. 11-61). It
is obtained by measuring part of the acoustic
energy reflected from the borehole wall. The same
transducer acts as both transmitter and receiver.
The formation is more reflective when the rock
is smooth and compact. When it is rugose, fractu-
red or vuggy, the acoustic energy is more disper-
 529

Fig. 11-59. - The strike and the average dip of the fracture plane can be determined from the Formation Microscanner tool (courtesy
of Schlumberger).

Fig. 11-60, - Healed (cemented) fractures are also detected by the Formation Microscanner tool, if they show a sufficient resistivity
contrast with the surrounding formation (courtesy of Schlumberger).
530
Fig. 11-61. - Example of fractures detected by the borehole
televiewer (courtesy of Schlumberger).
sed and these irregularities then appear as darke-
ned areas on the film.
This tool provides, then, not only a detection of
all the open fractures, but also their orientation
and dip. The only requirement is to minimize the
amount of material in suspension in the mud to
avoid having a speckled image due to dispersion
of the energy. Other adverse conditions to be
avoided are excessive mud-cake, excessive hole
ovalisation or gas-cut mud.
Fig. 11-62. - Fractures can be detected by both the amplitude
and the filtered transit time recorded by the borehole tele-
viewer (courtesy of Schlumberger).
11.5. DETECTION OF FRACTURES
FROM WELL LOGS
As we have just seen, only two logging tools are
capable of detecting fractures themselves, that is
breaks in rocks. These are the borehole televiewer
(BHTV) and the Formation Microscanner (FMS)
tools.
In the BHTV tool two parameters can be used
for fracture detection, the amplitude of the recei-
ved signal and its transit time. The amplitude of
the signal is reduced due to the dispersion of
energy at the edges of the fracture, while the
transit time will be increased (Fig. 11-62).
When several passes are made in the same well
with a Formation Microscanner tool, taking care to
ensure that the tool has rotated (azimuth of pad 1
has changed), it is generally possible to detect
each fracture (Fig. 11-58). Thus their number,
distribution, form, orientation and average dip can
be determined. It is also possible to verify if they
are ordered or consist of several networks.
 531

DETFRA
POROSITY CATEGORY FINAL FRACTURES FORMATION ANALYSIS
COMPUTATION PLAUSIBILITIES PLAUSIBILITY BY VOLUME

Mineral 1
mi D l R l Y l O Mineral2
FRICTURE S O l O I l T " Waf; .I WiO,OACT,VlT"
FRACTURE M1n'ra13

,
-
PLAUSIBILITY
, 0

t
RUGOSITV Limeston.
Pmax/2 IFFICTIVE
IOiAL POSOS,TI lC0UPIlCLL
MATRIX
I 100 % c

,
I
I

.5 1. 1.5 2. 2.5
Ovallty 1-3 2-4 In Inch

Fig. 11-63. - Fracture probability in the case of a caliper

measurement (from Boyeldieu et a/., 1984).

Other logging tools are not capable of detecting

fractures themselves, but by the effect that the
fractures have on the log measurements. They
rarely allow the detection of individual fractures,
only indicating the presence of fractured zones.
But the variations in tool response caused by
fractures could also be caused by other pheno-
mena. The following procedure is recommended
to be sure of the origin of these variations :
- it is necessary first of all to look for these
variations in intervals which are likely to be fractu- Fig. 11-64, - Example of results obtained with the DETFRA
red. These may be zones in which there has been program (from Boyeldieu et a/., 1984).
a loss of circulation or an inflow of fluids, or
consolidated formations such as chalks, limesto-
nes or compact dolomites, quartzites, anhydrites,
11.5.1.Crossplots
or metamorphic rocks. In general terms, it is zones Combinations of various log measurements in
of high resistivity which are of interest, and not the form of crossplots are also useful in detecting
porous, unconsolidated sands or plastic clays. A fractures.
preliminary pass with the LlTHO and MECHPRO
programs, which have already been described, will 1 1.5.1.l . Formation Factor - Porosity
identify facies which are favourable to fracturing.
- The next step is to note all possible occurren- If the porosity is plotted on a logarithmic scale
ces by identifying on each available log all the as a function of formation factor (FR = Rt/R,),
phenomena which could be attributed to fractures. fractured zones will appear as zones having the
The probability of fractures is in fact much lowest values of FRfor a given value of porosity in
greater than the phenomena observed on the logs a low-porosity zone (Fig. 1 1 -65).This is due to the
may indicate. Thus, if several of the phenomena drop in resistivity associated with fractures.
already described are detected, it is reasonable to Similar plots can also be made by replacing FR
conclude that fractures are present. by Rt or RLLD(Fig. 11-66).
Schlumberger have recently made a new pro-
gram for the detection and evaluation of fractures 11.5.1.2.M - N Plot
commercially available under the name of DET- This technique, introduced by Burke eta/. (1969)
FRA *. This program (Boyeldieu & Martin, 1984) for the study of complex lithologies, combines the
groups all the known fracture indicators into five responses of density, neutron and sonic tools. The
categories : electrical, acoustic, radioactive, elec-
two computed parameters, M and N, are i n d e p y -
tromagnetic and multi-pad. dent of porosity, at least if we can assume that all
Each log is analysed, and a fracture probability three tools respond linearly to porosity (Fig. 1 1 -67).
is estimated using certain criteria (threshold,
median and maximum probability (Fig. 11-63).The
probabilities are then combined using bayesian M = Atf - At 0.1
Pb - pmf
logic. Thus, two criteria with individual probabili-
ties PI and P2 will have a combined probability N - (IH)f - IH
which is given by :
Pb - Pmf
P = 1 - (1 - P,)(l - P2)
This rule is associative, and can be extended to In this case, each pure mineral is represented
an unlimited number of probabilities. The results by a single point, regardless of porosity, when M
are presented in the form of a log (Fig. 11-64).
However, other techniques are also available. Mark of Schlumberger.
532

Fig. 11-65. - Example of crossplots of formation factor vs. porosity (sonic, or derived from the neutron-density combination) (from
Suau e t a / . , 1978).
 533

100 LI THO-POROSI TY P L O T
( F R E S H MUD)

-AREA B
1.2-

111 -

1.0 -

.9 -
"M"
.8 -

.7-
SI L

z
.= 1c DOL- ANH - SIL
iz" .6 '
8
AREA G
GYP-ANH-DOL

1
b
.3 .4 .5 .6 noN II .7 .8 .9 1.0

Fig. 11-68. - M vs N crossplot and its interpretation

Fig. 11-66. - Example of crossplots of Rt vs. porosity (from
(from Burke et a/., 1969).
Aguilera. 1980).
EXAMPL
G+V P
~.oQ'..".......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
LllHO-POROSITY PLOT
.
SONIC - DENSITY
CROSS- PLOT FOR MINERAL "A"
,w!. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I

'M' :

I
...............................
. l o : . . ........o........
U
SELECTED
v)
0 I 1P m o 1 IPf LITHOLOGY TRlANCLES i
2 .o
4.0 3 .O
Pb q m l c c
1.0
-
@2 DOL b C O 3 -
DENSITY ,601 . . ....................... -
DOL b C O 3 SIL - ' ' ' ' :

NEUTRON- DENSITY
CROSS- PLOT FOR MINERAL " A " .M;. .................................................
FLUID POINT .40 .50 .w .?O ,a0 .w
(100% Q) "'
d
zu .eo-
Fig. 11-69. - Example of a M vs N crossplot showing the
existence of secondary porosity which can partly be related to
W
fractures (from Burke et a/., 1969).
W
.60 -
2
2 .40 pma - Pt is plotted against N (Fig. 11-68). When there is
v)
W some secondary porosity (due to fractures, for
g .20- example), the sonic measurement is unaffected by
J
it. This is because the measurement is based on
8
* 0----
I the travel time of the fastest compressional wave,
I ~ P m oI IPf which bypasses vugs and fractures, a t least when
4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 the fractures are subparallel to the borehole axis.
DENSITY Pb pmkc
Consequently, At is reduced and M is increased.
Fig. 11-67. - Determination of the M and N factors (from Burke The representative points are therefore displaced
et a/., 1969). towards the top of the diagram (Fig. 11-69).
534

11.5.1.3. MID Plot

This technique, very similar to the preceding
one, was introduced by Clavier et a/. (1976), and
combines the measurements of the same three
tools. An apparent matrix density (pma)a and an
apparent matrix travel time (At,), are defined
from charts (Fig. 11-70). These two parameters are
then plotted against each other (Fig. 11-71). In this
case also, each pure mineral, or fixed mixture of
minerals, is represented by a unique point regar-
dless of porosity, so long as each tool responds in
the same way to the porosity.
Again, secondary porosity reduces At and so
(Atma)a. The points representing fractured or vuggy
zones are then displaced towards the left-hand
side of the plot (Fig. 11-72).

F*y*xi
1

2.21 (MATRIX IDENTIFICATION PLOT)

a CNL NEUTRON INDEX (Apparent Limestone Porosity 1

30 40 50 60 70
(AtmaIa, p e d f t
Fig. 11-71. - Example of a MID-plot and its interpretation for
the determination of mineralogy (from Clavier et a/., 1976).

.I..,

o r
I_ . . . . . . ,
,
1.
.I
.
)I. >n, .1
,.. .n
............................................
,L"
I. ,I
I* , 1
1
1
I ,
.I-
,I
, ~ - . -- ,."/
.11\,,

............ . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . r !.*.. . . ...................... ....

. I

1.

,:,c
._ . ! 2 L .

.. ..
. >
I
1 1 . I

L,: f
. 1

. I ~

- __
..................... *.. .. .....................
. ,.
0 10 0 20 30 40
. ~ - -
..
.... ,.,..
. I
. ,
b CNL NEUTRON INDEX (Apporent Limestone Porosity)
.....................
~~

Fig. 11-70, - Chart for the determination o f : (a) : plrnala

and (b) :
At,mel, (from Clavier et a/., 1976).

Fig. 11-72. - Example of a MID-plot indicating the presence of

secondary porosity which can partly be related t o fractures
(courtesy of Schlumberger).
 535

11.5.2. Tortuosity Factor m Since the open fractures are more or less
rectilinear planes, one would expect the tortuosity
This factor, also known as the cementation factor to be close to 1, a t least when the porosity
factor, is defined by the following equation : is due to the fractures, end the current lines are
parallel to the plane of the fractures. In fact, even
-Rt= - 1 if the fractures have not been healed, there will be
Rw (P crystals in the fractures which are not evenly
distributed, and these will increase the tortuosity.
In addition, the fractures are not always planar or
indeed open, and they are frequently at an angle to
the borehole axis. Finally, there are often several
criss-crossing fracture systems. As a result, the
tortuosity factor, m, is always greater than 1, but
usually well below 2 or 2.3,the values observed in
compact formations, and more usually around 1.4.
If the m factor is plotted against depth, the
fractured zones will show the lowest values,
usually between 1.3 and 1.6 (Figs. 11-73).

4 Fig. 11-73. - Plot of R,. vs At showing a low value for the

cementation, or tortuosity, factor m (from Aguilera, 1980).

TEMPERATURE
1I.

110hrr after circulation)

Fig. 11-74. - Example of a calculation of secondary porosity which is very likely related to fracturing, as the thermometer log appears
to confirm (courtesy of Schlumberger).
536
11-5.3. Calculation of Secondary Porosity
Given that the sonic measurement does not
"see" the porosity of fractures or vugs, a secon-
dary porosity index can be defined by combining
the porosity from the sonic tool with that deduced
from the density-neutron combination :
SPI = qhuo - Ips
On a plot of this index against depth, the
fractured zones will show the highest values. The
example of Figure 11-74 shows a good correlation
between this index and a drop in temperature in a
zone where density, sonic, gamma ray and caliper
are constant. These two phenomena can be taken
to indicate the presence of fractures.
This is only true of fractures which are subparal-
lel to the borehole axis. If the fractures are
subperpendicular, the sound wave must cross
them, and the sonic then "sees" the fractures.
RECAP
We can conclude that fractured zones are
present if examination of the Formation Micro-
Scanner and B H N images indicate their presence.
In the absence of these measurements, the exis-
tence of fractures can be concluded if several of
the following phenomena are observed simulta-
neously at about the same depth :
- a change in temperature gradient;
- a change in hole diameter;
- a localised decrease in density, accompanied
by a variation in Ap while Pe, At and & remain
steady, but not if there is a cave, or the mud
contains baryte;
- a very slight increase in porosity;
- secondary porosity;
- a reduction in the value of the m factor;
- a change in the ratio LLD/LLS;
- sudden drops in resistivity on the microdevi-
ces;
- high Pe values when the mud contains baryte;
- conductivity peaks on the FIL;
- DCA showing conductive anomalies;
- a pause in tool rotation;
- strong attenuation of acoustic waves;
- a blurred zone on the VDL, or a lack of vertical
coherence on the wave train;
- radioactivity peaks or uranium peaks;
- strong negative SP deflections.
11.6. EVALUATION OF FRACTURES
The evaluation of fractured zones requires the
following information :
- depths of the fractured zones;
- types of fractures : open or cemented;
- orientation (dip and azimuth) of fractures;
- vertical and lateral extent of fractures;
- fracture density: number of fractures and
total fracture length per unit volume;
- fracture porosity.
Well logs do not provide all of this information,
only the following being obtainable.
11.6.1. Depths of Fractured Zones
This is the simplest information to obtain from
the logs, especially from the Formation Micro-
Scanner or the B H N . So there is no need to
elaborate.
11.6.2. Type of Fracture
The Formation Microscanner tool can usually
differentiate between open fractures, fractures
induced by the drilling process, and healed cemen-
ted fractures. For the other tools, only open fractu-
res will affect the log responses and be detected.
In any case, it is only open fractures which are of
interest for production. Hence every fracture
which is detected as a conductive anomaly is by
definition open. However, not every conductivity
peak is a fracture.
11.6.3. Orientation of Fractures
There are two parameters to be determined :
dip and azimuth. The borehole televiewer and the
Formation Microscanner are the only tools which
allow us to determine both the orientation and the
dip of fractures (Fig. 11-75 & 11-59). The dip
cannot be determined with any certainty from the
other logs, because even if a correlation is made
between conductivity peaks, there is no guarantee
that they all belong to the same fracture.
If we now consider the size of an event detec-
ted by a pad (Fig. 11-76). we can attempt to define
two possible dips and select the ones which show
the most constant values. These data must also be
plotted as a function of pad azimuth.
The azimuth can be determined if fracturing is
accompanied by hole ovalisation, or from a polar
frequency plot of conductive anomalies detected
by the DCA program. Figure 11-32 shows the
consistency of results, and their correlation with
the predominant fracture or fault directions.
The two buttons on each pad of the SHDT
provide a means of determining the apparent dip
of the planes of the fractures picked up by each
pad. The dip and azimuth of the fractures can then
be defined if we assume that the two anomalies
correspond to the same fracture, or a t least to the
same system of parallel fractures (Figs. 11-54 &
11-56).
 537

Fig. 11-75. - Determination of the dip and the azimuth of a fracture using the borehole televiewer (from Schlumberger, Well
Evaluation Conference, Libya, 1970).

11.6.4. Fracture Density 1 1.6.5. Fracture Porosity from Photoelectric

Capture Cross-Section (LDT tool)
As previously illustrated (Fig. 11-58) individual We have already seen that the photoelectric
fractures can be identified with the Formation capture cross-section is strongly influenced by
Microscanner tool if a borehole coverage is built baryte muds, and this feature can be used to
up through several passes, between which the pad evaluate fracture porosity.
orientation has changed. This allows the determi- The following equation introduces the electro-
nation of the number of fractures in a given nic density :
window, and of the length between fractures.
With the other tools this can be evaluated from Pe pe = C Vi Pe, pe, (1 1-1)
the frequency a t which the fracture indicators Or, for the case of fractured rocks invaded by
occur, notably on the dipmeter and on the FIL (Fig. baryte muds :
11-48) and DCA (Fig. 11-49) presentations, and
from the porosity of the fractures. This can be Pe p8 = &a Per (pe)f + @r Pee, (Pe)Ba
evaluated by various means. + (1 - &a - @r) Pema (pe)rna (1 1-2)
538
d"
Band of hole covend by mlaetrode
4 during sonde rotation
\\
u W"
Fracture covering approximately W" Fracture covering less than W"
(2 solutions)
Fig. 11-76. - Determination of fracture dip from the length of conductive anomalies on a single pad. Several explanations are
possible (courtesy of Schlumberger).
The first term is always very small and can be
ignored. The matrix porosity of compact fractured
rocks is also low (usually less than looh)while Pe
is also very small (0.358for water, 0.48for oil and
0.807 for salt water). We can therefore write as a
first approximation :
The porosity &CP is derived from the density-
neutron combination, and includes both matrix
porosity and fracture porosity. This gives :
Now, we can show that :
Pee, (pe)Ba = 1070
and further, as a first approximation, we can
take :
pe = Pb et (pe)ma = (pma)a
which gives :
Band of hole covered by electrode
Band of hole covered by electrode
1 during sonde rotation 1during sonde rotation
Solution 1
4
W"
\ I
One inclined fracture, or wverlil
(2 solutions) fractures, covering more tliaii W
Note: The last equation only holds if the
borehole wall is smooth, so that the pad fits
closely to the formation. Otherwise there may be
a cave due to crumbling of the borehole wall filled
with baryte mud. It is necessary, therefore to
examine the caliper and the density correction
before applying this formula. We must also bear in
mind that, being a unidirectional tool, it will only
analyse the part of the formation in front of the
pad, and so it will not necessarily measure the
total fracture porosity. In any case, if the hole is
ovalised due to the presence of fractures, the pad
will usually ride the major axis of the hole, and so
face the fractures. The measurement will thus be
representative of the fracture porosity since it is
unlikely that there is another fracture network at
900 to the first when the hole is ovalised.
(11-5) 11.6.6.Fracture Porosity from DLL
Boyeldieu et al. (1982)proposed the following
equation for fracture porosity after studying the
effects of fractures on the deep and shallow
laterologs, and making certain assumptions :
 539

where hr is the fracture porosity, &r)c is the

computed fracture porosity and CLLSand CLLDa‘re
the conductivities in mhos of the LLS and LLD; m
is between 1.3 and 1.5.
The assumptions made by the authors are as SECONDARY
POROSITY 6PI8 DT S h e a r
follows : 50
DLA.
0 ;45 885 4550 ’- 3 10s
RATIOSHEAR C O M P D T
-. C

- The fracture system is seen by both laterologs 85 ‘85

as a system of resistivities in parallel with the

compact, non-fractured, formation (a perfectly
reasonable assumption).
- There is no invasion of the non-fractured part
of the formation (the blocks contained within the
fracture system), but only of the fracture system. 3300

This assumption is justified by the very high

permeability of the fracture system compared with
that of the rock itself, so that the overpressure of
the mud column will act preferentially on the
fracture network.
- The invasion of the fracture system is not too
deep, but sufficient to ensure that the LLD reads
the virgin formation while the LLS reads the
flushed zone. The validity of this assumption will
depend on the type of mud and on the degree of
opening of the fractures. If the losses observed 3400

during the drilling are low, it can be assumed that

the openings are small and that a mud-cake was
able to develop and limit the invasion. In this case
the assumption is valid. If the losses were conside-
rable, the invasion will be deep, and we can no
longer assume that the LLD reads the virgin zone.
- The water saturation of the uninvaded frac-
ture system is almost zero. This is a reasonable
assumption given the permeability of the fractu-
res.
- The filtrate saturation of the invaded fracture 3500

system is 100 O/O. Again, due to the high permeabi-

lity of the fractures, we can assume that all the
hydrocarbons have been flushed. -
The authors then derived the following inequali-
ties : :ig. 11-77. - Example of the computation of fracture porosity

,
from the dual laterolog (courtesy of Schlumberger).
-
1 Ga*SLna @.S$r (11-8)
RLLD Rw Rw

and
However, as the authors themselves pointed
out, the best results are obtained when the mud
-
1 < &a.SLrna + @“‘*s:tr (11-9)
resistivity is about equal to that of the formation
RLLS Rw R rnf water, and when the formation contains hydrocar-
bons.
where @ma is the matrix porosity, hr is the In water-bearing sequences, on the other hand,
fracture porosity, SWma is the water saturation of the two salinities (mud and formation water)
the non-fractured, uncontaminated formation. should be very different. In this case the authors
Subtracting equ. 11-8 from equ. 11-9 gives : proposed the following equation :

The above hypotheses assume that S x o f r = 1 Figure 11-77 shows an example of results from
and Sdr = 0. This then gives equ. 11-7 by substitu- an interpretation of very compact, fractured for-
ting conductivities for resistivities. mations.
 cn
P
0
b

2
4
2000c
Legend

E 10000
i
r E
0 c
0
C 1

>
- 1oooc t
1
Ev, I 1
I-
v,
v)
w 3 tool centred on fracture
a fracture aperture = 50 microns
block resistivity = 10000 0hm.m -
a
infinite invasion
block resistivity = 10000 0hm.m
-
11
'--

5000
fluid resistivity = 0.1 0hm.m mud resistivity= 0.1 0hm.m I
6 $
~~

1 2 3

DISTANCE OF FRACTURE FROM AXIS in metres INVASION RADIUS in inches

5- 20000 r I I
- infinite invasion

.
E
0
c 1-
- block resistivity = 10000 0hm.m
mud resistivity = 0.1 0hm.m
E
E
.-E >
>
t 0.1-
2
+
0
3
n
z
s 0.01
aperture = 50 microns
block resistivity = 10000 0hm.m
mud resistivity = 0.1 0hm.m
I I
0.005 I 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I l l 1 I I I 1 1 1 1 1

1 10 100 1000

FRACTURE APERTURE in microns FRACTURE APERTURE in microns

Fig. 11-78. - Relationship between the fracture aperture E in prn for (a) : for vertical fractures and the conductivity; (b) : for horizontal
fractures and the resistivity (from Sibbit & Faivre. 1985).

11.6.7. Lithology Determination
In compact, non-fractured formations, the
mineralogy of the formation is easily determined
from the various log measurements using cross-
plots or if necessary the Schlumberger LITHO or
GLOBAL programs described in Chapters 2 and 9.
In fractured zones, the readings of the density tool
are frequently affected by caves or borehole
rugosity and are often unusable. It is then neces-
sary to use the neutron-sonic-gamma ray combi-
nation, and sometimes Pe to obtain a satisfactory
lithology determination.
11.6.8. Determination of Fracture Permeability
In a recent publication, Mathieu et al. (1984)
have estimated that fracture permeability can be
determined from an analysis of Stoneley wave
detected by a tool which records the complete
acoustic wave train. The results they obtained in a
solid crystalline formation seem encouraging.
11.7. REFERENCES
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541
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Sibbit & Faivre (1985) related the opening (in
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conductivity measured by the Dual Laterolog (DLT)
tool and the difference between the deep (LLD)
and shallow (LLS) resistivities. They also showed a
relation between their lateral extent (depth into
the formation) and the same Dual Laterolog
measurements. In the case of vertical fractures
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is proportional to the product of the fracture
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the tool axis) the two curves show a resistivity
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542
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Schlumberger Ltd (1981). - Dipmeter Interpreta-
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Schlumberger Middle East S.A. (1981). - Well
Evaluation Conference. United Arab Emirates/
Qatar.
Schlumberger Middle East S.A. (1 984). - Well
Evaluation Conference. Egypt.
Services Techniques Schlumberger (1 970). - Well
Evaluation Conference. Libya.
SHANKS, R.T., KWON, B.S., VRIES, M.R. de, &
WICHMAN, P.A. (1976). - A review of fracture
detection with well logs. SPE o f AIME, paper
SPE 6159.
SIBBIT, A.M., & FAIVRE, 0. (1985). - The Dual
Laterolog Response in Fractured Rocks.
SPWLA, 26th Ann. Log. Symp. Trans., paper T.
543
SMEKHOV, E.M. (1969). - Etude de la fracturation
des roches et des reservoirs fractures d’hydro-
carbures. Travaux du VNIGRI. Traduction en
frangais d’ELF R.E.
SUAU, J., BOYELDIEU, C., ROCCABIANCA, R.,
CIGNI, M., & SPILA, M. (1978). -Evaluation of
very low porosity Carbonates (Malossa, Italy).
SPWLA., 19th Ann. Log. Symp. Trans.
SUAU, J., & GARTNER, J. (1979). - Fracture
detection from the logs. SPWLA, 6th European
Symp. Trans., paper L.
THEYS, P., LUTHI, S., & SERRA, 0. (1983). - Use of
dipmeter in Carbonates for detailed sedimento-
logy and reservoir engineering studies.
TIXIER, M.P., LOVELESS, G.W., & ANDERSON,
R.A. (1973). - Estimation of Formation Strength
from the Mechanical Properties Log. 48th Ann.
Meeting of SPE of AIME, aper SPE 4532.
VINCENT, P., GARTNER, J., & AlTALI, G. (1979).
-GEODIP - An approach to detailed dip deter-
mination using correlation by pattern recogni-
tion. J. Petroleum Technol., Feb., p. 232-240.
WALDSCHMIDT, W.A., FITZGERALD, P.E., &
LUNSFORD, C.L. (1956). -Classification of poro-
sity and fractures in reservoir rocks. Bull. Amer.
assoc. Petroleum Geol., 40, 5.
ZEMANEK, J. et a/. (1969). - The Borehole Tele-
viewer: A New Logging Concept for Fracture
Location and other types of Borehole Inspec-
tion. SPWLA, 9th Ann. Log. Symp. Trans.
 Chapter 12
GEOPHYSICAL APPLICATIONS OF WELL LOGS
12.1. INTRODUCTION
Surface geophysics has the advantage of giving
a quasi-continuous view of the subsurface, a t least
along a particular profile. The use of surface
geophones to record a wave emitted by a source
and reflected or transmitted by the formations
provides a means of studying the properties of the
rocks by :
- the detection of acoustic discontinuities as-
sociated with sudden acoustic impedance chan-
ges corresponding to variations in the physical
properties of the rocks. By correlating the discon-
tinuities and mapping the time taken by the wave
to travel from source to detector (isochronal
maps), we can get an idea of the form of the
discontinuities in the subsurface;
- the measurement of seismic velocities;
- the amplitude and frequency of the spectrum
of signals received can provide information about
the type of subsurface lithology.
It is not easy to interpret this data correctly,
especially if the geology is complex, since the
same image may correspond to different superpo-
sition models for beds of different types and
thicknesses. However, the interpretation is made
easier if a realistic model can be defined before-
hand. The density and sonic velocity measure-
ments obtained in a borehole allow the depths of
the acoustic discontinuities, as well as the acous-
tic impedance (R = vlpl) and reflection coeffi-
cients, r, to be determined. This makes it possible
to generate a reflectivity log which, convoluted
with a signal, will give a synthetic trace. When this
is compared with the real trace it becomes possi-
ble to depth-match the real trace and to interpret
it in terms of seismofacies. This is how well logs
contribute to the interpretation of seismic profiles
and thus provide an essential link between surface
geophysics and geology.
However, as we have seen, log measurements
are subject to the influence of parasitic factors
such as an invaded zone or bad hole conditions.
Thus the data provided by the density and sonic
tools cannot be used in their raw form, and must
first be corrected before calculating the acoustic
impedance and reflection coefficients.
12.2. SONIC CALIBRATION
The sonic travel time measured by the sonic
tool can be integrated between two depths. When
this integration is between the surface and the
total depth of the well, a time/depth relationship is
obtained (Fig. 12-1). The errors in the measure-
ments of sonic velocity from the sonic tool may be
minimized by using tools compensated for bore-
hole effects and signal attenuation, by increasing
the spacings between receivers and by using
automatic cycle skip detection. However, the
measurements are still susceptible to errors due to
a variety of factors :
- detection triggered by noise before the signal
arrives;
- hole enlargement, in which case the mud
signal will arrive first;
- signal stretch (Fig. 12-2) resulting in increased
travel time;
- cycle skip or negative stretch, when the signal
recorded by the near receiver is weaker than the
signal recorded by the far receiver (Fig. 12-3);
- difference in frequency between signals emit-
ted by the seismic sources (around 50 Hz) and the
sonic signals (20 to 25 kHz), the speed of sound
being dependent on frequency;
- air bubbles in the mud resulting in poor
transmission or strong attenuation either of which
may cause cycle skips;
- formations which have a lower sonic velocity
than the mud, due to the presence of gas or to
poor compaction;
- filtrate invasion which, when it replaces a
546
Fig. 12-1. - Time/depthrelationship derived from sonic (cour-
tesy of Schlumberger).
lighter and slower fluid (such as oil or, especially,
gas), results in an increase of the velocity in the
invaded zone in relation to the real velocity in the
virgin zone;
I
Amplitude t2
I
T
~
FAR
Fig. 12-2. - Diagram showing At stretch resulting from signal
attenuation (courtesy of Schlumberger).
- high apparent dips, causing the acoustic
signal to follow a refracted path which is shorter
than the one along the borehole.
It is necessary, therefore, to calibrate the sonic
logs in order to eliminate as many of these errors
as possible. This must be done before converting
the depth scales into time scales using the esta-
blished time/depth relationship. The calibration is
done either by using check shots (also known as
borehole seismic or seismic well shots) or by using
the Vertical Seismic Profile (VSP) technique.
12.2.1. Seismic Check Shots
This consists of measuring the time taken for a
wave from a surface source to reach a downhole
geophone anchored a t a certain depth in the
formation determined by the cable length (Fig.
12-4). This measurement has two major applica-
tions :
- it provides more precise information about
the initial interval velocities by taking advantage of
the fact that this measurement only crosses the
formations once, so that signal dispersion occurs
only once. By repeating the measurement a num-
ber of times the velocities of intervals can be
determined more accurately, especially when the
sonic measurement is obviously affected by pro-
blems such as cycle skips. In addition, a more
accurate time/depth relationship is obtained with
consequently fewer errors in converting isochrone
or isopach - time maps to isobath or isopach -
depth maps;
- it provides additional details about the time/
depth curve which can help to explain secondary
features on the seismic trace. These details are
derived from the measurement of the travel time
 547

1 A CHECK SHOT SYSTEM

W SOURCE
/- ’’
‘,
Amplitude 4-
t I
!
NORMAL SIGNAL

FAR
DETECTOR -
’’

/ /
/ ,I
/

i f
tSRIP \ I SOURCE
‘-1 SIGNAL
SKIP E4 a

DETECTOR
SIGNAL
SONIC BHC

- e l 0 MSEC

Fig. 12-4. - Diagram illustrating the check shot technique (from

Goetz ef a/., 1979).

signal and not just with the first arrival. Conse-

b possible, for example, to see below formations
C - Trace aligned on the hydrophone break (Fig.
Fig. 12-3. - (a) : Diagram illustrating the phenomenon of cycle
skipping; (b) : an example; (c) : negative stretch.
of the acoustic wave by the BHC sonic or Array
Sonic tools. These tools have the advantage of
providing very high vertical resolution, due partly
to a high-frequency source (25 kHz) and partly to
closely-spaced detectors (usually 2 feet but may
be 4.5 inches if necessary).
12.2.2. Vertical Seismic Profile
This technique differs from the preceding one in
that we are concerned with the totality of the
quently this technique gives a better overall view
as well as the exact depth of each reflector, its
signature, and the effects of overlying reflectors.
It allows elimination of multiples and this makes
interpretation easier by giving an exact means of
converting depths to time and vice versa. It is
which are very strong reflectors (anhydrite, halite,
dolomite or compact limestone) or formations
which produce strong attenuation (under-compac-
ted clays) and we may even “see“ below the
bottom of the borehole.
Three types of vertical seismic profile plot can
be generated either a t the wellsite or in the
computing centre :
12-5). This trace provides an immediate visual
check of the first arrival times;
- Trace aligned on the impulse time (Fig. 12-6).
This trace is used to check the detection of the
first arrivals and the stability of the signatures.
This stability is essential since incorrect times
would result in an incorrect vertical seismic profile
and a distortion in the seismic signal a t this level.
The trace also allows us to identify multiple reflec-
tions such as those seen a t 960 and 1520 millise-
conds on the example given;
- Trace aligned on the two-way time of the sum
of the traces (Fig. 12-7). This trace is similar to the
final vertical seismic profile presentation. It makes
it possible to detect powerful reflectors below the
bottom of the well.
548

Fig. 12-5. - Plot aligned on the hydrophone time zero (from Fig. 12-6. - Plot aligned on the impulse time (from Schlumber-
Schlumberger Well Evaluation Conference. West Africa, 1983). ger Well Evaluation Conference. West Africa, 1983).

However, current interests in borehole seismic

surveys have evolved to the point where high-
fidelity three component recording is necessary
for a complete examination of the elastic wave
field.
This need has arisen out of the limitations
imposed by basic assumptions that the earth is
horizontally stratified near the well (when conven-
tionally processing VSP data). When, as is often
the case, this is not so ray paths are no longer
vertical, and reflections no longer take place at
normal incidence, reflection points being distant
from the well.

12.2.3. Offset Seismic Profile

The case of non-normal incidence is, by defini-

tion, also the case in offset seismic profiling,
where the source and geophone are laterally

Fig. 12-7. - Two-way time plot of the stacked traces (from

Schlumberger Well Evaluation Conference. West Africa, 1983).
, - S T F l C K E D DPITR
T Y O Y R Y T I M E PLOT
TPR DFlTFl<I>.I..
- CORRECTED 1 0 SRD k TVD
I.20000
 549

Fig. 12-8. - Displacement of the surface source (multi-offset) provides better coverage of the sub-surface (courtesy of
Schlumberger).

seperated in order to achieve more extensive

sub-surface coverage of the target horizons (Fig.
12-8).
In both cases of non-horizontal layering and
offset sources, the particle motion of the com-
pressional wavefield no longer lies along the same
axis as the sensitive axis of conventional single
component (usually vertical) geophones.
In these conditions it is necessary to use the
Schlumberger SAT tool, a three-axis, high fidelity
borehole seismic tool that is capable of recording
all the components of the complete wavefield and
extracting such information as the direction of
propagation of the wave a t any point in the field,
separating the shear and compressional compo-
nents, or defining the profile of nearby features
L \
such as salt domes.
Seismic Reference Datum
12.2.4. Establishing the Time/Depth Curve

The interval times determined from the check

shots or the vertical seismic profile may be consi-
dered as being measured along subvertical and
‘,J1 z

subrectilinear paths. This assumption is clearly

only valid if the well is vertical, the distance
between the shot point and the top of the well (the
“offset”) is small, and the formations along the
depth of the well are more or less horizontal. If
these conditions are not met, then the geometry of
the acquisition configuration must be taken into
account (Fig. 12-9) and the following parameters
must be introduced to ensure a correct measure-
ment of the interval velocities :
- the azimuth of the source (GAZI) from the
borehole axis;
- the offset from the borehole (GOFF);
- the deviation and the azimuth of the well from
a dipmeter log or a BGT (Borehole Geometry
Tool);
Mark of Schlumberger.
Fig. 12-9. - Configuration of acquisition parameters (from
Schlumberger Well Evaluation Conference. West Africa, 1983).
- the dip of the formations, from a quick
wellsite interpretation of the dipmeter log;
- the depth of the geophones (HDSZ);
- the depth of the seismic reference datum
(SRDS).
The time/depth curve can be generated in the
field using the Schlumberger Seismic Quicklook
(SQL) program run on the CSU. Using the data
listed above and the time measurements (Table
12-1) the program first corrects the depths and
travel times for borehole geometry and acquisition
geometry. A new list of corrected travel times is
550

Table 12-1 MILLISECONDS MILLISECONDS

Time/depth listing. - 3 0 -20 -10 0 10 -30 -20 -10 0 10

88 607.9
85 631.2
82 655.5
79 675.2
76 700.5
73 721.1
70 744.3
67 765.1
64 786.8
61 811.4
58 835.4
55 857.4
52 880.7
49 900.2
46 919.7
43 938.1
40 957.1
37 975.2
34 994.3
31 1009.6
28 1028.5
25 1050.4
22 1072.2
19 1096.7
16 1120.3
13 1143.6
10 1168.8
7 1191.7
3 1215.3
15 1237.9
12 1262.0
9 1285.8
6 1311.7
3 1337.3
Fig. 12-11. - Example showing drift plotted as a function of
depth.

1100
A drift value can be calculated for each check
shot depth (Fig. 12-11). The successive values
obtained are then plotted as a function of depth,
1900 which produces a drift curve (Fig. 12-12). For a
given pair of depths, the difference in drift bet-
ween the two depths is the correction which must
2700 be applied to the sonic travel time. This provides
an adjustment for each interval. However, this
method of correction is not recommended since it
3500 can have an effect which is the opposite of what
was intended. The recommended procedure is to
select zones in which the character of the sonic
4300 curve is more or less constant. A line segment is
then drawn through the drift points of each zone.
I I I I I 1 The junctions between the segments are known as
l i m e ims)
5100 "knees" (because of their shape) and they repre-
sent the boundaries between zones. The slope of
Fig. 12-10. - Corrected time/depth plot (from Schlumberger these segments joining two successive knees is
Well Evaluation Conference. West Africa, 1983).
the drift gradient, and represents the average
correction to be applied to the sonic travel times
then given as a function of true vertical depth between two knees. When the slope is negative,
(TVD) and a second time/depth plot is established the drift is said to be negative, which means that
(Fig. 12-10). the sonic time is longer than the seismic time.
Finally, a corrected sonic curve is generated with
an indication of the corrections, so that a compa-
12.2.5. Determination of Drift rison can be made between the corrected curve
and the original curve (Fig. 12-13).
Once the time/depth curve has been establis- It may be that the sonic log has not been
hed it can then be used to calibrate the sonic recorded over the whole well. If the formations are
measurement. The time/depth curve derived from shaly sands, a synthetic sonic curve can be
the sonic log must pass through the points given constructed based on a determination of lithology
by the check shot survey. The difference between from the other logs using the relationships bet-
the seismic times and the integrated sonic times is ween sonic travel time and depth established for
known as the "drift". the clays and the sands (Fig. 12-14).
 551

Fig. 12-12. - Example of the drift curve (from Schlumberger Fig. 12-13. - Corrected drift curve (from Schlumberger Well
Well Evaluation Conference. West Africa, 1983). Evaluation Conference. West Africa, 1983).
552

Feet Metres Vdocny Vr (Wsec.) Porodty #(in %) 12.4. GEOGRAM

(SYNTHETIC SEISMIC SECTION)

Once the sonic and density curves have been

corrected and recalibrated, they can be used to
calculate the acoustic impedance and the reflec-
tion coefficients. Thus we obtain a reflectivity log
which is time and depth-matched, from the follo-
wing equation :

Fig. 12-14. - Relationships of sonic travel time and density with
depth for sands and shales.
r, = Rn - Rn + 1
Rn + R n i l
Rn being the acoustic impedance a t time n. The
trace of R n represents the impuls response along
the length of the well, as shown by the sonic and
density logs. By convoluting this trace with the
source wavelet we get a synthetic seismogram
which can then be compared with the real seismic
trace. This can be achieved using the Schlumber-
ger GEOGRAM program. Fig. 12-15 gives an
example showing the two time and depth scales,
the corrected sonic and density logs, caliper,

12.3. DENSITY LOG CORRECTION

We know that because of the invasion process, GEOGRAM PRIMARIES

...........
__.
the original fluid is partly replaced by mud filtrate.
Because of its shallow depth of investigation, the
density log responds mainly to the invaded zone.
The density measurement will therefore be too
high if the filtrate replaces light hydrocarbons,
especially gas, and it must be corrected to give the
density of the virgin zone. This is achieved first of
all by determining hydrocarbon type, rock type
(matrix density), and water saturation in the virgin
zone from a quantitative interpretation of the logs
using GLOBAL. The second stage consists of
recalculating the density using the following equa-
tion :

where

and Vn and pmanare the volumetric percentage and

the density of the nth mineral.
We know that in caved zones the density is
often strongly affected by the drilling mud and
thus ceases to be representative of the formation.
It must then be recomputed from the other logs
within the framework of a GLOBAL interpretation,
or by using a relationship between density and
depth for clays and sands (Fig. 12-14),the other
logs being used to identify particular situations.
When there is no density measurement, the
same relationship can be used to reconstruct a Fig. 12-15. - Example of a seismogram obtained using the
density curve as soon as the lithology has been GEOGRAM program (from Schlumberger Well Evaluation
established from the other logs. Conference. West Africa, 1983).
 553

gamma ray and the impedance and reflectivity

logs. The shape and polarity of the wavelet can be
varied to get an image which is closer to that of
the seismic trace.

12.5. COMPARISON OF GEOGRAM

WITH THE SEISMIC SECTIONS

This comparison allows the seismic trace to be

related to lithology or electrofacies (lithology plus
the influence of porosity and fluids) and thus an
extrapolation from the seismic profile (Fig. 12-16).
However, this comparison sometimes brings
out time differences, as well as differences in the
character of the traces. These may be due to :
- the corrected acoustic impedance being ad-
versely affected by poor hole conditions or by
incorrect assumptions about unrecorded sections;
- the seismic trace not being entirely represen-
tative of the reflection coefficients along the
length of the borehole. Even in a perfectly vertical
well, the seismic path is not entirely vertical,
especially if the sedimentary sequences show
substantial contrast or are dipping.

i:

Fig. 12-17. - Presentation of the vertical seismic profile after

data processing (from Schlumberger Well Evaluation Confe-
rence. West Africa, 1983).

800

710
1000
000

900
1200
IDDO

IIOS
1400 1235

! 300

I600 iU30

1503

1800
I800
! 10:

:BOD
2000
i900

2000

Fig. 12-16. - Interpretation of the seismogram of Fig. 12-15 and 2ior

comparison with the seismic section (from Schlumberger Well 2200
Evaluation Conference. West Africa, 1983).
2300

Fig. 12-18. - Correlations between the vertical seismic profile

2uo:

and the seismic section (from Schlumberger Well Evaluation 2500

Conference. West Africa, 1983). '45

554

-
1;6 5 0.Y63
O.YG9
0.Y77
6Y 0.Y B Y
63
62 0.Y92
0.501
60 0 . 5 21 25
59
56 0.529
57 0 . 5 u3 u6
56

---
55 0.551
54 0.558
53 0.566
52 0.571
51 0.579
50 0.586
Y9 0.592
Y6 0.596
Y6 0.613
Y5 0.621

see
YY 0.628
Y3 0.635
0.6Y2
“
YI 0.650
YO 0.657
36 0.618
36 0.681
35 0.688
3Y 0.691
33 0.7OY
32 0.711
I 0.721
29 0.13U
0.129
26
21 0.142
26 0.748
25 0.75u
2Y 0.767
23 0.710
0.780

-
22
21 0.786
U P G O I N G WRVES 20
IS
0.791
0,102
I6 0.806
17 0.816
L E V E L S rl T O 6 7 15 0 . 86 23 73
IU
13 0.8U2,

I0 0 . 8 6529
0.670
6 0.617
0.891
5 0.699
Y 0.905
LEVEL TIME
5

I M P E D R N ~ ~ R T F ~ O ~ g ~ S ~6 1o ~ E V E L
1.23 15500 f l - 5 0 0 . 1 . 5 0 I350J -/-F.C
2.40 16000 + 1 - 5 0 0

1.eO 111500 1 l - 5 0 0
2.UO 16000 *1-500
~ ~_________

IMPEDRNCE F R O M LOGS

IREFLECTION
FROM VSP LEVEL 61

LEVEL 4 7

L E V E L 12

I
R E F L E C T I O N FROM LOGS

Fig. 12-19. - Creation of the synthetic acoustic impedance log by inversion of the vertical seismic profile (from Schlumberger Well
Evaluation Conference. West Africa, 1983).

One way of reconciling the seismic trace and
the GEOGRAM is to substitute a vertical seismic
profile for the seismic trace. This gives a direct
representation of the coefficients at their exact
location as seen by the seismic source.
12.6. VSP INTERPRETATION
The VSP has applications other than simply
calibrating the sonic log. It can also be used to
obtain correlations along the length of the well and
to predict deep horizons (below the bottom of the
well).
12.6.1. Correlations
The VSP is presented as shown in Fig. 12-17,
after processing the data to recover the amplitude
as a function of time, to apply a velocity filter and
deconvolution and to eliminate multiples. It can be
compared with the seismic trace (Fig. 12-18), to
get an indication of the continuity of the beds and
their proximity to the borehole (cf. Schlumberger,
Well Evaluation Conference, West Africa, 1983).
12.6.2. Prediction
Reflectors may appear below the bottom of the
well, sometimes more clearly than on the seismic
trace. To get an idea of the formations which these
reflectors represent it is useful to work back to the
acoustic impedance by inverting the VSP trace
(Fig. 12-19). This method uses a technique of
iterative modelling with constraints.
12.7. REFERENCES
BOND, L.O., ALGER, R.P., & SCHMIDT, A.W.
(1971). - Well log Applications in Coal Mining
and Rock Mechanics. Trans. SME, 250.
DELFINER, P., PEYRET, O., & SERRA, 0. (1984). -
Automatic determination of Lithology from Well
Logs. 59th Ann. Techn. Conf. SPE of AIME,
Houston, Texas; paper no SPE 13290.
555
DELHOMME, J.P., & SERRA, 0. (1984). - Dipme-
ter-derived Logs for Sedimentological Analysis.
SPWLA, 9th Europ. Intern. Format. Eval. Trans.,
paper 50.
DUPAL, L., GARTNER, J., & VIVET, B. (1977).
-Seismic Applications of Well Logs. SPWLA, 5th
Europ. Symp. Trans., paper 8.
GOETZ, J.F., DUPAL, L., & BOWLER, J. (1979). - A n
investigation into discrepancies between sonic
log and seismic check shot velocities.
MAYER, C., & SIBBIT, A. (1980). - GLOBAL, a new
Approach to Computer-processed Log Interpre-
tation. SPE o f AIME, ann. Fall Mtg., Dallas, SPE
934 1.
MONS, F., & BABOUR, K. (1981). - Vertical Seismic
Profiling : Recording, Processing, Applications.
PEYRET, 0, & MONS, F. (1980). - Sonic versus
seismic velocities, positive drift study, recording
frequency effect.
Schlumberger Ltd (1974). - Log Interpretation.
Volume II - Applications.
Services Techniques Schlumberger (1 974). -Well
Evaluation Conference. North Sea.
Schlumberger (1979). - Well Evaluation Confe-
rence. Algeria.
Schlumberger Ltd (1981). - The Schlumberger
Cyber Service Unit.
Schlumberger Ltd (1981). - Data Processing Servi-
ces Catalogue.
Schlumberger Middle East S.A. (1981). - Well
Evaluation Conference. United Arab Emirates/
Qatar.
S.P.E. Schlumberger (1982). - Well Evaluation
Develop ments. Continental Europe.
Schlumberger (1983). - Well Evaluation Confe-
rence. Afrique de I'Ouest.
Schlumberger Technical Services, Inc. (1983).
-Well Evaluation Conference. India.
Schlumberger Middle East S.A. (1984). - Well
Evaluation Conference. Egypt.
Schlumberger Offshore Services (1984). - Evalua-
cion de Formaciones en Mexico.
SERRA, 0. (1984). - Fundamentals of Well-Log
Interpretation. Volume 1 : The Acquisition of
Logging Data. Developments in Petroleum
Science, 15A. 440 p., Elsevier, Amsterdam.
THOMAS, D.H. (1977). - Seismic Applications of
((Sonic )) Logs. SPWLA, 5th Europ. Symp.
Trans., paper 7.
 Chapter 13
STRATIGRAPHIC INFORMATION
(Arrangement of Rock Strata)
As defined by Gignoux (1936), stratigraphy is
that branch of geology which “studies the layers of
the earth’s crust and rocks from the point of view
of their chronological succession and their geo-
graphical distribution”.
Well logs provide a continuous image of the
sequence of formations encountered during a
logging run and from correlations between wells,
the logs can also give an idea of geographical
distribution. Given this, it is clear that well logs can
be a rich source of stratigraphic information, a fact
which has long been recognised by geologists.
The stratigraphic information which can be
derived from well logs can be classified into
several categories.
13.1. RELATIVE DATING
Because the logs show the sequence of forma-
tions in reverse chronological order, they are
generally useful for providing a relative dating.
This is true even in the case of folded or overtur-
ned sequences, which can in fact be identified
much more easily from logs than by any other
method (cf. following sections).
Furthermore, logs provide much greater preci-
sion in determining the stratigraphic distribution.
Because of the degree of detail they provide,
largely due to the very good vertical resolution of
microdevices such as ML, MLL, MSFL’, the
dipmeters HDT’ or SHDT and the Formation
Microscanner tool, the logs can provide relative
Mark of Schlumberger.
dating on a scale of the order of decimetres or
sometimes even centimetres. This cannot be
achieved by any other stratigraphic technique,
particularly in uniform deposits.
13.2. DEFINITION
OF PARASTRATIGRAPHIC UNITS
The measured formations can be subdivided
into units which may be termed parastratigraphic
(Busson, 1972). These units can be dated directly if
characteristic flora and fauna can be detected in
core samples or cuttings, or indirectly, from sur-
rounding sequences which have themselves been
dated. These units are delimited by marker levels
above and below. Of substantial extent, these
markers are approximately parallel, suggesting a
continuous sequence of deposition.
Depending on the refinement of the division
into stratigraphic units, it may possible to identify
units which correspond to very specific periods in
the geological history of a basin (e.g. a volcanic
episode), thus providing stratigraphic markers of
considerable significance.
13.3. STRATIGRAPHIC PHENOMENA
Stratigraphic phenomena such as cessation of
sedimentation, erosion, unconformities or discon-
formities are usually indicated by changes in the
values and appearance of the curves on at least
one log, usually several. The use of logs to identify
these phenomena will thus involve analysing each
discontinuity on a curve in order to establish the
most likely cause for its occurrence.
558

13.3.1. Definition of a Curve Discontinuity 13.3.2. Significance of breaks on Curves

A curve discontinuity or break is any significant
response change occurring over a depth interval
not exceeding the vertical resolution of the tool.
The break will appear sharper when the depth
scale is more compressed and the resolution of
the tool is good. Thus it will be easier to identify
on a 1/1000 log than on a 1/200 or 1/40 log and if
the measurement is by a microdevice rather than
a macrodevice.
Any break is an indication of a major change in
at least one of the factors affecting the response
of the tool. This is why a break is so significant and
why we must try to determine the reason for it.
However, any major change in one of the geologi-
cal parameters will provoke a response change,
and thus a discontinuity, but only on those logs
which measure parameters which are susceptible
to such a change.

Fig. 13-1. - Discontinuities on curves indicating major lithological changes in sequences characterizing an increasingly restricted
basin (from Serra, 1980).
 559

Breaks on curves fall into two major categories :
13.3.2.1. Breaks Corresponding
to a Major Change in Lithology
A change in lithology represents a major
change in sedimentation conditions and may or
may not be part of a sequential pattern.
(a) In the first case, the lithological change only
represents the passage from one element of the
sequence to the next, e.g., dolomite + anhydrite
+ halite + potassium salts.
The nature of the lithological change will shed
light on the polarity of the sedimentary sequence.
Fig. 13-1 gives an example of a sequence genera-
ted in an increasingly restricted basin, while Fig.
13-2 provides an example of the converse.

Proximity-log

1
R-m
0.2 1 10 100
------
;" 16"
(inches)
2 2.5 3

Microlog Induction
short normal

I Gamma Ray

Fig. 13-2. - Discontinuities on curves indicating lithological changes which indicate an opening of the basin and increasingly marked
marine influences (from Serra, 1980).
560

(b) In the second case, several reasons may be

advanced to explain such a change. The choice
between them will depend on :
- a detailed analysis of the various logs, cove-
ring lithology, facies and sequential analysis, as
well as interpretation of the dipmeter and correla-
tions with seismic measurements in the vicinity;
- complementary information, such as analysis Fig. 13-3. - An example of erosion seen clearly on a dipmeter
of samples or cuttings and knowledge of the Log. Notice the reduction in thickness of the conductive bed
geology of the region. on the curve in the middle relative to the neighbouring curves.
The increased thickness of the resistive bed located above
We now examine the possible reasons for a should also be noted. This indicates a filling of the palaeo-
break. For each reason the controlling elements trough.
which support the hypothesis will also be analy-
sed.

Diagenesis together
with a mineralogical change
This phenomenon occurs frequently in carbo-
nate sequences. There is a response change in the
tools which are sensitive to mineralogy, that is, the
LDT' tool, neutron CNL' tool, and compensated
or Array Sonic ' tools. The change will be shown
up by studying the behaviour of the (Pma)a, ( U m a ) a
Fig. 13-4. - Example of dip variations between the upper and
and (Atma)a measurements. lower boundaries of a bed.

Erosion
The analysis of a dipmeter processed by the
GEODIP program may reveal either a reduction in
the thickness of a bed from one resistivity curve to
another (Fig. 13-3), or a variation in dip angle or
azimuth between the upper and lower boundaries
(Fig. 13-4), or sometimes both. The analysis may
Mark of Schlumberger.
also reveal an absence of planarity indicated on
the arrow-plot by four small arrows at the same
depth, or by a wavy line in the margin (Fig. 13-5).
If such a recording is not available a sequential
analysis may reveal the disappearance of one or
more elements of the theoretical sequence. Fi-
nally, correlations with nearby wells can reveal this
gap in the sequence (Fig. 13-6).

Fig. 13-5. - Example of the absence of planarity noted by the

GEODIP (a) and DUALIP (b) programs.

b
Fig. 13-6. - Example of erosion identified by correlations between wells (Lardenois & Serra, 1967).

56 1
562

Fig. 13-7. - Example of an unconforrnity indicated by an interval without coherent dips (zone B) corresponding to a zone of alteration
(courtesy of Schlumberger).

Unconformity DIP ANGLE 8

DEPTH DIRECTION
This may be due to a prolonged interruption in
the process of sedimentation, that is, the upper
sequence being deposited on the eroded, upper
surface of the existing beds which have been
exposed to various types of erosion.
When two successive beds have been deposi-
ted horizontally, the change in the surface of
erosion is the only indication of an unconformity.
In this case, the surface of erosion usually shows
up as either (a) an interval without dip or with no
dip values of coherent azimuth (Fig. 13-7) which
indicates a heterogeneous formation whose origi-
nal stratification has been disrupted by alteration
and bioturbation, or (b) by a grouping of "blue"
dips (Fig. 13-8).
When the unconformity is angular it is generally
much easier to detect since the beds do not have
the same dip on either side of the unconformity :
the upper sequence rests on the upset beds of the
lower sequences affected by tectonic movement. I
This condition is shown on an arrow-plot by a fairly Fig. 13-8. - Example of an unconformity characterized by the
abrupt and significant change of dip and azimuth presence of a "blue" cluster (Dipmeter Interpretation, courtesy
(Fig. 13-9). of Schlumberger, 1981).
 563

The erosion connected with the unconformity

may have resulted in a degree of a topographical
relief whose hollows may have been the first to be
filled when sedimentation recommenced. This is
usually indicated by dips increasing with depth,
showing up on the arrow-plot as a "red" pattern
right up to the boundary of the unconformity (Fig.
13-10 a t 6700 feet).

TRUE DIP ANGLE

R t SISTIVITV

INCRE AStS

3 IT I 3 I T SS BflrZ

CORRELATION
DIP ANGLE a DIRECTION
CURVE
-RESISTIVITY-
_ _(mi 0
DEPTh
10 20 30 4 0

Fig. 13-10. - Angular unconformity topped by a 'red" cluster

(from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference, Iran, 1978).

An unconformity may also be revealed by a

change in the shale baseline on an SP curve (Fig.
'.
13-11) Another indication of an unconformity
may be a change in the average radioactivity level
of the clays, or a change in the thorium-potassium
ratio which will be shown by the Natural Gamma-

' This phenomenon should not be confused with that

which occurs when formations with waters of different salinity
Fig. 13-9. - Angular unconformities identified by a change oi are separated by a clay which does not constitute a perfect
dip azimuth (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference, cationic membrane, or when the water salinity changes within
Iran, 1976). the reservoir (Fig. 13-12).
564

SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL

Fig. 13-11. - Example of unconformities identified by the

displacement of the clay baseline of the SP ((a) and (b) from
Doll, 1948; (c) from Serra, 1972).

4 Fig. 13-12. - Changes of the clay baseline of the SP due to a

change in the salinity of the formation water (courtesy of
Schlumberger).
Shole &

----
Sandstone 8

ray Spectroscopy tool (Fig. 13-13). These pheno-

-Shale
-- -
c -
mena may be explained by a combination of
- several factors :
- a change in the mineralogical composition of
Sandstone D the clays (e.g. transition to an illite or montmorillo-
nite) and of the associated elements (e.g. organic
-
- ---
E
Shale
matter and heavy minerals). This may be due
either to a change in the depositional environment,
or to different conditions on either side of the
unconformity;
Sandstone F - variation in the salinity of the water bound to
the clays.
A sudden change in the compaction gradient
- -L=
A h *
may be detected by analysing the variation of
acoustic travel time in the clays with depth. This
Sanditone H will represent a change in the conditions of burial
or sedimentation at the unconformity, and so
indicate its presence (Fig. 13-14).
 565

OR 1 OR
(API)
I (API)

Fig. 13-13. - Detection of an unconformity using the NGS tool. Note the very marked change in the thorium-potassium ratio on
the two sides of the unconformity (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference, Venezuela, 1980).

10
50 100 200
At-gdft

Fig. 13-14. - Three examples of the detection of unconformities

from compaction profiles (Serra, 1972; Chiarelli et a/., 1973;
Fertl, 1976).
566

Ashes, lava flows or volcanic intrusions

A bed of volcanic ashes is usually characterised RADIAlION INCREASES

by a radioactive peak due to an increase in the

thorium ratio (cinerite, bentonite levels, Fig. 13-15).
Lava flows or volcanic intrusions (andesite or
basalt) can be more closely identified by a detailed
lithological analysis (cf. Chapter 2 and 9). Analysis
of thin sections of cuttings will also help with the
identification of the rocks and their placing in the
stratigraphic sequence.

Transgression
This may appear in various forms : (a) as a thin
calcareous bed, rich in shell debris, at the head of
a prograding sequence, topped by fine prograding
sediments (Fig. 13-16); (b) as a condensation level
rich in phosphate debris, glauconite and in organic
matter rich in uranium characterised by a radioac-
tivity peak (Fig.13-17).

Fig. 13-15. - Cinerite levels marked by thorium peaks and used b

to establish correlations in the Santa Barbara channels (from
Lock & Hoyer, 1971).

FACIES

345670

:ig. 13-16. - Thin carbonaceous levels clearly marked on the resistivity, neutron-hydrogen index and density curves, evidence of
transgressive periods before a reversion to prograding sequences (from Serra & Sulpice, 1975).
 567

SONIC
GR
140 90 40

-z
6
w
U

v)
3
8
Y
z
8U
u

SONIC
GR 140

Fig. 13-17. - Examples of unconformities marked by a peak of radioactivity on the resumption of sedimentation (Serra, 1972).

ectonic accident 13.3.2.2. Breaks without Major Lithological

A fault or a thrust fault may bring together two
rocks of different composition. The dipmeter
analysis combined with a search for correlations
within the well itself (in the case of an inverse
fault) or with nearby wells (in the case of a normal
fault) will usually identify such an occurrence (cf.
following sections).
Change
The use of the LITHO program or crossplots to
determine lithology will not reveal a major litholo-
gical change, but certain curves will show the
existence of a major break. The origin of this
discontinuity must be established from among the
following possible causes :
568

DRIFT CORRELATIONS

RESISTIVm
RESISTIVITY
OBSERVATIONS 1NTERPRETATIO)I
4------- x)" CURVES
S

M
I I 2
PADS
3 4 1

z
medium scale plansr major dune
cross bedding (transverse type)
bottomset bed
wadi doposlt
major dune
bottomset bed
-
-topset bed=

major dune
I (transverw type)

more cemented
aharp contact bottomset bed

possible parabollc
ulmuth change dune t y P

medlum scale planar

cross-beddlng

291
- sharp contect
major dune
(tranavww type)

large-sale planer
cross beddlng

J
I more cemented
Bherp contact bottomset bed

t
I

i
'I ulmuth change
posalble parabollc
duns type

Y
I bottomset bed
Interdune 8abkha
dopoalt

major dune
(transverse type)
It
k
mdlurn-scale
,Ianar cross-bedding
-
: largo bluepattern
: b l w 6 red patterns
:sc.tt.md
rp :mdpmrrn
sbrp : smab red 6 blue patterns
gp : g m n pattern

Fig. 13-18. - Example of a sudden change seen on the dipmeter resistivity curves, showing a more cemented zone in an eolian sand.

- Change in the type of fluid: in this case, the
discontinuity appears mainly on the resistivity
curves and possibly on the density, neutron and
sonic curves if there is a gas-oil or gas-water
contact.
- Textural change : a change in sorting or in the
percentage of cement will affect the porosity and
consequently all measurements which depend on
it, such as density, hydrogen index, sonic travel
time and resistivity. An example is shown in Fig.
13-18. A sudden change in grain size may result in
a sharp variation in radioactivity due to a change
in the content of radioactive minerals (clays,
micas, and heavy minerals containing thorium or
uranium). An example is given in Fig. 13-19. These
textural changes which occur suddenly may indi-
cate either an erosion or a transgression.
- Diagenesis : as shown in Chapter 7, diagene-
tic phenomena usually result in a variation in
e l
Fig. 13-19. - Example of textural change in a sand, detected on the density, hydrogen-neutron index and resistivity curves and to
a lesser degree on the gamma ray. Sand (e) is more coarse and poorly sorted than the lower sand (d) (from Serra & Sulpice, 1975).
569
porosity. However, they are frequently not homo-
geneous, and so there may be sudden changes in
the response, resulting in an erratic curve.
- Erosion : as we have seen above, erosion may
be indicated by a sudden change in the textural
parameters. But it may also be the result of an
abrupt change with opposing trend on the resisti-
vity curves, indicating a sudden change in grain
size trends (e.g. a fluvial channel eroding a coastal
bar).
- Tectonic accident, which may bring into
contact two identical lithologies with different
petrophysical properties. Dipmeter analysis, pos-
sibly supplemented by correlations between wells,
should identify such an occurrence.
- Unconformity: a change in the shale baseline,
possibly associated with a change in radioactivity
may indicate an unconformity (Fig. 13-11). Dipme-
ter analysis should confirm this.
570
13.4. GEOLOGICAL PHENOMENA
The examination of the various curves recorded,
especially the gamma ray, may reveal the exis-
tence of unexpected phenomena.
Fig. 13-20 shows the case of repeated sequen-
ces clearly indicated by the radioactivity curve. Fig.
13-21 shows the case of a fold in a highly
monotone sequence which is not revealed either
by the lithology or the fossil record. However, it is
clearly indicated by the resist%ty curve as very
fine peaks or groups of peaks which are very
m L D(LLTE" M MC"
...................
4 Fig. 13-20a. - Example of a repeated sequence confirmed by
characteristic of such an occurrence. In some
cases, such as deviated wells, the repeated se-
quence may be equally well explained as a normal
fault as by a thrust fault (Fig. 13-22).
Overturned sequences can be identified fairly
easily as soon as it is realised that a correlation
can be made by inverting one section of the logs
and comparing it with another (Fig. 13-23).
Other phenomena may also be revealed, such
as synsedimentary or growth faults and condensa-
tion. However, these require correlation techni-
ques between several wells in order to be detec-
ted. They will be analysed later (chapter 15).
2WSm - P
CAIULT
2646m
8'
2UIm
Fig. 13-20b. - Schematic interpretation of Fig. 13-20a (from
Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference, Iran, 1976).
the correlation of the radioactivity curve. The interval
2562-2644 is repeated between 2740-2820 (from Schlumberger.
Well Evaluation Conference, Iran, 1976).
 .-
P O RTO CANNON E a

P O R T 0 CANNONE 1

/
P O R T 0 CANNONE 11

LOCATION MAP
571

Fig. 13-21. - Example of overthrust which can only be reconstructed correctly from the logs. Port0 Cannone Field, Italy. (Serra. 1972).
572

Fig. 13-22. - Example of a repeated sequence which may be explained either by a thrust fault or by a normal fault (Serra, 1972).
 573

-I

a
i b

Fig. 13-23. - Examples of folded sequences confirmed by gamma ray correlations. The dipmeter log joined to the figure on the left
(a) allows us to locate the apex of the fold (12900). the second fold is situated around 13380-13390 (courtesy of Schlumberger).
574
13.5. REFERENCES
BATES, R.L. &JACKSON, J.A. (1980).- Glossary of
Geology. 2nd ed. Amer. Geol. Inst., Falls Church,
Virginia.
BUSCH, D.A. (1974). - Stratigraphic Traps in
Sandstones - Exploration Techniques. Amer.
Assoc. Petroleum Geol., Mem. 21.
BUSSON,. G. (1972). - Principes, methodes et
resultats d'une etude stratigraphique du Meso-
zoi'que saharien. Mem. Museum Nat. Hist.
Natur., nouvelle serie, serie C, Sci. de la Terre,
26.
CAMPBELL, R.L. (1968). - Stratigraphic applica-
tions of dipmeter data in Mid-Continent. Bull.
amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geol., 52, p. 1700-1719.
CHIARELLI, A,, SERRA, O., GRAS, C., MASS, P. &
TISON, J. (1973). - Etude automatique de la
sous-compaction des argiles par diagraphies
differees. Rev. Inst. Franc. Petrole, 28, 1, p. 19 a
36.
DICKEY, P.A. (1979). - Petroleum Development
Geology. Petroleum Publishing Co., Tulsa.
DICKINSON, W.R. (ed) (1974). - Tectonics and
Sedimentation. SEPM, special publication 22.
DOLL, H.G. (1948). - The S.P. Log: Theoretical
Analysis and Principles of interpretation. AIME,
Technical Publication No. 2463.
DUFF, P.Mc L.D., HALLAM, A. & WALTON, E.K.
(1967). - Cyclic Sedimentation. Dewelopments in
Sedimentology, 10, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
FERTL, W.H. (1976). - Abnormal formation pressu-
res. Development in Petroleum Sciences, 2,
Elsevier Amsterdam
FRIEDMAN, G.M. & SANDERS, J.E. (1978). -Prin-
ciples of Sedimentology. John Wiley & Sons,
New York.
GARY, M., Mc AFEE, R.Jr. & WOLF, C.L. (1972).
-Glossary of Geology. Arner. Geol. Inst., Was-
hington, D.C.
GIGNOUX, M . (1950). - Geologie stratigraphique.
Masson, Paris.
GILREATH, J.A. & MARICELLI, J.J. (1964). -Detai-
led Stratigraphic Control through dip Computa-
tions. Bull. amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geol., 48, 12,
p. 1902-1910.
HOBSON, G.D. & TIRATSOO, E.N. (1975). -1ntro-
duction to Petroleum Geology. Scientific Press
Ltd, Beaconsfield, England.
KRUMBEIN, W.C. & SLOSS, L.L. (1963). -Strati-
graphy and Sedimentation. 2nd ed. W.H. Free-
man & Co., San Francisco.
LANDES, K.K. (1951). - Petroleum Geology. John
Wiley & Sons, New York.
LARDENOIS, J. & SERRA, 0. (1967). - Series aux
multiples visages. Rev. Inst. Franc. Petrole, 22,
12, p. 1793 B 1817.
LEET, L. Don, JUDSON, S. & KAUFFMAN, M.E.
(1978). - Physical Geology. 5th ed. Prentice-Hall
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
LINK, P.K. (1982). - Basic Petroleum Geology. OGCI
Publications, Tulsa.
LOCK, G.A. & HOYER, W.A. (1971). - Natural
Gamma Ray Spectral Logging. The Log Analyst,
12, 5, p. 3-9.
MATTHEWS, R.K. (1974, 1984). - Dynamic Strati-
graphy. 1st and 2nd ed. Prentice-Hall lnc.,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
PERRODON, A. (1980). - Geodynamique petroliere.
Genese et repartition des gisements d'hydro-
carbures. Elf-Aquitaine et Masson, Pau et Paris.
PIRSON, S.J. (1977). - Geologic Well Log Analysis.
2nd ed. Gulf Publishing Co., Houston.
PRESS, F. & SIEVER, R. (1978). - Earth. 2nd ed.
W.H. Freeman & Co., San Francisco.
RUSSELL, W.L. (1951). - Principles of Petroleum
Geology. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Services Techniques Schlumberger (1976). - Well
Evaluation Conference, Iran.
Schlumberger Surenco S.A. (1980). - Evaluacion
de Formaciones en Venezuela.
Schlumberger Ltd (1981). - Dipmeter Interpreta-
tion. Volume I - Fundamentals.
Schlumberger Technical Services, Inc. (1982). -Es-
sentials of NGS Interpretation.
SERRA, 0. (1972). - Diagraphies et Stratigraphie.
In Mem. B.R.G.M., 77,p. 775-832.
SERRA, 0. & SULPICE, L. (1975). - Sedimentologi-
cal analysis of shale-sand series from well logs.
SPWLA, 16th Ann. Log. Symp. Trans., paper W.
SERRA, 0. (1980). - Aspects diagraphiques des
evaporites. Bull. C.R. SNEA (P.), 4, 1, p. 411-431.
 Chapter 14
INFORMATION O N TECTONICS
(Deformation of rocks)
14.1. INTRODUCTION
After formation, hydrocarbons migrate under
the action of compaction, from the source rock
towards their ultimate reservoirs. This mechanism
is called primary migration. Once in the reservoir
rock they continue to move, a process called
secondary migration, settling out above the denser
water occupying the porous spaces of the rock.
The rate a t which this process takes place de-
pends on hydrodynamic gradient within the reser-
voir which is controled by the permeability. As the
hydrocarbons rise, displacing the formation water,
they may encounter permeability barriers that
constitute traps, under which they accumulate and
form hydrocarbon-bearing strata.
Traps are usually classified into three categories
(Fig. 14-1) :
- structural traps;
- stratigraphic traps;
- mixed or diverse traps.
Among them, structural traps play the major
role in accumulating hydrocarbons. According to
Halbouty (1976), 78% of the 306 major hydrocar-
bon fields in the United States (more than 14
million tons of oil or gas equivalent, for each one)
are related to the existence of structural traps.
According to Perrodon (1980). this type of trap
represents 89% of the 266 biggest fields in the
world (more than 70 million tons of oil or equiva-
lent of gas). These traps are formed by the action
of forces that deform the rocks. Rocks with very
low permeability or cap rocks serve as the closure
of these traps.
Stratigraphic traps, representing 10 O/o of the
biggest fields in the world, correspond to the
permeability barriers, formed by lateral variations
of facies, stratigraphic pinch-outs of the rocks, or
unconformities.
The third category, mixed or diverse traps, are
linked to diagenesis or related to differential
pressure.
The drilling of exploration, appraisal and deve-
lopment wells and the analysis of wireline logs
recorded in them, in particular dipmeter data,
leads to the establishment of correlations and the
study of pressure gradients throughout the reser-
voir. The data may be also used to complement
high resolution seismic. All of these methods allow
the picture of the subsurface structure to be
refined to a high level of precision.
Analysis of the correlations between 3 wells, X,
Y and 2 (Fig. 14-2) results in the definition of the
structural form represented in Figure 14-2a. In this
case the information obtained from dipmeter logs
modified, appreciably, the final structural features,
particularly the position of the anticline crest
(Fig. 14-2b).
Certain structures in the North Sea (such as
Piper, Fig. 14-3), originally interpreted as anticlines
or as pinching out layers under an unconformity,
appeared as more a complex series of faulted
blocks as a result of the study of dipmeter data.
It is necessary to emphasize that the interpreta-
tion of dipmeter data cannot be carried out
without knowledge of lithology, environment and
the tectonic features of the basins in which the
drilling is carried out. Moreover, it seems that
knowledge of some of the essential concepts
concerning the deformation mechanisms, the
mechanical behaviour of the rocks, and the rela-
tion between the types of deformation and the
sedimentary basins is necessary. These concepts
allow a better understanding of the problems
confronted. Some of these concepts have been
reviewed briefly in Chapter 11. Others are revie-
wed hereafter prior to discussing the actual inter-
pretation of dipmeter data.
576

Shoestring sand Fault trap

updip sand pinchout Onlap Complex fault trap

Unconformitytraps Reefs Reverse fault block

&
I @-
Porosity permeability pinchout Deltas Complex subthrust traps

STRATIGRAPHIC TRAPS FAULT TRAPS

An ticline

Faulted anticline Deep-seated salt dome

Asymmetrical anticline Piercement salt dome

OveHhrust anticline Complex traps associated with salt domes

ANTICLINES SALT STRUCTURES

Fig. 14-1. - The various types of trap (adapted from Penn Well).
 577

a
Fig. 14-2. - (a) Structure deduced from the correlations between wells; (b) Structural cross-section after introducing dipmeter data
(from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference. Venezuela, 1980).

1 a A'

4 Fig. 14-3. - (a) Plan showing the position of the cross-section

across the Piper field.

Fig. 14-3. - (b) Cross section across the Piper field, North Sea.
v
b PIS P4 P3 PI6 A'
578

14.2. REVIEW OF GENERAL CONCEPTS

Undeformed

14.2.1. Definition

Structural geology is "the branch of geology

that deals with the form, arrangement, and internal
structure of the rocks, and especially with the
description, representation, and analysis of struc-
tures, chiefly on a moderate to small scale" (Glos-
sary of Geology, 1980).
Tectonics is "a branch of geology dealing with
the broad architecture of the outer part of the Fig. 14-5. - Deformation due to a finite force in three dirnen-
Earth, that is, the regional assembling of structural sions (from Ramsay, 1967).
or deformational features, a study of their mutual
relations, origin, and historical evolution. It is
closely related to structural geology, ..., but tecto-
nics generally deals with larger features" (Glossary
of Geology, 1980). The reaction of rocks to stress falls into two
A structure, in the tectonic sense of the term, is categories :
"the general disposition, attitude, arrangement, or - continuous strains : fold and flow;
relative positions of the rock masses of a region or - discontinuous strains : fractures, faults and
area" (Glossary of Geology, 1980). pressure-solution (stylolites).
A fold is a continuous deformation, a "curve or The measurement of these changes enables
bend of a planar structure such as rock strata, determination of the type of strain.
bedding planes" (Glossary of Geology, 1980). When the strain acts on two dimensions
A fault is "a fracture or a zone of fractures along (Fig. 14-4), we have :
which there has been displacement of the sides - the extension, e, that is defined as the change
relative to one another parallel to the fracture" in length;
(Glossary of Geology, 1980). This is a disconti-
nuous deformation that acts a t the occasion of
surfaces of weakness, irrespective of any deforma-
tion of the formations on either side of the fault.
If we express the ratio 11/1, as equal to h we
14.2.2. The Results of Stresses : Strains have :
e=h-1
As previously seen, stress deforms the bodies,
- the quadratic elongation, h, defined as the
causing variations in dimensions and the angles
square of the ratio of the lengths before and after
between their different lines or planes (Figs. 14-4
the strain;
and 14-5).

gd
- the logarithmic, natural or true strain, E, is the
logarithm of h
AI
E = 2lo -
I1 I
- the angular shear, \~r,and the shear strain, y ,
that express the angular variations, are related by :
I
y = tanW

With strain acting on three dimensions

(Fig. 14-5), one considers the coordinate variations

I A. Unstrained
state
B. Homogeneous C. lnhomogeneous
strain strain
of a point (x, y, z) before and after strain (x,, yl, a).
Normally, strains are classified in two types,
according to the following geometrical criteria :
Fig. 14-4. - Various types of two-dimensional deformation - Homogeneous strains (Fig. 14-48), characteri-
(from Ramsay, 1967). zed by the following properties :
 579

straight lines remain straight after strain;

(w
I

. parallel lines remain parallel after strain

constant) ;
. all lines in the same direction have the same
values of e.
- Inhomogeneous strains (Fig. 14-4C). In this
case we observe that : + + + + +
. straight lines become curved after strain; + + + + +
. parallel line lose their parallelism;
. the values of e and w
vary in any given
a
direction of the strained bodies.
Strain results can be classified in two important
categories.
b
14.2.3. General Orientation of Stresses
Fig. 14-7. - Examples of tension folds.
The diagrams in Figure 14-6 represent the
various stress states which may be encountered
and the main structures that will be formed by
those stresses, as well as the type of sedimentary 14.2.4. Continuous Strain : Fold
basins associated with them.
A fold is a flexible strain of materials submitted
to compressive or tensile tectonic stresses.

DIRECTION OF STRESSES RESULTS 14.2.4.1. Tensile stress

0,
TENSION A normal fault in a basement may be reflected
lntracontinental rifts (graben)
normal faults often in echelon in the cover by flexure of the overlying beds
growth fault
open fractures, stylolites with peaks (Fig. 14-7a). Differential compaction (Fig. 14-7b), or
in direction of ol vertical movements : diapiric uplifts (diapiric sha-
les, mud lump, or halokinesis), and magmatic
Compression
Superficial zone (brittle rocks) instructions, present the same situation.
(minimal horizontal stress)
reverse faults
0,
healed fractures styloliter
with peaks in direction of a1
14.2.4.2. Compressive stress
All types of folds are possible, according to the
Compression
mechanism of their formation (flexure by com-
Superficial zone (brittle rocks) pression or by action of a torque or folding by
(minimal horizontal stress)
thrust faults shearing), the mechanical behaviour of rocks, and
their competency. The latter is a relative property
that indicates the capacity of a rock to withstand
compression without variation in thickness. A
Fold axis
P competent rock will transmit a compressive force
Compression
much farther than a weak, incompetent rock.
Intermediate zone with Hence, more competent beds will bend under
visco plastic rocks
folds and overlapping plastic strain and slip over other beds, under the
(<Thoughbasins M Miogeosyncline
Eugeosyncline
effect of compression. The incompetent layers
that are more passive may be subject to complex
d strains. In the most simple case, the fold will be an
isopach type (see the definition, later). We will
have similar folds (Fig. 14-8c) with developing
schistosity in the most complex case, or in connec-
tion with a viscous flow.
Halo or argilokinesis
Or igneous intrusion
A fold usually has a general cylindrical symme-
viscous rocks try (Fig. 14-9). However, regardless of the extent of
tension folds
intracratonic rift, hoist. diapir a fold - it cannot be infinite - each extremity must
develop into a conical structure (Fig. 14-10).
Domes (diapiric uplift) generally have conical
Fig. 14-6. - Relations between structures, the forces acting symmetry. The apical angle is the characteristic
upon them and the type of basin. element of a conical fold.
580

Fold b Class 2 Fold 5 Class 3

Sirnllar DIY.rg."l a
~~

-
Fig. 14-10. The geometrical elements of a conical fold.

14.2.4.3. Descriptive Element of a Fold

(Fig. 14-11)
- The crest is the highest point of a given
stratum in any vertical section through a fold and
from which the surface slopes downward in
opposite directions.
- The trough is the lowest point of a given layer
in any section through a fold.
- The hinge corresponds to the locus of the
fold's surface, where the curvature is at a maxi-
mum. A box fold has two hinges, while a perfectly
circular fold has no hinge.
- The hinge line is a line joining the points of
flexure or maximum curvature of the bedding
planes in a fold.
- The crestal line is "a line joining the crest
points in a given stratum" (Glossary of Geology,
1980).
- The crestal surface is "a surface that connects
the crest line of the beds of an anticline" (Glossary
of Geology, 1980).
- The axial surface is a surface that joins the
hinge lines of the various beds in a fold. In a
vertical fold, the axial and the crestal surfaces are
indistinguishable; in an asymmetric fold those
Fig. 14-8. - Basic fold types : a) Theoretical folds; b) lsopach
folds; c) Similar folds (from Ramsay, 1967).
surfaces can be distinguished from one another.
- The fold limbs or flanks are the sides of a fold.
They correspond to that area of a fold between
two successives hinges. They generally have a
greater radius of curvature than the hinge region.
They may be planar.
Axis I Y
- The plunge is the angle between the fold axis
Crestal line and the horizontal plane measured in the vertical
-
Inflection
line
plane. It may be as great as 900.This is the case
of folds with a vertical axis, which are observed in
vertical series deformed by the passage of strike
slip (Fig. 14-12).
- The angle of folding or interlimb angle is the
dihedral angle formed by the two planes that are
tangent to the two limbs of a fold a t their inflection
I
points.
- The bisecting plane is the plane that divides
Fig. 14-9. - The geometrical elements of a cylindrical fold. the angle of folding into two equal parts.
 581

Hinge point

Median
surface

a 'F' ' Interlimb angle

Axrd surface

Crertal surface

Plunge of hinge line

Axial trace

Fig. 14-11. - Descriptive elements of a fold (from Ramsay, 1967).

Antiform

qy
Axirl g l m

Fig. 14-12. - A fold with a vertical axis. Fig. 14-13. - The different forms of fold.

14.2.4.4. Fold Shape (Fig. 14-13)
We can distinguish two main shapes of folds :
- antiform folds that present a convex curvature
in an upward direction : the limbs close upward;
an anticline is a fold, generally convex upward,
whose core contains the stratigraphically older
rocks.
- synform folds that present a concave curva-
ture upward : the limbs close downward. A syn-
cline is a fold, generally concave upward, of which
the core contains the stratigraphically younger
rocks.
If the folded layers retain their correct deposi-
tional sequence in the structure, the same folds
are termed antiformal anticline or synformal
582
Fig. 14-14. - Example of similar folds
Fig. 14-15. - Nomenclature of folds.
syncline. If they are in an inverted sequence, they
are termed synformal anticline or antiformal syn-
cline.
14.2.4.5. Fold Type
W e can observe, either a homogeneity in the
thickness of the beds (elastic, brittle rocks), or a
variation in thickness owing to creep or flowage
(plastic rocks), depending on the mechanical
behaviour of rocks during folding.
- Parallel folding (Fig. 14-8b), in which the
normal thickness of a bed, i.e. the thickness
measured perpendicularly from top to bottom,
remains constant. The radius of curvature decrea-
ses with depth. This is the most frequent type of
fold formed a t shallow or medium depths.
- Similar folding (Fig. 14-8c) "in which the
orthogonal thickness of the folded strata is greater
in the hinge than in the limbs, but the distance
between any two folded surfaces is constant when
measured parallel to the axial surface" (Glossary
of Geology, 1980). The form of the fold does not
vary with depth (Fig. 14-14). These folds are
formed a t great depth and in the zone of schisto-
sity.
14.2.4.6. Nomenclature of Folds
In addition to the above-mentioned classifica-
tions (by curvature and by type), folds are also
classified as a function of their geometrical shape
through a transversal section. Figure 14-15 illustra-
tes the main folds of this classification with their
nomenclature and with the theoretical representa-
tion of dips in a plane perpendicular to the axis.
A . Verticel Displacamant
0 . Horizontal Displeeement
C . Diejonal Displacement
Fig. 14-16. - Faults with translational displacement.
W e can distinguish the following folds :
- A symmetrical or upright fold is a fold with a
vertical axial surface.
- An asymmetrical fold has an inclined axial
surface with limbs that dip in opposite directions
and with different angles.
- An overturned fold has an axial surface, and
its two limbs, inclined in the same direction,
usually a t different angles.
- A recumbent fold has a nearly horizontal axial
surf ace.
- A fan fold has a broad hinge region and limbs
that are overturned and converge away from the
hinge.
A fold is called isoclinal when its limbs are
parallel to one another.
14.2.5. Discontinuous Strain :
Fractures and Faults
These deformations represent the surfaces of a
distinct discontinuity, along which cohesion has
been lost. The materials between these surfaces
may not be deformed.
- Fracture is a general term that indicates all
breaks or ruptures in a rock, with or without
displacement.
- Fault is "a fracture or a zone of fractures
along which there has been displacement of the
sides relative to one another parallel to the fractu-
re" (Glossary of Geology, 1980).
Calling a fault a fracture depends on the scale
of observation. Due to the importance of fractures
on reservoir properties (especially permeability), a
complete chapter has been devoted to the study
of fractured reservoirs. Hereafter, our discussion
will be limited to faults.
14.2.5.1. Movement Along a Fault
W e have seen that faults are fractures with
displacements. The displacement or throw of the

ROTATIONAL PIVOTAL
~ ~~
I
Fig. 14-17. - Faults with rotational displacement.
opposite parts of the fault ranges from a few
centimetres to several hundred kilometres, while
its length may be of the same orders.
The relative movement along a fault may be
translational (Fig. 14-16) or rotational (Fig. 14-17).
When the movement is translational all straight
lines in each block that were parallel before
faulting remain so afterwards. The movement may
be vertical (dip slip fault), horizontal (strike slip
fault), or mixed ( diagonal slip fault). The dip of
beds on either side of the fault remains unchan-
ged.
With rotational movement, certain elements in
each block that were parallel before dislocation
are no longer so. The dip of the beds in each block
is different.
14.2.5.2. Fault Description (Fig. 14-18)
A fault is described by defining the following
elements :
0 its orientation or strike which is the direction
or trend of the line of intersection of the fault
"plane" with a horizontal plane, with respect to
North;
0 its net slip which defines the amount of
displacement. It is divided into :
- dip slip, "cb" = "ad", the component of the
movement or the net slip measured parallel to the
dip of the fault plane. Further subdivided into :
. throw, "ae", corresponding to the displace-
ment measured along a vertical direction (vertical
slip),
. heave, "ed", equal to the displacement in a
horizontal direction (horizontal dip slip or horizon-
tal throw);
- strike slip, "ac". which corresponds to hori-
zontal displacement measured in a direction paral-
lel to the strike of the fault;
rotation, that is the angle formed by both
parts of the same bed after separation, and
measured on a plane perpendicular to the axis of
rotation;
dip, that is the angle between a horizontal
surface and the plane of the fault.
Other elements may be used to describe a fault.
Pitch, for instance, is the angle, measured in some
specified plane, that a line on this plane makes
583
ab net slip
-
:
ad cb: dip Slip
n : vertical slip ("throw")
ad : horizontal dip slip ("heave")
IC : strike slip
Fig. 14-18. - The descriptive elements of a fault.
with the horizontal of the same plane. In Figure
14-18 the angle bac. measured on the fault plane,
is the pitch of the net slip.
The two parts separated by the fault plane are
the blocks. The upper side is the hanging wall, the
lower side the footwall. The faulted surfaces of
the two blocks parallel to the fault plane are the
lips. They are sometimes polished or striated in the
direction of displacement. This polished surface
worn away by erosion is then known as slicken-
side. The upthrow of a fault is the upthrown side
of a fault.
14.2.5.3. Fault Classification
There are several methods of classifying faults.
They can, for example, be classified according to
their relative movement along the fault (Fig. 14-19).
Thus we have :
- gravity or normal faults, sometimes called
direct faults, in which the hanging wall appears to
have moved downwards relative to the footwall;
- thrust or reverse faults in which the hanging
wall has moved upward relative to the footwall.
This situation leads to repeating series;
- strike slip or tear faults. The movement is
predominantly horizontal and the terms dextral or
sinistralare used if the displacement of each block
as seen from the other block is to the right or to
the left respectively;
- oblique or diagonal faults are those that strike
obliquely or diagonally to the strike of the domi-
nant structure;
 Is3 Thrust

I
Fig. 14-21. - Geometrical classification of faults

Fig. 14-19. - Classification of faults by their throw

- an unconformable fault dips in the opposite
direction to the affected beds;
- a bedding fault has its plane parallel to the
bedding.
Faults are also classified by shape, being plane
or warped. Warped faults include listric faults,
which are concave spoon shaped, usually pointing
Head scarp upwards. A growth fault (Fig. 14-20) "forms
Crown cracks 1 Graben
contemporaneously and continuously with deposi-
tion, so that the throw increases with depth and
the strata of the downthrown side are thicker than
the correlative strata of the upthrown side" (Glos-
sary of Geology, 1980).
Finally, faults can be classified according to
their layout pattern caused by the stress system
invoked. Parallel, radial, en echelon and peripheral
faults are shown in Figure 14-21.
Sheaiplane

14.3. DETERMINATION OF STRUCTURE

FROM DIPMETER LOGS
Original position

Dipmeter tools measure conductivity changes.

w r / P o s i t i o n t sliding
after They do not directly measure the dip of bed
Growth fault boundaries. But, as the petrophysical characteris-
along the shear f tics (lithology, texture, etc.) generally vary from
plane of compensation
one bed to another, they are reflected in the
,s

measured resistivity, and they enable the detection

Fig. 14-20. - Example of growth fault and explication of its
formation.
- longitudinal faults strike parallel to the strikes
of the 'iegional structures;
- transverse fauts strike perpendicularly or
diagonally to the strikes of regional structures.
Another classification is based on the attitude
of adjacent beds relative to the fault plane :
- a conformable faultdips in the same direction
as the affected beds;
of bed boundaries. Each electrode or button of the
dipmeter tools detects sharp resistivity changes
because of their high vertical resolution. If the bed
boundary is not perpendicular to the tool axis, this
resistivity change occurs a t different depths on
each recorded curve. The computation of the
displacements in depth between buttons and
pads, for a given resistivity contrast (assumed to
correspond to a bed boundary), is made by corre-
lation techniques. It allows determination of the
dip of this bed boundary.
But, because of the shallow depth of investiga-
tion, each dip measurement has an individual
significance which can only be local if it corres-
ponds to phenomena of small lateral extent and
with minimal vertical effect (small scale sedimen-
tary features).

On the other hand, the vertical persistence of a
nearly parallel dip with slowly varying amplitude or
azimuth, over a certain vertical thickness will
indicate the presence of large structural entities.
Dipmeter tools thus determine the attitude of
the bedding surfaces they traverse.
Should no such bedding surfaces exist, due to
the geological environments (e.g. alluvial fan,
breccia, reefs, etc.), it will obviously be impossible
to determine structural dips from dipmeter data.
Thus, the absence of correlations between curves
and of dips on a dipmeter log does not necessarely
mean that the recording is bad. Over intervals
including such deposits, the number of true struc-
tural dips calculated from dipmeter data will be
very low. In these cases a great deal of skill and
experience is required to identify these few dips.
Previous determination of the environment will
give useful clues to identify such cases. Further-
more, it will also be useful in determining the
environment for the choice of the tectonic model
(e.g. growth faults with rollover will be prefered
choice in deltaic environments, etc.).
In any case, in a structural (tectonic) interpreta-
tion of dipmeter data, it is necessary to choose,
among all these surfaces, those that will show bed
deformations caused by stress, the other surfaces
corresponding to sedimentary features, erosion,
unconformities, etc. This selection is only possible
if the dipmeter data is related to a reconstruction
of the lithological column and the environment.
Hence, only dips related to the boundaries of the
beds that correspond to a low energy sediment,
(e.g. to the nearly horizontal surfaces a t the time
of sedimentation), without any current related
features, are retained. This situation is best obser-
ved in the well-laminated shaly or shaly-silty-sandy
series, deposited by gravity action, or in series
formed by chemical precipitation (alternance of
calcareous series, mudstone type, with shale
deposits, etc.).
14.4. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
OF DIPMETERS
Remark : This paragraph has been written with
the help of J. Henry, geologist working with the
ELF-Aquitaine group in Pau, France.
By reviewing the stresses and strains, and the
structures that result from these forces, it is
evident that analysis of the dips measured by
dipmeter tools makes a geometrical reconstruc-
tion of the structure penetrated by a well possible.
But, to be efficient and correct the interpreta-
tion of dipmeter data must be done by taking into
account other information and external data.
Firstly, all the information related to the tool
and the processing used for the dip computation
must be known :
- the type of tool and principle of measure-
585
ment : three, four or more arms, number of elec-
trodes per arm, presence or not of a three axes
accelerometer, presence or not of "speed buttons"
allowing better corrections for downhole move-
ment of the tool;
- the type of processing (i.e. MARK IV, CLUS-
TER (Hepp etal., 1975), or GEODIP (Vincent et al.,
1979) for the HDT tool, MSD, CSB, or LOCDIP for
the SHDT tool); MARK IV, CLUSTER or MSD type
programs provide less data and compute a mean
dip which may not correspond to the structural dip
but to a meaningless dip, if the correlation interval
contains features related to sedimentary proces-
ses, to erosion or fractures. The probability of such
features increases with the length of the correla-
tion interval. Consequently, it is highly recommen-
ded to use a correlation interval between 2 and 4
feet. This also reduces the possibility of excessive
tool rotation over the correlation interval, which
would, of course, cause an erroneous dip compu-
tation. The quality of the dips obtained from a
CLUSTER or MSD processing can be estimated by
the sharpness of the correlogram and the plana-
r i t y : the sharper the correlogram and the better
planarity of the computed dip the higher is the
probability of a representative structural dip, es-
pecially if, at the same time, it corresponds to a
low energy environment. In such environments, we
can reasonably assume that a succession of planar
and parallel boundaries occurs, sedimentary featu-
res due to current, tide or wave action being
generally absent. In such cases, the cross-correla-
tion technique used in the CLUSTER or MSD
programs favours structural dips, all events on the
resistivity curves that are due to beds or lamina-
tions with planar and parallel boundaries will be in
phase for the same displacement across the
borehole. Consequently, this creates a sharp
maximum in the correlogram.
GEODIP or LOCDIP type programs provide
much more dip data, the quality of which can be
checked by looking a t the correlation links, which
must be selected to extract dips computed at the
boundaries of beds corresponding to low energy
sediments. This selection can be achieved by
processing the results with the SYNDIP program
(Fig. 14-22) combined with LITHO results.
- parameters selected for the computation :
correlation interval, step distance, search angle,
standard or California option, for MARK IV, CLUS-
TER, MSD or CSB type processings; number of
samples for the computation of the derivative,
values selected for the definition of the size of the
events (small, medium, large), weights applied on
each of the 9 parameters used for the computation
of the pattern vector, likeness and discernability
thresholds, search angle and option, for GEODIP
processing; number of samples for the derivative
Computation, derivative threshold, decimation fac-
tor, search angle, for LOCDIP processing, etc..
These parameters should be printed on the hea-
ding of the arrow-plot.
586

Fig. 14-22. - Example of a SYNDIP display showing intervals with constant dips ("green" patterns) (Courtesy of Schlumberger).

A quality control of the recording and the dip
computation must also be made by looking care-
fully a t the field monitor log (deviation, tool rota-
tion, orientation, azimuth, relative bearing, resisti-
vity curves, calipers, EMEX current), and by
controlling the dip measurements. A look a t the
activity of the curves and the thickness of the
events allows a better determination of the para-
meters for dip computation, especially for GEODIP
and LOCDIP processings.
- The arrow plot(s).
- The corresponding listing of the computation
results with the quality rating if any has been
computed during the processing.
0 Secondly, a composite-log of the open-hole
logs with the arrow plot a t the same scale, is
required. It will help to give a rough idea of the
lithology.
Any dipmeter interpretation must be done in
combination with the knowledge of the lithology.
Of course, it is highly recommended to have the
geologist's mud-log, or the lithology column ob-
tained by a processing of the open-hole logs with
the LITHO program. The results of a quantitative
interpretation by GLOBAL or ELAN type programs
can also be useful.
If the sonic waveform has been recorded with
the Long-Spacing Sonic tool or the Array Sonic
Service, the computation of the elastic properties
is possible using the MECHPRO program. These
data define the mechanical properties of the rocks,
information which is helpful to determine the type
of behaviour under stress.
0 Thirdly, a magnetic tape of the results is
required, if complementary processing of the data
is requested (Le. Dipmeter Advisor : see later).
Remark: All this information is not always
available, especially for exchanged wells.
Generally, three methods of dipmeter interpreta-
tion are used.
The first one, which can be qualified as a
"Quick-Look" technique, uses dip patterns. The
second, more quantitative, uses techniques intro-
duced by Bengtson, an inventor formerly working
for Chevron (1980) and Sohio (1981). The third,
more scientificly based, uses stereographic pro-
jections. The latter, although longer, allows a more
detailed analysis of dipmeter data giving a com-
plete and precise reconstruction of traversed
structures.
14.4.1. "Quick-Look" Technique :
Dip Patterns
Arrow plots or tadpole plots (Fig. 14-23), where
the results of dip calculations are presented versus
depth, often show dip arrangements or dip pat-
* Mark of Schlumberger.
587
POSSIBLE INTERPRETATION
STRUCTURAL STRATIGRAPHIC
*oo
................................... .Channel or Trough Fill
Fault Drag
Fold Flank IsoncentiisI
Sadimentary Drop Over
Pie existing Structure
................................... (Reef Bar I
Slr"st"r.l DlP 8"
Tilted block .Tabular Cross Bedding
Fold flank lryrnmetricl
.................................... .Trough Crorr Bedding
Unsonforrnity I l e a t h e r i n g l
F w I I Drag
Fold iconcentrid
Prograding Sand Bar
Far Reef Talus
................................... .Absent or Distorted
Layering IOrganic Build-up.
Fault Zone
Fractured Interval
Recryrtallwed TexIure.
Slumping. Diagenetis
Deformationrl
. M a r w e Texture no
Layerlng or very
......-.........................
11-1 I I I
Cosrreqrained
Structural .Medium t o Poor Layering
DIPS
.....................
PIlttCl"
Structural .Low.energ" Deporltr
Good Layering
....................................
Fig. 14-23. - Typical dip patterns.
terns that can be organised into four groups and
coded by colour (Gilreath et at., 1964).
- Green patterns correspond to a set of dips
with nearly constant magnitudes and azimuths.
- Blue patterns correspond to dip angles of
similar azimuth that decrease with increasing
depth.
- Red patterns are the inverse, the dip angle
decreases with decreasing depth, the azimuth
remaining essentially constant.
- Yellow patterns correspond to adjacent dips
with random magnitudes and azimuths.
Green patterns, when observed in low energy
deposits, usually correspond to a structural dip, a
monocline or a limb of a fold (Fig. 14-24a, zone
4865-4940 ft).
Blue and red patterns, when also observed in a
low energy deposits, indicate the structural de-
formations of the beds, that may be related to
folds, faults with their associated phenomena
(rollover, drag), or to an unconformity.
The diagrams in figure 14-25 show the theoreti-
cal responses in different cases.
The rapid analysis of a dipmeter generally starts
by determining the structural dip from the arrow
plots. The dip of the beds is defined, assuming
they were deposited horizontally and parallel to
each other. By extrapolating this dip the architec-
ture of the beds and the shape of the structure
they constitute can be inferred. Structural dip is
generally defined as a predominant dip over a
thick interval of constant azimuth and magnitude.
Therefore, a "base line", or succession of green
patterns with the same angle and ostensibly the
same azimuth, can be determined on the arrow
plots if the dip is steep (Fig. 14-26). Structural dip,
is thus determined by a visual, or graphic statisti-
cal analysis. In the case of graphic statistical
analysis, dip histograms and azimuth frequency
plots or rosettes are used (see later). The determi-
588

AZIMUTH ANGLE OF CROSS-SECTION PLANE

360' 30' 60' 90' 120' 150'

10' 20' 30'4 04
b) '

Fig. 14-24. - Examples of dip patterns (a) and "stick plots" (b) in planes of various strikes
(from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference, Iran, 1976).
 589

-.
Asymmetric fold - Anticline Overturned anticline

Arymrnatr~c told - Syncline Recumbent anticline

c
c
c
t

+
+
c
t
c
c
c
c
c

Drag along the fault plane Drag along the fault plans
upper block upper and lower block

W A El Fig. 14-26. - An example of arrow plots and their interpretation

to determine structural dip through analysis of "green pat-
Iw terns" (courtesy of Schlumberger).

formation was accompanied by associated phe-

Rollover in upper block of a Beds overturned by drag in
growth fault the upper block of a thrust
fault
b cause of such patterns as they may in fact corres-
Fig. 14-25. - Theoretical arrow plots (a) : in the case of folds;
(b) : in the case of faults (Courtesy of Schlumberger).
nation of the azimuth of the structural dip may be
very precise as soon as the dip exceeds a few
degrees.
Knowledge of the structural dip means that the
relative position of the well can be determined by
reference to the top of the structure. It also helps
to predict, establish, and confirm correlations
between wells drilled near each other (Fig. 14-27).
To achieve these kinds of correlations, stick plots
(to be explained later) may be very helpful. Finally,
the structural dips, determined in several wells of
a field, are also useful in tracing contours of given
horizons around the field (Fig. 14-28).
The second stage of dipmeter analysis involves
detecting the deformations of the beds that took
place under tectonic stress. Faults for example can
be identified and located in depth, but only if their
nomena such as tilting, stretching, rotation, brec-
ciation, etc.
Fortunately, this is often the case, and these
phenomena manifest themselves as red, blue or
yellow patterns. Faults are not, however, the sole
pond to sedimentary features (foreset beds, large
scale cross-bedding, etc.), a fold, a draping or
compaction fold, or an unconformity. The litho-
logy, the facies, the depositional environment, the
mechanical properties of the formations, fluid
pressure measurements, the pattern itself and its
position in the stratigraphic series, all have to be
taken into account. when correlating patterns with
such phenomena. Hence a red pattern at the top
of a sandy or carbonate formation generally cor-
responds to a draping or compaction fold on top
of a feature that may be a sand lens or reef.
In the case of a convex shape, we can, however,
define the direction of elongation of that form that
is perpendicular to the azimuth of the beds cove-
ring it. Its crest is in the opposite direction to the
dip (cf. Fig. 4-66 and 4-67).
A pattern without significant azimuth variation
( + / - 50) may correspond to a cylindrical fold with
a horizontal axis, while one with a progressive
change in azimuth could represent a fold with a
590

Fig. 14-27. - Correlations between wells done with the help of the dipmeter data (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference.
Nigeria, 1974).

Fig. 14-28. - Example of isobath map done with the use of the dipmeter data (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference,
Nigeria, 1974).
 591

plunging axis. A succession of green patterns can

draw a "mega red" or "mega blue" pattern. Such
"mega" patterns are often related to folds. For a
simple red or blue pattern, the reality of the
hypothesis establishing a fold is proportional to
the length of the depth interval along which this
effect is observed : when the depth interval is
thicker, the hypothesis of a fold is more valid and
it can be established with greater certainty.
Determination of the type of fold (cylindrical or
conical), the plunge of its axis, etc., can only be
done by stereographic projection of the dips
corresponding to the patterns.
The probability of the presence of a fault is
higher when the interval along which the patterns
are observed is short, but may still be ambiguous.
Associating such patterns with a fold or a fault can
be done :
- either by drawing cross-sections with the help
of stick-plots (Fig. 14-24b), or still better, fast-
plots. These plots give a three dimensional view.
An extrapolation of the structural dip to the area
adjacent to the well by applying rules of isogone or
isopach conservation of beds following a given
direction can help to represent the tectonic feature
of the well and suggest the presence of faults
(Fig. 14-29 from A. Etchecopar);
- by finding in the well, by correlation technique
using most of the time gamma ray (Fig. 14-30a), a

-
c
7

2740m

Fig. 14-29. - Extrapolation of the structural dip to the area

adjacent to the well by applying rules of isogone conservation
following a given direction (from A. Etchecopar, not publis-
hed). From this reconstructed geometry of the beds it can be
concluded that the crossing of a fault has a high probability
(see also Fig. 14-68 and 14-69).
Fig. 14-30. - An example of a reverse fault, confirmed by
correlation of the gamma-ray log, and its interpretation (from
Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference, Iran, 1976).
592

I WELL B
DEPTH
m

1650

1700

1750

lam

iaso

1900

1950

Fig. 14-31. - Well to well correlations allow the detection of normal faults (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference. Egypt,
1984).

repeating series (reverse fault); or a gap in series - by knowledge of the tectonic style of the
(normal fault). The latter can be detected when basin;
well to well correlations are available (Fig. 14-31); - or by using stereogram plotting techniques, in
 593

CORRELATION CURVE c o
$ $
TRUE DIP ANGLE

c:
'D CURVE AND DIRECTION
CLUSTER PROGRAMME

1 M X O S M 350EG XI
I (0. 10' 20' 30' 40' 50' 60' 7 0 ' 8 0 ' \ 0 ' ~

II I
RESISTIVITV

INCREASES

-
I

400

11700

450

1200

500

000

550

I1100

I -

800

ll50I
a

SW NE
f 1110'

11101

d -
100

Fig. 14-32. - Example of a faulted zone indicated by an arrow

plot; (a) example from the Well Evaluation Conference.
Algeria, 1979; (b) example from the Well Evaluation Confe-
C rence. Iran, 1976; (c) interpretation of the last example.
594

which dip data is analysed in detail. This technique
is described in a following section.
Very often, in the case of tension that usually
creates normal faults, faulted zones, rather than
single faults, are observed. Thus major faults are
generally accompanied, within a short distance, by
several, more or less parallel, faults. The fault
blocks between the minor faults played a signifi-
cant role during their respective movements. Thus,
a vertical section shows a succession of close red
and blue patterns, usually accompanied by a
change in azimuth from one block to another
(Fig. 14-32).
A fault's direction can be determined from the
dips it has created, being perpendicular to the dip
azimuth. However, its inclination can rarely be
determined unless the fault plane itself causes
correlable resistivity features. Such features iden-
tify the fault as an isolated dip with either the
same azimuth as neighbouring dips, or 1800 out of
phase. The first case corresponds to a conforma-
ble normal fault, while the second case corres-
ponds to an unconformable normal fault if there is
no repetition of series. If series are repeated the
contrary applies, the first case corresponds to a
conformable reverse fault and the second to an
unconformable reverse fault. Reverse faults are
generally quickly identified as the series repeat,
this phenomenon being detected on gamma-ray,
sonic or resistivity logs (Fig. 14-30a). In such cases
it is also possible to determine the net slip.
Any fault that is not reversed is normal. But its
nature (tension fault, growth fault, etc.), as well as
its net slip, can only be deduced from complemen-
tary information such as local geological kno-
wledge (tectonic style of basin, depositional envi-
ronment, etc.), and correlation with other wells.
14.4.2. Bengtson Technique
This technique is a new method of analysing
dipmeter data, the apparent advantages of being :
- more analytical than the coloured pattern
method,
- less time-consuming than the stereographic
projections.
This technique uses several graphs or plots to
geometrically describe most of the parameters
that are used to define a fold or a fault. An
example of such graphs is shown in Fig. 14-33.
They are known under the acronym SCAT(Statis-
tical Curvature Analysis Techniques) plots. The
dip-azimuth histogram combined with the azimuth
versus depth plot and dip versus depth plot - these
two last plots being known under the acronym of
DAPSA plots (Dip and Azimuth Plots for Structural
Analysis of dipmeter data) -, allow determination
of the structural transverse direction. This direc-
tion will be used to obtain stick-plots which them-
selves will be used to draw a vertical cross-section
through the well. A dip versus dip-azimuth scatter

T' L I.* T S NORMAL F A U L T

4;
T'
9Cj
REGIONAL
90.
with
STEEPENING D R A G
CASE DI: PLUNGING DRAG
I. V A R I A B L E S T R I K E
2. V A R I A B L E D IP
3. L' 8 T ' * L O C A L L a T
01P P - A X I S OF D R A G "LOCAL"
'LOCAL" LO N E17U ol NA L
AZIMUTH DIP 01P
versus versus TRANSVERSE DIP
OEPTH PLOT OEPTH PLOT COMPONENT PLOT CoMPoNENT
SECTION T-T'

;I
I80
r
t - .
n
W

- --

Fig. 14-33. - Example of SCAT plots (from Bengtson, 1981)

 595

diagram (Fig. 14-34) enables determination of the transverse and longitudinal dip component. The
fold or fault type, the drag pattern and the "local" DAPSA plots combined with the "local" transverse
dip component determine the bearing, the crestal
plane (CP), the axial plane (AP) and the inflection

-
T' L Lo T I' S plane (IP) as well as the plunge for an axial
905 I i-9oqi plunging fold (Fig. 14-35), or the drag zone, the
REGIONAL T
MI ! precise depth of the fault, the trough plane (TP),
6o -' DRAG the crestal plane (CP), as well as the type of drag
Qn PATTERN of a fault (Fig. 14-36).

14.4.3. Stereographic Plotting Techniques

Plotting structures can be done using stereo-

P-AXIS OF REGIONAL
01 P P-AXIS OF DRAG nets, sometimes called stereographs.
However before discussing plotting techniques
Fig. 14-34. - Example of dip versus azimuth plot (from Bengt- it is useful to review the principal stereographic
son, 1980). projections, their construction and their use.

Tiansveise dip
Aziinuin idryreasl DIP iaegiersl w cornponelit idegraesi E

Fig. 14-35. - Example of analysis of SCAT plots in the case of a fold with plunging axial plane (from Bengtson, 1981).

L oc A L "
L O N G IT U O I N A L
OIP
COMPONENT
'jECTI_ON TO-T s w PLOT
NE
T 34 0 30

urn
a -
y1
c
Y

~qJ. . . . f
Y

9
N

.. . .. " ....-.
. ,.' .* .:
9000

Fig. 14-36. - Example of analysis of SCAT plots in the case of normal faults (from Bengtson, 1981).
596

14.4.3.1. Stereographic projections

"Stereographic projection is a presentation and
abstract geometrical construction which enables
analysis of the orientation of tectonic elements in
space independently of their geographical posi-
tion'' (J. Henry, 1976).
While this is not the place for a detailed
account of the theory and practice of stereogra-
phic projection (it is well treated in texts on
structural geology or on this technique alone), it is
very useful to summarize the principles before
applying them.
0 Principle

Stereographic projection involves moving va-

rious observed structural elements (lines and
planes), while keeping them parallel to themsel- KM.Krn = KL. KI = KN. Kn = constant
ves, until they touch or cut the top half of a
reference sphere resting on a flat horizontal plane
(Fig. 14-37).
This plane contains the North-South axis. The
intersections of the lines and planes with the
hemisphere can be projected stereographically
onto the horizontal plane with reference to the
lower pole or nadir of the whole sphere. This
inversion - which is a geometric transformation
(Fig. 14-38) - conserves angles, but looses all
information relating to the geographical situation
of the sturctural elements. For example, two
parallel fault planes 1000 m apart would, when
translated to the reference hemisphere, touch it
tangentially a t the same point, and be indistinguis-
hable from each other on the stereogram.
This procedure is useful in that the attitude
(strike and dip) of a plane or line can be represen-
ted as a single point. It is thus possible to analyze K
the angular relation between a large number of
KM.Krn= K Z K O = 2 R Z
planes.
0 Planes and lines on a stereogram

As figure 14-37 indicates, there are two ways of

representing a plane :

- -
(nadir)
KM.Krn KB.Kb KZ KO = 2 R Z

Fig. 14-37. - Stereographic image of a plane (a) : polar; (b) : Fig. 14-38. - Stereographic projection is a particular case of
cyclographic. inversion.

Polar plot : this is the stereographic projection
of the point of tangence of the plane and the
hemisphere, or of the intersecting point of the
diameter perpendicular to the plane, with the
hemisphere. The projection of this point onto the
horizontal reference plane is the pole of the
plotted plane.
, Cyclographic plot: this is the stereographic
projection of the intersection of the hemisphere
with a plane passing through its centre. This line
represents half of a great circle. Its projection onto
the horizontal reference plane is a curve, part of a
great circle.
0 Plotting a line
There is only one method of plotting a line. That
is to project the point of intersection of the
straight line passing through the centre of the
sphere with the upper hemisphere. Its projection
onto the horizontal reference plane is a point.
If the dip of the plane is higher, its polar
representation will be farther from the centre of
sphere, but its cyclographic representation will be
closer to the centre.
The greater the plunge of a straight line, the
closer to the center the point its projection will be.
Primitive
,
Small circle ti.
WULFF stereonet
Fig. 14-39. - Construction of a WULFF net.
597
14.4.3.2. Construction of the WULFF stereonet
The WULFF stereonet represents the stereo-
graphic projection of parallels and meridians of
the hemisphere of reference onto the horizontal
plane; its North-South axis has the lower pole or
nadir as the projection pole.
Diagrams of figure 14-39 explain how the
meridians are represented by the arcs of great
circles, named on projection as the great circles,
and the parallels by the arcs of the small circles.
Figure 14-40 represents the isogonic WULFF
stereonet for meridians drawn a t 20 intervals and
for the parallels crossing the North-South meri-
dians also, at 20 intervals.
The external circle of the stereonet is called the
fundamental or primitive circle. This projection
retains the angles : the great and small circles are
orthogonal to one another. The surfaces are
delimited by two parallels and two successive
meridians. They vary according to their position.
This projection is in common usage. In fact, it
serves to determine the following elements : the
true dip from apparent dips (see annex 3, volume
l ) , the angle between two planes and the intersec-
tion of the beds with a fault.
598

This projection does, however, have disadvan-

N
tages. It does not preserve surfaces, due to inver-
sion, and it is thus difficult to draw a density
countouring (Fig. 14-41) from this stereogram. In
these cases, it is preferable to use a SCHMIDT
equal-area stereonet.

14.4.3.3. Construction of the equal-area

or SCHMIDT stereonet
The SCHMIDT stereonet corresponds to a
Lambert azimuthal equal-area projection. Relative
t o the center of a sphere parallels and meridians
are represented on a SCHMIDT stereonet by the
arcs of an ellipse. Any area bound by two meri-
dians has the same area, regardless of its position
on the projection (Fig. 14-42).

4 Fig. 14-40. - The WULFF stereonet.

N N

Fig. 14-41a. - Countouring diagrams obtained by drawing iso-density points, (a) on the left, and iso-percentage lines (2-4-8-12%
per 1 % area, maximum 14 %), (b) on the right. The counting is obtained by using a counting net defined by Kalsbeek, 1963 (from
Ragan, 1973).

i I

I 1

Fig. 14-41b. - The Kalsbeek counting net (from Ragan, 1973). Fig. 14-42. - The equal-area, or SCHMIDT stereonet.

Its uses are much the same as the WULFF
stereonet. It has the advantage of high resolution
when used to represent planes of low dip, and is,
hence, the preferred stereonet for the study of
gently folded structures.
Angles are well preserved but this projection is
especially useful for statistical studies. As J. Henry
stated : with a large number of measurements we
can study "the dip and strike of structural ele-
ments from a statistical point of view". In other
words it is possible to consider variations due to
accessory and complex phenomena or measure-
ment errors as neglegible and use statistical
averages as the basis for analysis and interpreta-
tion.
14.4.3.4. Stereographic representation
of structural elements
Straight lines, planes and folds are the structu-
ral elements that will be represented in this
excercise.
A stereonet (WULFF or SCHMIDT) on a firm
base is necessary. Tracing paper should be placed
over the stereonet, and held in position by a pin a t
its centre. The centre, major circle and the points
of the compass should be marked on the tracing
paper (Fig. 14-43).
Fig 14-44. - (a) Image of a straight line N 1600 - 400 N-W; (b)
Stereogram of this line; and (c) its representation in space.
599
Fig. 14-43. - Board for the stereographic plotting of dipmeter
data.
0 Stereographic representation of a straight
line
Take, for example, the straight line N 1600 -
400 NW. Turn the tracing paper in an anti-clock-
wise direction so as to align its North with the 1600
division of the stereonet (Fig. 14-44). Then count
400 southward of the North on the principal
diameter of the stereonet and mark a point. A tail
is usually added, pointing towards the centre, to
distinguish the representation of a point from
polar representation of a plane. This point now
represents the dip and strike of the straight line.
0 Stereographic representation of a plane
Take, as an example, a plane with a dip of 600
in a direction N 250 (Fig. 14-45). As noted pre-
viously this plane can be represented in two ways :
N b
W + E
600

Dlp Magnitude

v*,,,c.l PI.”.

Fig. 14-45. - Descriptive elements of a plane dipping at 600 with

an azimuth of N 250.

. Polar representation of a plane

Turn the tracing paper in an anti-clockwise
direction, so as to align its North with the 250
division on the stereonet, corresponding to the
azimuth of the dip to be plotted (Fig. 14-46). At this
point the plane to be plotted should, conventio-
nally, pass through the E-W axis of the stereonet. N
The pole of the plane is plotted on the 00 line of the
N-S diameters at the 600 graduation.

W + E

S b

WULFF stereonet

Tmanrpsrent paper

Fig. 14-46. - Polar image of the plane in Fig. 14-45.

Planes with small dips will plot with

near the centre of the diagram, while

/
greater dips plot towards the edges of the stereo-
net. A vertical plane has its pole on the fundamen-
tal circle.
Note :In certain cases a plane is defined by its
direction (strike) rather than its azimuth. Its direc-
is from its azimuth’ In this its Pole is Fig, 14-47, - Polar representation of a plane of azimuth N 750
plotted On the 2700 line Of the E-W diameter and dipping at 600. (a) : plotting; (b) : stereogram; (c) : its
(Fig. 14-47). image in space (from Henry, 1976).
 60 1

Fig. 14-48. - Cyclographic representation of the plane in Fig. 14-46

The first method of plotting a plane is used

when manipulating dipmeter data as it is the
azimuth of dips that is calculated during the
processing of the data.
. Cyclographic representation of a plane
The pole plotted previously (250 N 600) is trans-
posed to the E-W diameter and marked either : 900
from the pole towards the centre of the stereonet;
or 600 from the edge of the stereonet along the
line opposite the one on which the pole lies
(Fig. 14-48).
The cyclographic trace is drawn as the corres-
ponding portion of a great circle on the stereonet.
Stereographic representation of a straight
line on a plane
This is common in structural geology, when, for
example, the apparent dips of a plane seen in
cross-section need to be plotted.
Firstly, it is necessary to know the direction and
dip of the plane containing the line, then the
azimuth and pitch of the straight line are required.
Consider a plane with a direction N 600 inclined
500 NW, containing a line inclined 500 to the West. 'ig. 14-49. - Stereographic image of a straight line with a
Construct the cyclographic trace of the plane 'pitch" of 500 towards the west, in a plane N 600 - 500 N-W
using the method illustrated in Fig. 14-49. Count (from Henry, 1976).
602
8 C
Fig. 14-50. - Stereographic representation of a horizontal
cylinder (a) : planes tangent to the cylinder; (b) : translation of
these planes onto the upper hemisphere; (c) : stereogram of
the cylinder (from Henry, 1976).
along the trace 500 starting from the N-E edge of
the stereonet and following the great circle. Rotate
the tracing paper to bring the great circle to the
principal N-S diameter and read the dip and
azimuth of the line in the plane defined by the
point marked on the great circle.
0 Stereographic representation of folds
As we have seen, folds are curved surfaces,
with either a generally cylindrical or conical sym-
metry. The axis of the fold may be horizontal or
inclined and its axial surface vertical or inclined
and planar or warped.
S b
Fig. 14-51. - Image of an inclined cylinder (from Henry. 1976).
We have also seen that stereographic projec-
tion involves the parallel translation of geometrical
elements onto a reference hemisphere. As the
translation of planes is easier than that of curved
surfaces, we will represent these folds as an
infinite number of planes tangent to their surfaces.
This is close to reality, because we are only
describing curved surfaces in terms of the attitude
of the plane within the fold that has been subject
to same stresses as the fold and intersects the
borehole.
Firstly we will describe the theoretical stereo-
graphic representation of a cylinder and a cone.
We will then assume that the features of the fold
are known and see how it can be reconstructed
from the stereographic projection.

-b
I
Fig. 14-52. - Stereogram of a cylinder with a vertical axis (from
Henry, 1976).
- Stereographic representation of a horizontal
cylinder (Fig. 14-50)
As explained, a cylindrical surface may be
decomposed into an infinite number of planes
tangent to that surface. The planes form a network
in space around a common axis. Each plane is
represented in its projection by its pole. The poles
representing this network lie in a zone on a great
diameter of the stereonet. The fold axis is situated
on the fundamental circle and is perpendicular to
the great diameter.
- Stereographic representation of a cylinder
with an inclined axis (Fig. 14-51)
In this case the poles of the tangent planes
gather in a zone on a great circle situated at 900 to
the axis of tilt. Knowing this great circle the axis of
inclination is defined by counting 900 on the W-E
diameter perpendicular to it.
Having now defined the axis of the cylinder its
representative point can be plotted; from this
point rotate the transparent overlay on the W-E
diameter and draw the great circle, 900 from this
point.
- Stereographic representation of a cylinder
with a vertical axis (Fig. 14-52)
In this case the poles of the tangent planes lie
in a zone on the fundamental circle and the axis of
the fold is in the center of the stereogram.
- Stereographic representation of a cylindrical
fold with a straight, inclined axis.
A cylinder, being symmetrical about its axis is
not represented by any one plane. However, in
nature a fold only represents part of a cylinder, this
part represented by the folding angle (the dihedral
angle between planes at tangents to the limbs of
603
Fig. 14-53. - Image of a cylindrical fold, with inclined axial
planes but a horizontal axis.
S-nm
Fig. 14-54. - Image of a cylindrical fold, with inclined axial
planes and a plunging axis.
a fold). Thus the axis of a fold may be horizontal
(Fig. 14-53) or plunging (Fig. 14-54). If the stereo-
gram contains points representing the dip at the
points of inflection, A and B, of the two limbs of
the fold (a and b on the stereograms), the folding
angle is defined as the angle between the two
planes tangent a t these points. The axial plane is
represented by the intersection, on a great circle,
of the axis of the fold, and the bisector of the two
outer beds, assuming that the axial and the
bisecting planes are close (case of isopach or
similar folds). It is easy to construct the pole of the
axial plane, by shifting the axial plane on a great
circle and by counting an angular distance of 900
from this great circle on the E-W diameter. The
inclination of the axial plane in relation to the
vertical is determined by counting the angular
distance between the center of the stereogram
and the great circle that represents this axial
plane. Its azimuth is defined by turning the trans-
parent overlay to bring the pole onto the northern
half of the N-S diameter and then counting on the
fundamental circle, in an anticlockwise direction,
the number of divisions between the N of the
stereonet and that of the stereogram.
Fig. 14-55 represents the cross-sections, arrow
plots, and stereographic representations of folds
with different plunges of the axial plane (from
vertical to 500), for different plunges of the fold
axis (from 00 to 400).
604

CROSS-SECTION ARROW PLOT STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

Axial plunge
Axcalplaneat8Oo O0 10'
I
20" 10'
--
40"

Axial plunge

Axial plane a t 70' O0 10' 20' loo 40e

Axial plunge

Axial plunge
Axial

Fig. 14-55. - Arrow plots and stereographic images of planes with varying inclinations and dipping axes

- Stereographic representation of a cone with a angle. The stereographic projection of all planes
horizontal axis (Fig. 14-56) tangent to this cone gives a symmetrical figure:
In this example we will plot a cone with a the planes are, in fact, tangent to two small circles
horizontal axis oriented to N 1500 with a 600 apical of the hemisphere and their poles lie along two
 605

I .
N

S C

Fig. 14-56. - Stereographic image of a cone with a horizontal axis (a) : planes tangent to the cone; (b) : translation of the planes
onto the upper hemisphere; (c) : stereogram of the cone (from Henry, 1976).

Fig. 14-57. - Stereographic image of a cone with an inclined

axis (from Henry, 1976).

small circles on the stereogram. The horizontal
axis is situated on the fundamental circle on a
diameter perpendicular to the small circles.
The position of the small circles is a function of
the apical angle. It may be determined by counting
the angular distance between the center of the
stereogram and one of the small circles (here 300)
and by multiplying it by 2, or directly, by measuring
the angular distance between the two small cir-
cles. One of the small circles corresponds to a
synform fold, the other to an antiform fold. The
direction of the apex of the cone representing the
606
Cone with vertical axis
A a n d an apical angle of 90°
3
Translation of the cone
on the upper hemisphere
Fig. 14-58. - Stereographic image of a cone with a vertical axis (from Henry, 1976).
fold is the same as the direction of the concavity
of the small circle, where the poles are aligned.
- Stereographic representation of a cone with
an inclined axis (Fig. 14-57)
In this case the planes tangent to the cone form
distinct lines once translated onto the hemisphere
of reference : they describe the arcs of two
oblique circles that do not lie directly on the small
circles of a stereogram. However, after rotation of
the WULFF stereonet by a value corresponding to
the plunge of the axis of the cone (400 in the
example) they fall in a line on two small circles.
- Stereographic representation of a cone with
vertical axis (Fig. 14-58)
In this case the poles of the tangent planes are
gathered in a zone on a circle, the center of which
coincides with that of the stereonet. The apical
half-angle is defined by the angular distance
between this circle and the fundamental circle.
The axis of the cone is in the center of the
stereonet.
14.4.4. Plotting of Dipmeter Data
When plotting dipmeter data (dip and azimuth)
it is actually the intersection of a plane (or surface)
with the borehole that is being represented.
As the borehole axis does not usually follow the
axis of the fold we will be making a cross-section
through the borehole showing the various strata a t
varying angles, and naturally a t different depths.
Stereographic plots do not take into account the
geographical position of features (in this case their
depth) but do record the relative angles of featu-
S
Stereogram of a cone with vertical axis down
res. Thus we will have a plot representing planes
tangent to the fold surface and passing through
the borehole, and from this information will be
able to make a full description of the fold. Plotting
the relation in space between the dips of the
representative planes enables us to determine if
the variations define, for example, a cylindrical or
conical fold, and to determine the axis and plunge
of the fold as well as the inclination of the axial
plane and the angle of folding.
This technique can also be used to define the
intersecting line of any two vertical planes, the
apparent dip on a cross-section of a plane, remove
regional dip, make rotations, etc.
Except for particular applications we will use
the polar representation of planes as it usually
simplifies both the reading and interpretation of
stereograms.
Procedure
Normal plotting of dipmeter data is extremely
easy. Quite simply the values of dip, read from
logs, or preferably listings, of processed dipmeter
data are plotted on a WULFF or SCHMIDT stereo-
net using the previously described techniques.
As prospective oil-bearing structures usually
only involve low dips it may be easier to use a
large scale version covering the central part of the
stereonet only (Fig. 14-59). This leaves more space
between plotted points making it easier to analyse
their relation. However manual plotting of several
hundred or even thousands of dips that a dipmeter
log will give is a laborious and tedious task. The
use of data, taken directly from the magnetic tape
of the computed dipmeter results, in a simple

H H'
Fig. 14-59. - Enlargement of the center of a WULFF net.
plotting program can produce stereograms on a
video monitor or in hard copy (see Dipmeter
Advisor, 14.8.). The first stage in analyzing dip
meter data is to zone the arrow-plots into coherent
intervals. This zoning is partly done using the
lithology, as indicated by other well logs, but also
using the arrow plots themselves, the arrange-
ment, evolution and patterns of dips influencing
the choice of zones.
For tectonic applications dips computed by the
CLUSTER program for HDT data, or MSD program
for SHDT data, are most commonly used. If dips
computed by the GEODIP or LOCDIP programs are
used, intervals corresponding to low energy beds
showing a series of dips with the same dip and
azimuth should be chosen. A SYNDIP processing
of the GEODIP or LOCDIP results enables "green"
patterns to be selected (Fig. 14-22). The addition of
the lithology information provided by a processing
of the open-hole logs by the LITHO program
allows "green" patterns corresponding to low
energy (shaly) environments to be identified.
Now, using the coherent intervals chosen by the
above methods, stereograms can be plotted,
either manually or using computer programs, such
as the Dipmeter Advisor System.
14.4.5. Use of Stereograms
At this stage of the analysis the objective is to
reduce the geometric information contained in the
stereograms of each interval to a more synthetic
variable.
Several cases may occur.
607
0 The simplest case is that of an interval of
approximately constant dip and azimuth : in this
case the stereographic projection enables two
variables to be defined : the mean dip over the
interval and the angular dispersion of the dips
about this mean. To define the angular dispersion
a circle enclosing the majority of the plotted points
and centered close to their highest density must
be drawn. A Dimitrijevic counter (see later) may
also be used. The dispersion is interesting for
several reasons. Associated with the percentage
of values within an interval it gives an estimate of
the confidence of the mean dip. On the other hand
the value of the dispersion may be characteristic
of certain formations as it is a good indicator of
the amount of stratification.
0 The studied interval corresponds to a regular
change of dip and/or azimuth on the arrow plot.
Such patterns usually correspond to a cloud of
points on a stereonet, stretching along a line, such
that defining an average dip or azimuth is impos-
sible. This is where stereographic projection can
provide important information. It is, in fact, a
precise geometrical translation which can be
viewed as a succession of segments of cylinders
or cones inside each other, each dip correspon-
ding to a plane tangent to these successive
cylinders or cones.
- If the dips are grouped in a line following a
great diameter of the stereonet we can conclude
that the fold's axis is horizontal.
- If the dips lie on a great circle they represent
a cylindrical fold with a plunging axis. Determina-
tion of the azimuth and the plunge of the axis is
carried out in the following manner :
608
. Draw the great circle passing through the
poles of the planes.
. Count 900 from this great circle on the E-W
diameter towards the center. This point represents
the axis of the cylindrical fold, while its plunge is
defined by counting angular distance from the
edge to this point.
. To find its azimuth, turn the transparent
overlay to bring the axis onto the N half of the N-S
diameter.
. Then count, in an anticlockwise direction, the
angle between the N marked on the stereonet and
that on the stereogram.
- If the dips are grouped in a zone on a small
circle we have a conical fold with a horizontal axis.
The axis is on the fundamental circle and on the
N-S diameter. The apical angle is defined by
measuring the angular distance between the cen-
ter and the small circle and multiplying it by two.
The azimuth is determined by rotating the axis to
align it with the N of the stereonet, and then
reading the anticlockwise angle between the two
Norths (stereonet and stereogram).
- If the plotted points lie along a curve that
does not correspond to any great or small circles
then the axis of the fold represented may be
inclined. By shifting the stereogram around the
stereonet it may be possible to align the plotted
N
A
I ... - \
-ig. 14-60. - Stereogram of a non-cylindrical fold with an inclined axis and its plot on a shifted stereonet (from Henry, 1976).
points along a small circle (Fig. 14-60), the shift
corresponding to the pitch of the axis of the cone.
0 In certain cases the arrow-plots may show no
apparent organization (Fig. 14-61). However after
plotting, the stereogram shows a coherent pattern,
representative of stratification planes A and B,
indicating a fold, overturned to the South. The
other points (a, b, a and fi)also fall perfectly on
two small circles of the stereogram on the right,
obtained after rotation to bring the axis of the fold
horizontal. These points correspond to the ortho-
gonal joints. The plunge of the axis is 100. By
convention these patterns are called dispersed
axes.
Another example of incoherent arrow plots is
shown in Fig. 14-62.
0 The opposite case can also occur; an arrow
plot showing clear red and blue patterns giving a
dispersed stereogram with no apparent axes
(Fig. 14-63).
0 Certain folds have a strongly curved axis. The
measurements carried out on this axis at different
points are grouped in a zone on a great circle of
the stereogram. This great circle represents the
axial plane of fold hence, its pole, pitch, and
azimuth can be defined (Fig. 14-64).
 609

ARROW PLOT STEREOGRAMS

N N

Axis of the fold

5 5

1 I I I I I I I I I After rotation

Fig. 14-61. - Example of an incoherent arrow plot. When plotted on a stereonet certain points (A and B), representative of bedding
planes, show a coherent grouping along the line of a great circle. The other points (a and b, a and 8) also represent a coherent
feature on the stereogram plotted on the right. This has been obtained by rotating the projection to bring the fold axis horizontal.
They correspond to the orthogonal joints.

s
Fig. 14-62. - Another example of a random arrow-plot corresponding to a group of points along a great circle (contributed by J.
Henry).

14.4.6. Reconstruction of the Tectonic
Features of a Well
The use of stereograms by chosen intervals
gives information such as the average dip that can
be used in the construction of geological cross-
sections for example.
But the geometrical analysis of such data can
also provide information about the complete struc-
ture. Here, once again, the stereogram will be a
useful summary of the information available. On
the stereogram we can plot the representative
points from each interval (obtained from the inter-
val stereograms). If the well has been drilled
through a monoclinal structure the resulting cloud
of points plotted will give the average regional dip.
In the case of Fig. 14-65 these points form a linear
cloud, enabling the axis of the general structure to
610

N
2600

18 W- -€

-
-

2650

Fig. 14-63. - The arrow-plot seems to show a "mega-blue pattern". The stereogram clearly illustrates the dispersion of the plotted
points (contributed by J. Henry).

s
Fig. 14-64. - Defining the axial plane by the dispersion Fig. 14-65. - Summary of diprneter data illustrating the average
of the axes. dips, the general trend and the major and minor axes (contri-
buted by J. Henry).

be defined. In other cases intervals will show an
evolution of points which define the major axes
characterizing the structure over an interval of
several hundred meters. The orientation of such
axes can vary with depth, and such information
may also be relevant to the regional geometry.
Finally all the axes identified on the interval
stereograms can be plotted on a summary stereo-
gram. Another method provides a clear compari-
son between the various orientations of the axes
plotted. To an azimuth frequency plot of the minor
axes, eventually taking into account their direction
of plunge, the major axes and the general trend
are added. In the example presented (Fig. 14-66)
the orientation of the minor axes clearly coincides
with those of the larger scale trends. The rotation
 61 1

DIP ANALYSIS
Well XYZ 1A

Fig. 14-66. - Azimuth frequency plot of the minor axes (contri-

buted by J. Henry).

of the major axes with depth (indicated by the

arrow on the frequency plot) is also significant.
Naturally the plotting of stereogram summaries
should be adapted to the objective of the study
and the geological characteristics of the area in
which the well was drilled. For example, it is
evident that data plotted from formations separa-
ted by an unconformity should be plotted on
separate stereograms or with different marks on
the same stereogram. It is also useful to label or
distinguish the plotted values corresponding to
principal formations crossed by the borehole, or to
label successive average values to illustrate the Fig. 14-67. - Example of a dip analysis table (contributed by J.
evolution of dips intersecting the well. Henry).
Fig. 14-67 shows a table of dip analysis, contai-
ning the same information, but conserving the
relative depths of the structural elements. Some
columns require comment. In the aspect column analysing the geometry of different wells drilled on
the blank sections represent zones of consistent the same structure.
dip, hatched sections indicate intervals showing an
organised evolution of dips that enable axes to be
defined, and black corresponds to zones where the 14.5. INTERPRETATION
dips were too dispersed to give an average dip or
indicate an axis. The average dip column lists the
values read from each interval stereogram. In the Remark : This paragraph has been written with
axial direction column all of the minor axes the help of J. Henry, geologist working with the
constructed during analysis of the interval stereo- ELF-Aquitaine group in Pau, France.
grams are listed. Under the title % of good The methods discussed previously have given
measurements is the proportion of good dips to precise and quantitative information on the geo-
total dips on the arrow plots or listings. The metry of formations that intersect the borehole.
column dispersion factor in 0 the angular size of The goal in interpreting this information is to
the circles containing the clouds of points are describe geologically this geometry.
listed. Finally in the last column the numbers Unfortunately a geometric configuration alone
attributed to each level that have been used in the is not enough, often indicating several possible
analytical stereograms are given. Such tables are geological interpretations. To remove this ambi-
used as the basic reference document when guity it is always necessary to have additional
61 2
Orientation for sti
N r
\.
I
t I-
Fig. 14-68. - Arrow-plot, stereogram and a 'stick-plot" of part
of a dipmeter log (contributed by J. Henry).
information (such as stratigraphy, sedimentology,
well log correlations, geophysics and the regional
geology). This is illustrated in the following exam-
ple.
Fig. 14-68 shows an arrow-plot, its stereogra-
phic representation and a stick-plot section normal
to the axis of a well deviated a t 100. The arrow-plot
shows, from the bottom up, a "green pattern"
dipping to the north, a "blue pattern" dipping to
the south and a "blue pattern" dipping to the
north. The stereogram clearly shows that this
corresponds to a cylinder with axis nearly horizon-
t a l and lying ENE-WSW. This geometry could
correspond to several geological models. Four of
these possibilities are suggested in Fig. 14-69 :
- in a, two reverse faults,
- in b, a normal fault,
- in c, a disharmonic fold,
- in d, the fill of a paleomorphological feature (a
channel, an erosional surface on top of a regional
disconformity).
I
9
Fig. 14-69. - Geological models compatible with the geometry
of Fig. 14-68.
Well log correlation could confirm the solution,
with the exception of evidence indicating repea-
ting series.
The structural style or geophysical (seismic)
information, or correlation with nearby wells could
indicate a missing series, tending to favour b as
the probable solution.
Sedimentological knowledge, lithology, facies,
seismic sections or the regional context (em-
bankment a t the edge of a platform for example)
could imply that solution d was the answer.
Although the solution c was selected, as the
series was a well stratified turbidite sequence that
had been compressed and folded in a N-S direc-
tion, the presence of a normal fault seems to be
correct as the extrapolation of the structure based
on the hypothesis of an isogonal folding (transla-
tion of the dip along a direction parallel to the
general axis) seems to suggest (Fig. 14-29).
14.6. OTHER APPLICATIONS
OF STEREOGRAM TECHNIQUES
The stereogram is the main means of determi-
ning certain angular relations in space. Their
applications are explained in the following sec-
tions.
14.6.1. Find the Line
of Intersection of t w o Planes
The line of intersection of two planes will be
represented on the stereogram by the intersection
point of the two cyclographic representations of
 613

W
E

Perspective View

S N

Fig. 14-70. - Definition of the line at the intersection of two

planes and the angles between them.

the planes. It is, therefore, sufficient to trace two

great circles that are the cyclographic representa- plane 2
tions of the two planes (Fig. 14-70). The intersec-
tion point P is the projection of this line. To find its / s
dip and azimuth we rotate the transparent overlay
Stereogram
to place P on the N branch of the N-S diameter.
First read from the edge to point P the angular
distance that corresponds to the dip, then count,
in an anticlockwise direction, the angle between
the N of the stereonet and that of the stereogram.

14.6.2. Determine the angle Between

t w o Planes

The intersection of two planes defines four

dihedral angles, opposite pairs of which are equal,
the total making 3600.
One of the angles will be measured on the plane
which is perpendicular to the intersection line and
contains the poles of the planes, hence it will be 'Y
Nadir
measured on the great circle that passes through
these poles .The angular distance between the Meaning of the Stereogram
poles PI and P2 is measured along this great circle.
The complementary dihedral angle (for control)
is determined by measuring the angular distance Fig. 14-71. - Determining the real dip of a bed from its
between the cyclographic traces, also along the apparent dips measured in two vertical planes.
great circle (Fig. 14-70).

14.6.3. Determination of the True Dip of a Bed
from Apparent Dip Measured on t w o
Vertical Planes
The plane that represents the bed cuts the
vertical planes along two lines that define the
apparent dip. It contains, therefore, these two
lines, represented on the stereogram by two
points.
The required plane is represented by the great
circle that passes through these two points
(Fig. 14-71). The method consists in tracing the
cyclographic representation of the planes, the
orientation of which is known (in this case the
614

vertical planes in Fig. 14-71, which are N 300 and

N 2950). In this case the planes are represented by
the diameters on which the apparent angles (pit-
ches) are plotted, measuring up from the south of
the transparent overlay because they are oriented
towards the north. The plane is represented by the
great circle passing through these two points. The
construction of this great circle and its pole
enables its azimuth and dip to be plotted : N 3500
- 300 in this case.

14.6.4. Determination of Apparent Dip of a Bed

I + I
in Any Azimuthal Direction, when its True
Dip is Known

This is the inverse problem of the previous case.

It is sufficient to plot the cyclographic trace of the
bed and to trace the diameter, the cyclographic
representation of the azimuth of the apparent dip,
we wish to measure. The point of intersection
represents the stereographic projection of the
straight line a t the intersection of the bed and the
plane. Move this point to the N-S diameter and Fig. 14-72. - An example of structural dip removal
read the value of apparent dip, the angular dis-
tance between the circumference and the point
(Fig. 14-71 : the apparent dip of the previous bed
in a direction 500 N is 180). This type of operation
is done automatically when using stick-plots 14.7. STATISTICAL PROCESSING
(Fig. 14-24b). OF DIP MEASUREMENTS

14.6.5. Dip Removal As indicated previously, when a large number of

In determining the original dip of sedimentary
formations, that have been subjected to deforma-
tion by folding, it is important to remove the
structural dip of the fold from the measured dip.
The problem consists in applying a rotation of a
fixed value and in a fixed direction to a plane, the
amount of this rotation being determined by
another plane. In this case the cyclographic repre-
sentation of the structural dip as well as the polar
projection of the measured plane must both be
plotted (Fig. 14-72).
To bring the structural plane horizontal it is
sufficient to align its cyclographic trace with a
great circle on the stereonet. Then, by moving the
stereograph by an angle equal to the structural
dip, bring this trace to the circumference. Displace
all other poles by the same angle along the small
circles. It may occur that this displacement along
the small circles passes through a horizontal
position and intersects the fundamental circle of
the stereonet. It is, in this case, necessary, to shift
it diametrically on the fundamental circle and
complete the rotation on the opposite side of the
stereogram (the points e and f in Fig. 14-72).
This type of operation, dip removal, is also
performed by computers. Fig. 14-73 shows an
example of arrow-plots before and after dip remo-
val. The drape of sandy mass appears much more
clearly after dip removal.
measurements are available it is preferable to
process them statistically. In this case we will use
graphical representations such as dip and azimuth
histograms, density stereograms, etc., in order to
identify a preferential grouping or orientation, etc.,
and to visualize the results.
14.7.1. Dip Histograms
The dip values are plotted on the abscissa and
the number of samples on the ordinate.
The dip values are generally subdivided into 50
or 100 intervals while their azimuths are grouped
into 100 intervals (Fig. 14-74).
14.7.2. Polar Plots
These plots are based on :
- either the WULFF stereonet (Fig. 14-40 and
14-75);
- or the SCHMIDT stereonet (Fig. 14-42).
On these projections the planes are represented
by their poles, and dip values are marked from 0 to
900 from the center towards the circumference of
the stereonet.
On a SCHMIDT polar plot (Fig. 14-76) the dip
graduations are equidistant, concentric circles
increasing from 0 to 900 a t the center. The azimuth
graduations are a t 100 intervals.
 615

I0 20 40 DIAMETERS 0' 10' 2 60

Fig. 14-73. - Exar le showin a drape over a sandy bar, clearly apparent after removal of the structural dip (b).

........
......
.....
1.1,

..................
,..I
.I.

...........
..............
.................................
.................
............
..............
...........
...............
.....
...
I..

Fig. 14-74. - Examples of dip (a) and azimuth (b) histograms.

When the dip values are low this type of plot 14.7.3. Azimuth Frequency Plot
makes it easier to plot and study the data.
This plot, which is not a stereographic projec- Here a polar plot is also used. Dip azimuths are
tion, is known as polar plot (Fig. 14-77). plotted on a circle in 50 or 100 categories, for
616

FROM THE CLUSTER PROGRAM

4 F T X 2 FT 35 OEGR X 2 NORTH FROM T H E CLUSTER PROGRAM
POOLEO RESULTS
4 F T X 2 FT 3 5 0 E G R X 2

ZONE FROM 9 2 5 3 1 0 9832

Fig. 14-77. - A typical "polar plot" (Courtesy of Schlumberger).

FROMTHECLUSTERPROGRAM
POOLED RESULTS
4 FT X 2 F T 35 DEGR X 2

STEREO SCALE FROM CENTER 90

ZONE FROM 9253 TO 9832

Fig. 14-75. - A typical stereo-plot (Courtesy of Schlumberger).

NORTH

190 lRn'170

I
~~

ZONE FROM 9253 TO 9832

Fig. 14-78. - Example of an "azimuth frequency plot" (Courtesy

of Sc hlumberge r).
EAST

F R O M T H E CLUSTER PROGRAM
POOLEO RESULTS
4 FT X 2 F T 3 5 OEGR X 2

SOUTH
Fig. 14-76. - A modified SCHMIDT net.

example. The lengths of the sector radii

(Fig. 14-78) are proportional to the frequency of
each azimuth category. Polar plots and azimuth
frequency plots are commonly plotted together
and known as a polar frequency plot (Fig. 14-79).
ZONE F R O M 9 2 5 3 T O 9832
Histograms, polar diagrams and azimuth fre- F R E W E N C V S C A L E FRDMCENTERGO
quency plots are all computed automatically by
zone in standard computer processing of dipmeter Fig. 14-79. - A typical "polar frequency plot" (Courtesy of
data. Schlumberger).

NORTH
Fig. 14-80. - Example of an interpretation of a SCHMIDT
diagram (Courtesy of Schlumberger).
S
Fig. 14-81. - Stereogram of the poles of 150 beds on a
SCHMIDT net (from Henry, 1976).
14.7.4. Interpretation of these Diagrams
When the polar diagram shows a distribution of
dips such as that in Fig. 14-80, we can conclude
that the structural dip is low and that the azimuth
dispersion is due to these low values. Other dip
values that are grouped in a triangular form, with
the apex oriented toward the center, may corres-
pond to either tectonic deformations, or sedimen-
tary features.
When a diagram (such as shown in Fig. 14-81)
illustrates a more concentrated distribution, the
sectors having high density and low dip values
probably define the structural dip, sedimentary
features, or folds being added to this.
61 7
DIP AZIMUTH
1200
Fig. 14-82. - Example of SODA plot (Courtesy of Schlumber-
ger).
14.7.5. Stick-Plots
This is the presentation of the intersection of
dip planes with given vertical azimuth planes
(Fig. 14-24b). The azimuth values can be chosen by
the user; if not, the six values of 3600 (or Oo), 300,
600, 900, 1200, and 1500 are arbitrarily kept.
14.7.6. SODA and DAPSA Plots
SODA is the acronym for Separation Of Dip and
Azimuth. It represents versus depth the dip angle
and the dip-azimuth in two different tracks
(Fig. 14-82).
The DAPSA plots do approximately the same
thing but the presentation is slightly different
(Fig. 14-83), the apparent dips being displayed
61 8
mega-red
pattern
mega-blue
pattern
Fig. 14-83. - Example of DAPSA plot (Courtesy of Schlumber-
ger).
versus depth in the transverse and longitudinal
directions which are determined from the analysis
of the azimuth versus depth plot or the azimuth
frequency plot. Countouring of the data concentra-
tion can be done, the DAPSA apparent dip plots
being continuous equal-area presentations. As
pointed out by Wise & McCrory (1982) this techni-
que can suppress noise and reveal broader pat-
terns and major trends.
14.7.7. Scat Plots
They correspond to the plots introduced by
Bengtson (1980, 1981) (see paragraph 14.4.2.). They
include the dip versus azimuth plot (Fig. 14-84) and
the azimuth versus depth and dip versus depth
plots associated to the DAPSA plots.
Fig. 14-84. - Example of SCAT plot (from Bengtson. 1981).
14.7.8. Density Stereograms
As we have seen in the previous diagrams or
stereograms (Fig. 14-81), the zones of clustered
points are easily perceived. In certain cases of very
dispersed measurements (Fig. 14-85) it is impossi-
ble to find any group of points or trends. The
density stereogram is an aid that transforms the
qualitative appreciation of the eye to a quantitative
presentation which can be interpreted more easily.
The principle consists of counting the points
(poles of dips) inside each division, of a fixed area,
distributed as a uniform grid over the plot or
stereogram. For this purpose a counting overlay is
used : the one introduced by Pronin for a confor-
mable projection (WULFF stereonet), or the one
created by Kalsbeek (1963, Fig. 14-41b), or Dimitri-
jevic (Fig. 14-86) for an equal-area projection
(SCHMIDT stereonet).
Construction of density stereogram
As the SCHMIDT (azimuth equal-area) stereo-
gram is generally used, we will use the Dimitrijevic
counting net.
The number of points in each small ellipse of
the counting overlay is counted. This number (or
its percentage of the total) is recorded on the
overlay in the center of each ellipse. Contours of
isodensity (or isopercentage) are then traced. The
azimuth and average dip values of one or several
areas of higher point density can then be read
from the base stereogram (Fig. 14-85 and 14-87).
They can correspond to the structural dips if all the
sedimentary dips related to current activities have
been eliminated from the stereogram.
14.8. DIPMETER ADVISOR SYSTEM
The Dipmeter Advisor is an interactive system
which firstly allows any kind of manipulation of all
the available dipmeter and open-hole data, and
 61 9

$ ' a % \

Azimuth and polar plot

Schmidt Diagram

. .' ,-.,

Density diagram

-,
0'
1

10'
1

20' Y)'
. .
9'
.
w* DIPS

Histogram of dips

Fig. 14-85. - Example of the use of diagrams as dipmeter interpretation aids.

620

s b
Fig. 14-86. - The Dimitrijevic counting net.

N N

i a 8 C

Fig. 14-87. - Construction of a density stereogram using the Dimitrijevic counting net; (a) : Counting the points of the stereogram
in Fig. 14-81; (b) : Corresponding percentages; (c) Lines of iso-density of the same stereogram (from Henry, 1976).

secondly allows an interpretation to be made using
a knowledge-base containing rules of interpreta-
tion as defined by "experts".
One of its most attractive features is the ease
with which all of the tedious dipmeter data pro-
cessing techniques can be performed (stereo-
grams, arrow plots, azimuth frequency plots, etc.),
freeing the user from the onerous tasks of plotting
the data and enabling him to concentrate on the
objective of all the previously described manipula-
tions - an interpretation.
On the screen (Fig. 14-88) open-hole logs,

Fig. 14-88. - Screen image showing the potential of the
Dipmeter Advisor system (Courtesy of Schlumberger).
Fig. 14-89. - Screen image showing plots before (right) and
after (left) dip removal (Courtesy of Schlumberger).
dipmeter results or resistivity curves, and any kind
of plots (azimuth, polar, stereogram, etc.) can be
displayed a t any scale over a chosen interval.
Zooming in on a given feature or pattern, and
vertical scrolling is also possible. Elimination of
doubtful results, or addition of dips computed
from correlations between dipmeter resistivity
curves made by hand on the screen, can be made.
The lithology determined from the interpretation
of the open-hole logs by the LITHO program can
be displayed along side in the left track. This
enables the selection of intervals in which the
structural dip can be read. The dip removal can be
processed immediately and reproduced on the
621
TRVE VERTICAL DEPTH
DIP MAQ-A2 PLOT STICK PLOT
South
Fig. 14-90. - Screen image showing the stick plot made along
a true vertical depth projection (Courtesy of Schlumberger).
screen alongside the original data (Fig.14-89).The
system can generate stick plots, even along a true
vertical depth projection of a deviated well
(Fig. 14-90), or cross-sections based on dipmeter
results.
Rules are based on the interpretation of the
various plots and patterns. They are defined by
experts in dipmeter interpretation and can be
adapted or modified to local situations. The propo-
sed solution can also be modified by the interpre-
ter should he desagree with the rules.
14.9. INTER PR ETED CROSS-SECTION S
These cross-sections will present the arrange-
ment and the geometry of the structures, deduced
from dipmeter interpretation on the whole well or
a part of it.
The position of the cross-section must be
chosen carefully, so as to change the picture of
the structure as little as possible. The represented
dips will be the apparent dips on the chosen plane
3
(most often vertical).
We can start with the results of a stick plot, for
which the plane of cross-section must first be
defined. It can be perpendicular to the vertical
plane that passes through the borehole axis. But if
this axis is inclined, this section will alter the
geometric picture (for example, over-estimate the
radius of curvature). In this case it will be better to
have an inclined cross-section with an orthogonal
axis. The position of the cross-section can vary
622

Fig. 14-91. - An interpretation example of complex folds. The stereograms (b), (c), and (d) show that the arrow-plot in (a), an
apparently simple pattern, actually corresponds to several series of folds, whose axes are oriented differently. The drawings (e)
give a schematic illustration of the spatial orientation of these folds and show that they could in fact be just a simple refolded
system (from Henry, 1969).

along the same well depending on the orientation
of the structures traversed.
When drawing the beds it is necessary to
consider isopach folds. These are the commonest
type of fold, particularly in compact brittle beds.
We can however allow variations in thickness in
plastic beds (shale, sands, halite, etc.) a t hinges or
a t inflection points.
In drawing the structures, based on measured
values, it is also necessary to consider the tectonic
nature of the region. Fig. 14-30b shows an example
of a cross-section based on the interpretation of
the arrow-plot in 14-30a.
Finally for the representation of complex struc-
tures we can use block diagrams, with the help of
fast-plots when necessary. However drawing block
diagrams is a long process and requires a certain
skill a t perspective drawing.
Fig. 14-91 shows an example of an interpreta-
tion in the case of complex folds.

14.10. REFERENCES
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for Geologists. Amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geol.,
Methods in Exploration Series.
BATES, R.L., & JACKSON, J.A. (1980). - Glossary
of Geology. 2d ed. Amer. Geol. lnst., Falls
Church, Virginia.
BENGTSON, C.A. (1980). - Statistical Curvature
Analysis methods for interpretation of dipmeter
data. Oil & Gas J., June 23, p. 172-190.
BENGTSON, C.A. (1980). - Structural use of tan-
gent diagrams. Geology, 8, p. 599-602.
BENGTSON, C.A. (1981). - Statistical Curvature
Analysis Techniques for structural interpretation
of dipmeter data. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petroleu
mGeol., 65, p. 312-333.
BIGELOW, E.L. (1985). - Making more intelligent
use of log derived dip information. 5 Parts. The
Log Analyst, 26, I, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
BILLINGS, M.P. (1942, 1972). - Structural Geology.
1 st & 3rd ed. Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey.
BUSCH, D.A. (1974). - Stratigraphic Traps in
Sandstones - Exploration Techniques. Amer,
Assoc. Petroleum Geol., Mem. 21.
Chambre Syndicale de la Recherche et de la
Production du Petrole et du Gaz Naturel. Comite
des Techniciens. (1976). - Methodes modernes
de geologie de terrain. Manuel d’analyse struc-
turale. 2b. Traitement des donnees. Ed. Technip,
Paris.
Chambre Syndicale de la Recherche et de la
Production du Petrole et du Gaz Naturel. Comite
des Techniciens. (1983). - Methodes modernes
de geologie de terrain. Manuel d‘analyse struc-
turale. 2a. Methodes d’observation, de mesure
et de notation. Ed. Technip, Paris.
DELFINER, P., PEYRET, O., & SERRA, 0. (1984). -
Automatic determination of Lithology from Well
Logs. 59th Ann. fall Mtg. and Techn. Conf of
SPE of AIME, Houston, Texas; paper SPE 13290.
DELHOMME, J.P., & SERRA, 0. (1984). - Dipme-
ter-derived Logs for Sedimentological Analysis.
SPWLA, 9th Europ. Intern. Format. Eval. Trans.,
paper 50.
DICKEY, P.A. (1979). - Petroleum Development
Geology. Petroleum Publishing Co., Tulsa.
DICKINSON, W.R. (ed) (1974). - Tectonics and
Sed iment at ion. SEPM, special publication 22.
DODGE, C.F., HOLLER, D.P., & MEYER, R.L. (1971).
- Reservoir heterogeneities in some cretaceous
sandstones. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geol.,
55, p. 1814-1828.
GARY, M., McAFEE, R.Jr., & WOLF, C.L. (1972). -
Glossary of Geology. Amer. Geol. Institute,
Washington, D.C.
GILREATH, J.A., & MARICELLI, J.J. (1964). -
Detailed Stratigraphic Control through dip
Com put at ions. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petroleum
Geol., 40, 12, p. 1902-1910.
623
GOGUEL, J. (1952). - Traite de Tectonique. Mas-
son, Paris.
HALBOUTY, M.T., et al. (1970). - World’s Giant Oil
and Gas Fields, Geological factors affecting
their formation, and basin classification. Amer.
Assoc. Petroleum Geol., Mem. 14.
HENRY, J. (1976). - see Chambre Syndical ...
(1976).
HEPP, V., & DUMESTRE, A.C. (1975). - CLUSTER -
A method for selecting the most probable dip
results from dipmeter survey. 50th Ann. Fall
Mtg. and Techn. Conf of SPE of AIME, Dallas,
paper SPE 5543.
HOBBS, B.E., MEANS, W.D., & WILLIAMS, P.F.
(1976). - An outline of Structural Geology. John
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HOBSON, G.D., & TIRATSOO, E.N. (1975). - Intro-
duction to Petroleum Geology. Scientific Press
Ltd, Beaconsfield, England.
LANDES, K.K. (1951). - Petroleum Geology. John
Wiley & Sons, New York.
LEET, L.Don, JUDSON, S., & KAUFFMAN, M.E.
(1978). - Physical Geology. 5th ed. Prentice-Hall
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
LINK, P.K. (1982). - Basic Petroleum Geology. OGCI
Publications, Tulsa.
PERRODON, A. (1980). - Geodynamique petroliere.
Genese et repartition des gisements d’hydro-
car bures. Masson, Paris.
PIRSON, S.J. (1977). - Geologic Well Log Analysis.
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W.H. Freeman & Co., San Francisco.
RAGAN, D.M. (1973). - Structural Geology. John
Wiley & Sons, New York.
RAMSAY, J.G. (1967). - Folding and Fracturing of
Rocks. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York.
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Assay. SPWLA, 19th Ann. Log. Symp. Trans.,
paper G.
RUSSELL, W.L. (1951). - Principles of Petroleum
Geology. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Schlumberger (1979). - Well Evaluation Confe-
rence. Algeria.
Schlumberger (1983). - Well Evaluation Confe-
rence. Afrique de I’Ouest.
Schlumberger (1985). - Well Evaluation Confe-
rence. Nigeria.
Schlumberger Ltd (1970). - Fundamentals of Dip-
meter Interpretation.
Schlumberger Ltd (1981). - Dipmeter Interpreta-
tion. Volume 1 -Fundamentals.
Schlumberger Middle East S.A. (1981). - Well
Evaluation Conference. United Arab Emirates/
Qatar.
Schlumberger Middle East S.A. (1 984). - Well
Evaluation Conference. Egypt.
SELLEY, R.C. (1985). - Elements of Petroleum
Geology. Freeman & Co., New York.
SERRA, 0. (1984). - Fundamentals of Well-Log
Interpretation. Volume 1 : The Acquisition of
Logging Data. Developments in Petroleum
624
Science, 15A, 440 p., Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Services Techniques Schlumberger (1 970). - Well
Evaluation Conference. Libya.
SMITH, R.G., & BAKER, J.D. (1983). - The Dipmeter
Advisor System : a case study in commercial
expert system development. Proc. 38th Intern.
Joint Conf. on Artificial Intelligence, p. 122-129.
SMITH, R.G., & YOUNG, R.L. (1984). - The design
of the Dipmeter Advisor System. Proc. ACM ann
Conf., ACM, New York, p. 15-23.
VINCENT, P., GARTNER, J., & AlTALI, G. (1979). -
GEODIP - An approach to detailed dip determi-
nation using correlation by pattern recognition.
J. Petroleum Technol., Feb., p. 232-240.
WILLIS, B., & WILLIS, R. (1934). - Geologic
St ruct ures. Me Graw-Hill, New York.
WISE, D.V., & Mc CRORY, T.A. (1982). - A new
method of fracture analysis : azimuth versus
traverse distance plots. Geol. SOC.Amer. Bull.,
93, p. 889-897.
 Chapter 15
MULTI-WELL S T U D Y :
S PACE-TI ME DESC RI PTI0N
OF FORMATIONS AND SYNTHESIS
15.1. INTRODUCTION
The preceding chapters have shown the bene-
fits to be derived from a close study of well logs
in order to obtain information about geology,
reservoir properties and geophysics. Clearly, the
techniques used to obtain such information should
be applied to the study of all the wells in a basin,
an exploration license area or a field. By associa-
ting several wells we can obtain complementary
information which will allow us to develop an
architectural and space-time reconstruction of the
formations and of the evolution of their properties.
However, the integration of data from several
wells means that we must adapt some existing
techniques and indeed develop some new ones.
This will depend on the type of problem to be
solved and on the objectives to be met by the
study of the wells.
15.2. OBJECTIVES
Multi-well studies involve two general sets of
problems. The first refers to geology and the
second is related to the study and production of a
field.
The primary objective in the first case is to
establish chronostratigraphic correlations bet-
ween wells using time markers, and to establish
facies correlations. The aim is to produce sections
and maps which will aid exploration and help to
discover economically viable accumulations of
hydrocarbon. The wells are generally spread out,
often in an irregular fashion. However, even if the
suites of logs vary, it is still possible to establish
correlations and to create maps synthesizing the
geological information.
In the second case, the primary objective is to
reconstitute, as closely as possible, the three-
dimensional image of the field with all its charac-
teristics (sedimentological, tectonic, and the poro-
sity, permeability, saturation and water table of the
reservoir). The wells are generally close to one
another and the correlations are therefore easy to
establish, especially if dipmeter data is included
(Fig. 14-2). Since the quantitative aspect is often
very important, it is necessary to have comparable
data. Thus, there may be a problem with differen-
ces between measurements, especially if the field
has been developed over a long period of time.
There may be log data recorded by different
generations of tools, for example the CNL tools
replacing SNP or even GNT tools, or laterolog and
induction tools replacing the old electric log, or
there may be suites of logs which are incomplete
or contradictory. There could also be small varia-
tions in the calibrations. There is, therefore, a
preliminary stage of recalibrating and normalizing
the data.
15.3. REGIONAL GEOLOGICAL STUDIES
Regional studies are primarily concerned with
establishing stratigraphic and facies correlations
from well logs, from which maps that will give a
synthesis of all the available information are then
created.
15.3.1. Log Correlations
In order to correlate a discontinuous sequence
of surface outcrops, we generally look for certain
characteristic patterns such as type of lithology,
colour, texture, sedimentary features, and the
sequence of flora and fauna.
In the subsurface, the equivalent characteristics
shown by events or groups of events on the logs
are used. This technique has been known for a
626
long time and the early log analysts recognized
that similar characteristics were often observed
between wells, sometimes over wide areas. Well
logs have the added advantage of giving a conti-
nuous, objective and quantitative evaluation of the
formations. In addition, they have very good
vertical resolution which makes it possible to
detect fine detail, as well as very small changes
which might be missed on cores. Furthermore,
some parameters are virtually unobtainable by any
other means. Some of these parameters have a
considerable bearing on the geological history, as
well as spanning great distances and variations in
facies (for example, radioactive levels associated
with cinerite or volcanic ashes).
1 5.3.1.1 . Principle of Causality
The principle of causality states that the same
causes produce the same effects. Thus, the same
set of depositional conditions in a given geological
period should produce the same log responses
just as they produce the same lithology and facies.
The application of this principle allows us to
assert that the persistence of certain criteria from
one point of observation (a well) to another is
proof that the original causes were the same a t
both points. Thus if we observe similar log featu-
res in different wells we may conclude that :
- the depositional conditions were the same at
both locations,
- it is probably the same formation, unless the
phenomenon is not isolated in time (vertically on
the log), or is repeated in the same stratigraphic
interva I.
Geological phenomena of considerable impor-
tance such as periods of burial, erosion, transgres-
sion or tectonic movement will all leave their mark
on the log measurements, just as they do on rocks
and formations, regardless of facies and environ-
ment. These features will therefore indicate the
presence of these geological phenomena. It is so
Fig. 15-1. - Example of erroneous correlations (dotted) established without taking account of the tool responses. Following the initial
correlations, a condensation and unconformity were proposed for the well on the right. Without rejecting this hypothesis out of
hand, the dashed correlations seem to point clearly to the presence of faults (from Serra, 1972).
true that in many places well logs provide the
basis for lithostratigraphic formations, and each
lithological unit in a basin can be designated by a
type well which is used as a reference for both
lithology and log characteristics.
15.3.1.2. Concepts of Log Correlation
There are three fundamental concepts used in
the process of log correlation.
Concept o f Similarity
This is the first concept to apply simply because
it is the most obvious and the most intuitive. It is
essentially based on the shape of the curves, that
is, the frequency, amplitude and position of log
events in vertical sequences. Clearly, for each
event the value of all the log parameters must be
considered, otherwise there can be incorrect
correlations (Fig. 15-1). This concept will be used
for correlations of fine detail, for very close and
precise studies, e.g., of a field. It may be useful to
consult logs with very good vertical resolution,
such as the microlaterolog and the dipmeter.
Care must be taken when applying this concept
for correlations over a considerable distance,
especially when the similarity of shape is not
perfect. If, on the other hand, the similarity is
perfect, then it can be safely concluded that the
correlation is valid and chronostratigraphic.
Concept of rhythmicity
Sedimentation takes place in sequences,
rhythms or cycles related to geological pheno-
mena of some importance, and will thus be
characterized regionally regardless of the type of
deposition ( rhythmostratigraphy as defined in
Pomerol et a/., (1980) : "Sequences are separated
from each other by discontinuity surfaces or li-
mit-surfaces which reveal a break in sedimenta-
tion before a return to the conditions of deposition
similar to those which formed the basis of the
preceding sequence").
Jnconformity

This often produces similar general evolution or,
put in another way, "electrosequences" which are
comparable. This is a very important concept,
since it enables us to identify geological pheno-
mena showing close synchronization, even allo-
wing for a certain "delay" between one part of the
basin and another. Such phenomena include
breaks in sedimentation due to tectonic move-
ment, transgressive periods or eustatic cycles,
erosion, gaps in deposition and "hard-ground".
Concept of Lateral Variability
This concept is based on two sets of evidence :
- the lateral linking of facies which is not
random since according to the Walther's law,
there is a relationship between the juxtaposed and
superposed elementary sequences over the scale
of the sedimentary sequence. In other words, at
the same instant in a given basin, for example,
there will be deposition of sands, silts, clays and
coals;
- the thickness of the deposits during the same
time period depends on :
. the type of lithology and depositional envi-
ronment as well as on its compaction capacity,
. the phenomenon of subsidence,
. a combination of the two previous pheno-
mena. Lateral variability will be preferred in certain
types of deposit and especially in basins (deltaic,
evaporitic), all the more so if chronostratigraphic
correlations are to be established.
15.3.1.3. Intrinsic Value of Correlations.
Concept of Reliability
From the quantitative information given by the
well logs we can evaluate the quality of the
correlations by introducing the concepts of corre-
lation coefficients and reliability.
A correlation coefficient may be computed for
any correlation between two curves of the same
type, just as dip is calculated using the correlo-
gram established from the cross-correlation tech-
nique of the resistivity curves recorded by the
dipmeter tools. In a given window, that is, over a
certain interval, the greater the similarity between
the curves in terms of shape, parameter values
and frequency of events, the higher will be the
coefficient of correlation and the greater the
reliability of the correlation. Programs for auto-
matic correlations using this approach have been
written. Though this technique has been success-
fully tested by certain companies, it is difficult to
apply since changes in the type of tool, as well as
possible variations in thickness or in the amplitude
of different events from one well to the next all
have to be taken into account. Hence, a subjective
judgment as to the quality of the correlation is
generally based on :
- the degree of similarity between the shape of
each log and the corresponding or equivalent one
in the other well,
627
- the number of logs showing this characteris-
tic similarity,
- the interval over which this similarity is obser-
ved.
Thus the correlation coefficient will be high if
the degree of similarity is high on each log over a
sufficiently long interval, say several tens of
metres. By applying these concepts to log correla-
tions between wells a specific chronostratigraphic
value for the correlations can be established.
15.3.1.4. Stratigraphic Value
of Log Correlations
With a few exceptions, such as cinerite or tuff
levels, or radioactive markers, log correlations are
lithological or facies correlations. Thus, the chro-
nostratigraphic value of these correlations lies in
the answer to the following question: do the
lithological correlations or facies correlations fol-
low the time-lines, that is, are they synchronous, or
do they cut across these lines 7
The answer lies on both the intrinsic value of
the correlations, that is, their reliability, and, in the
area covered, on the type of basin, the type of
lithology, and the sedimentation model. If, in a
given interval there is nearly exact repetition of the
shapes of the curves and of the measured parame-
ter values between wells, thereby providing a
maximum correlation coefficient, then there is
such a low probability that there will be another
such period and within a similar time span another
such sedimentary cycle showing the same exact
repetition of characteristics that it can be assumed
that the correlation reliability is maximal and the
synchronism is confirmed.
When considering the type of basin, it is clear
that in a deltaic basin, a certain large-scale simila-
rity of sequences can be observed. There are
successions of sequences of similar type due to
the fact that the depositional process remained
more or less constant over several epochs. There
is not, however, any exact similarity, except possi-
bly in the homogeneous pro delta shales. In the
direction of progradation of the delta there is
every chance of finding diachronous facies corre-
lations. Moving along isopic aureoles perpendicu-
lar to the direction of progradation should give a
more or less synchronous path. Some peat or
limestone beds can constitute good time markers
especially in a limited extended area (a field for
instance).
In the case of a calm intracratonic basin, such
as the Paris Basin a t the Kimmeridgian stage, with
marly limestone type deposits, an overall similarity
of sequences and often a peak-to-peak similarity
of curves can be observed over thicknesses of
more than 100 m between wells separated by
several tens of kilometres. The correlations are
easily established regardless of the direction ta-
ken. Furthermore, since the correlations are sur-
rounded by excellent and well-dated markers,
 I LOCATION MAP I

Fig. 15-2. - Log correlation levels in the Kimmeridgian-Portlandian of the Paris Basin, showing their geographical extent in a calm,
intracratonic basin. The reliability of the correlations is such that, over an interval of more than one hundred metres and over an
area of several thousand square kilometres, a chronostratigraphic value can be attached to these correlations without any risk of
error (from Serra, 1972).
 629

there can be no doubt about their chronostratigra-
phic value (Fig. 15-2 from Serra, 1972).
Whereas in some detrital sequences it is almost
impossible to establish valid correlations in mas-
sive sands, this is not the case in shaly groups
where very good correlations are frequently found
(Fig. 15-3). In the example given (Serra, 1972) the
correlations show this kind of similarity and conti-
nuity, and it is quite reasonable to give them a
chronostratigraphic value. It follows that :
- the lateral variation of the facies and the
variations in the thickness of shale and especially
sand deposits can be traced,
- in the absence of any fauna, the space-time
development of the Cretaceous transgression can
be traced very precisely, and relative dating can be
established for its lower boundary a t each point,
- the chronostratigraphic non-validity of each
break can be established on the basis of lithology
changes.

I BA7 BA 8 BA 6 MC 1 MC 7 MC 6 LY 2 MB 7 ME 1 BH 1 CSD? CY 1

LOCATION MAP

c.
Fig. 15-3. - Correlations in shale-sand sequences. The existence of shaley episodes in the centre of this group of greensands in
the Albo-Aptian of the Paris Basin provides excellent correlations which more than likely have very good chronostratigraphic value.
In addition, they enable the space-time variations in the Cretaceous transgression t o b e dated accurately, in a relative way, for
each correlation point. Finally, as this figure shows, any chronostratigraphic limit based on the lithology reference is worthless
(from Serra, 1972).
 630
Correlations based on the concepts of rhythmi-
city and lateral variability are by definition more
chronostratigraphic. This is because they correlate
events of greater amplitude, such as major discon-
tinuities in sedimentation cycles, and therefore
represent a higher probability of having a certain
degree of synchronism.
15.3.1.5. Techniques of fog Correletions
It may seem that there are no special techni-
ques of log correlation other than attempting to
identify typical markers or patterns, it means
similarities in the shapes of the curves, the suc-
cession of sequences, significant breaks in the
sedimentary cycle, or the most likely evolution of
facies. This, of course, is essentially the job of the
geologist. However, to get the best results and
maximum precision, the correlation procedure
should be preceded by certain steps which are
now described in detail.
Creation of the composite log for each well
studied
Although in some cases one or two logs may be
sufficient for correlation, the full set of available
WELL B
DIP ANGLE
0" 10" 20"
1s x 10' x 20'
Fig. 15-4. - Correlations between wells based on dipmeter data (from Schlurnberger, Well Evaluation Conference, Nigeria, 1974).
logs should be used in order to maximize the
validity of the correlation. I therefore recommend
the use of the composite log as the basis for
correlation.
The composite log should contain most of the
exploration logs. The results of processing of this
data by a LITHO-type program (Delfiner et a/.,
1984), giving direct indications of lithology, should
be included. The dipmeter results should be
provided by GEODIP (Vincent et al., 1979) or
LOCDIP processing, depending on the tool used,
followed by processing the results by the SYNDIP
program (Delhomme & Serra, 1984) to obtain a
synthesized view of the whole well. A "stick-plot"
in the plane of the section is also recommended.
This will give valuable indications of the probable
location of the corresponding interval in other
wells (Fig. 15-4 and Fig. 14-2b in Chapter 14). The
vertical scale of the composite log should be
chosen according to the problem in hand. In the
case of the study of a basin the 112000 or 115000
scale is preferable (Fig. 15-5), while the study of a
field is better facilitated by the 11200 scale.
Trial correlation have been successfully attemp-
ted using PC logs, in this case the PCI (principal
WELL A DIP ANGLE
SP BResistivity 0" 10" 20"
 631

EPTH OPEN-HOLE LOGS

I 1 i i i i
lelrsl

0
GR
API 200 1
___----
LLS
ohmm
-- -----a
I O O F
NPHl
D U
CALI
?----T----
I7 0
PEF ................
I

................42)
-160
SP
mV
LLD
ohmm 100 1 2
RHOB
glcmi 2 7 240
DT
rrft 40

MSFl
1 Ohmm 100

1250

I300

1350

I400

1450

1500

1550

1600

1650

1700

1750

1000

1850

1900

1950

2000

Fig. 15-5a. - Example of a composite log on a highly compressed scale which could be used for correlation
(from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference, India, 1983).
632

GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION

Offshore bar

Shelf mud and swell lag

Offshore tidal bar

Swell lag
Storm sand
Offshore tidal bar
Channel lag
Storm sand
Shelf mud
Storm sand

Offshore bar

Channel lag

Shelf mud

Offshore tidal bar

Shelf mud

Offshore tidal bar

Shelf mud and swell lag

Swell or channel lag

Shelf mud

Offshore tidal bar

Fig. 15-5b. - Composite log example combining the results of dipmeter data processed by the GEODIP program with the results
of a facies analysis (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference, India, 1983).

C 0 RR ELATIO NS
nu ; 1 I 2
I I I
I
! I
Fig. 15 -6. - Example of correlations based on PC, (courtesy of
Schlumberger).
component log of the first order, cf. Chapter 5).
This is a technique which uses all the logs to show
on a single curve the principal, dominant characte-
ristic derived from all the measurements. Fig. 15-6
is an example of correlations established using
PCI. However, this method runs into difficulty
because of disparities between the recordings.
The method can only be used if the same suite of
logs is always used and if these logs are themsel-
ves well calibrated.
Assembling Cross-sections for Correlations
This consists of setting the composite logs from
the various wells side-by-side and using either
regular spacing while keeping a reference marker
for aligning the wells, or using spacing which takes
into account the real distance between wells while
restoring a vertical scale relative to sea level.
In every study of a stratigraphic synthesis of a
basin, region or field, it is desirable to establish
intersecting transverse sections, supplemented by
circular sections. This is essential to closing the
mesh and to ensuring continuity and closure of the
correlations. This in turn ensures freedom from
drift.
633
Search for time-markers
3 Chronostratigraphic correlations must be based
on time constant horizons which are rare, because
they generally correspond to more or less instan-
taneous phenomena, in terms of geological time,
and they must be independent of environment. To
be useful, they also must be of wide geographical
extent. The most common time-markers which
fulfill these criteria are those corresponding to
cinerite or volcanic ashes. They are often difficult
to detect from cuttings, except with a microscope,
but are often easily seen on the well logs. Other
time markers correspond to deposits in deep-
water environments related to chemical changes
in water masses due to changes in ocean water-
circulation patterns. Finally, good time markers are
those corresponding to important breaks in sedi-
mentary and stratigraphy records. Such breaks are
usually easily detected on logs. They correspond
to either dip changes, or change of compaction,
and/or "anomalous" peaks such as radioactive
peaks or very dense and compact level (hard-
ground), or even breaks of sequential evolution.
15.3.1.6. Contributions of Log Correlations
to Stratigraphy
Works on petroleum geology are full of exam-
ples of log correlations and of maps established
from well log correlations. The examples which
follow, taken from works previously published
(Serra, 1972), have been chosen for their capacity
to illustrate geological phenomena which it would
have been difficult to detect other than by the use
of log correlation.
Missed-out Sequences
While a dipmeter log analysis may suggest the
presence of a fault or unconformity, a missed-out
sequence will only be revealed by comparing two
or more wells. This will indicate whether it corres-
ponds to a fault, an unconformity, a period without
deposition, or an erosion.
- due to a fault
Figure 15-1 is an example of correlations sho-
wing the disappearance of sequences interpreted
as being due to an unconformity. However, the
sonic measurements suggest the existence of two
faults. Figure 15-7 shows the case of normal faults
intersecting well GT 8 (Gassi Touil field, Sahara)
which have been detected by correlating with well
GT 28. These would have been almost impossible
to detect from lithology studies alone.
- due to erosion or unconformity
This phenomenon is clearly illustrated by
Fig. 15-8 and Fig. 15-9, also from the Gassi Touil
field and provided respectively by Sulpice and
Busson (in Serra, 1972).
Because they allow a great number of units to
be identified in a sedimentary sequence, logs are
particularly valuable for studying transgressive
unconformities and the erosion phenomena which
634

GASSI TOUIL 8 GASSI TOUIL 28

Sonic Sonic

8
7

Miued intarvai
in GT' 6

Fig. 15-7. - Example of normal faults easily detected by the logs which would have been practically impossible to correlate using
only lithology (from Serra, 1972).
 635

Fig. 15-8. - Erosion phenomena clearly detected by the logs. Structure in the Gassi Touil Field in Algeria (from Sulpice, in Serra,
1972).
 GTE2

GASSI TOUIL FIELD

1 s 4 sum L. PC
L

Suberop map ante Albo-Apthn

G. BUSSON, 1969 (18)

Fig. 15-9. - Study of a transgressive unconformity and the

erosional phenomena which preceded it. Definition of the
levels underlying the transgression. Subcrop map of the
ante-Albo-Aptian of the Gassi Touil Field in Algeria (from
Busson, in Serra, 1972).
L

precede them. Figure 15-8 shows the log correla-
tions which allowed the erosion of the structure to
be detected and the subcrop map of the ante-
Albo-Aptian in Figure 15-9 to be produced. The
eroded level cannot be dated by the palaeontology
given the generally azoic character of these se-
quences, nor could the lithology log alone have
clearly differentiated the units in these monotone
sequences. Only the characteristic patterns given
by the peaks enable the correlations to be esta-
blished.
Detection and Study of a Synsedirnentary
Flexure-Fault
The structure of the Coulommes field in the
Paris Basin differs between the westerly (Belou 1
and 3) and the easterly (Coulommes 1) compart-
ments in the Lower and Middle Jurassic period
(Fig. 15-10), suggesting :
- a continuous synsedimentary flexure-fault
which is directly responsible for the subsidence
phenomenon which is more pronounced in the
east than in the west, that is, the thickness of the
Toarcien is greater a t Montlevee 1 than a t Belou;
- the existence of an unconformity towards the
end of the Aalenian-Bajocian. This is shown by the
absence of some late Aalenian levels (ammonite
zones) in the Belou 1 compartment, as well as the
likely absence of lower Bajocian levels on the
Belou culmination, although they are present in
the Coulommes structure.
sw
rwitncsi COUCVIAY I DLLOU I DLWUI
Fig. 15-10. - Detection of a synsedimentary fault-flexure and associated subsidence which is more pronounced towards the
east-north-east than towards the west-south-west, and of erosion and unconformities (from Serra, 1972).
637
Detection of an Erosional Unconforrnity and
Subsequent Transgression
Two examples from the Paris Basin will serve to
illustrate these phenomena :
- Figure 15-11 shows the transgression of the
Cretaceous over the Upper Jurassic in the Pays de
Cau. The quality of the correlations reveals the
gradual east-to-west disappearance of the Por-
tlandian, as well as almost the whole of the
Kimmeridgian, with only the extreme base of the
limestones with Astartes remaining a t Preuseville
16.
- The other example concerns the Upper Juras-
sic (Fig. 15-12). This example shows how the high
quality of correlations given by the logs, hence
their reliability, have revealed a phenomenon that
would not have been revealed by a study of
lithology alone in the absence of characteristic
fauna : the existence of an unconformity within the
Argovo-Rauracian sequence on the southern edge
of the Paris Basin. Because the sequence varied so
little in thickness and lithology between the upper
limit of the Dogger and the base of the Kimmerid-
gian, the presence of an unconformity had been
missed in the initial examination. The correlations
in fact show several phenomena :
- a condensation of the Callovian, Oxfordian
and of the base of the Argovian;
- a progressive thickening of certain Argovo-
Rauracian levels, which indicates a marked subsi-
NE
PETROREP wells
Fig. 15-11. - Example of erosion and an unconformity which can be followed from the logs
(Paris Basin). The Lower Cretaceous transgression, which is difficult to differentiate, and the
Gault shales can also be followed easily (from Lardenois & Serra, 1967).

I Location map

Fig. 15-12. - Detection of an unconformity in the Argovo-Rauracian of the Southern Paris

Basin. This figure demonstrates several phenomena : condensation of the Callovo-Oxfordian
and of the Lower Argovian; major subsidence from north to south during the Argovo-
Rauracian; erosion of the upper levels of the Argovo-Rauracian to the south; deposits of
about constant thickness during the Rauracian and Sequanian indicating a return to a period
of stability (from Lardenois & Serra, 1967).
 639

dence in the south of the Paris Basin more or less
in north extension of the Limagne trough; the
hatched level in the figure goes from 2 m a t
Villeperrot 1 to 60 m a t Parly 1;
- an erosion of the upper levels of this group
before the late Rauracian and Sequanian limes-
tone deposits.
In the above example, the correlations combine
the concepts of similarity and rhythmicity.
Detecting Condensation Phenomena
Once again an example from the Paris Basin will
serve to illustrate this phenomenon. The example
in Figure 15-13 relates to the Callovian-Oxfor-
dian-Argovian sequence. The log correlations re-
veal a phenomenon already detected in outcrops
but which is difficult to follow in the centre of the
Basin. Figure 15-13 is a westerly extension of the
preceding figure. The condensation of the levels

KlMMERlDGlAN

SEQUANIAN

marker A,
RAURACIAN
ARGOVIAN

OXFORDIAN

Oolitic marker

CALLOVIAN

DOGGER

Fig. 15-13. - Example of the phenomenon of condensation (Paris Basin). The space-time behaviour of this phenomenon is easily
followed using the log correlations. Compare this figure to the previous one, which is the continuation towards the south-west (from
Serra, 1972).
640

can easily be followed from the north-west to the
south-east, from bed to bed, which would certainly
not have been possible from a lithological exami-
nation alone.
Study of Azoic Basins
Good examples of the unique contribution of
logs to the study of evaporitic basins are given by
the study of the Lower Lias Evaporite Basin in the
centre of the Aquitaine Basin (Earth & Winnock, in
Serra, 1972), by the work of Busson (1972) on the
Saharian Mesozoic, by the work of Peterson & Hite
(1969) on the Paradox basin in Utah and Colorado,
and by Brunstrom & Walmsley (1969) on the
Permian Evaporite Basin in the North Sea.

Fig. 15-14a. - Distribution of facies based on the shape of the resistivity curves (from Lennon, 1976).
 64 1

15.3.2. Maps

Since log data provide, almost automatically,

objective and quantified parameters, logs are
extremely useful in creating maps which will
synthesize the geological information and will
allow the determination of the trends. Moreover,
by introducing the dipmeter data (formation dips
and hole deviation), logs make it possible to
determine the real thickness of the beds or forma-
tions encountered, something which is very diffi-
cult to achieve by other means.
The types of map which can be produced from
the logs are extremely varied. The most frequently
drawn are :
- isobath and isopach maps;
- isolith maps (for example, the cumulative
thickness of limestone or sandstone beds);
- isopercentage or isoratio maps (sand/ clay, or
detrital rocks/chemical or biochemical rocks).
With the help of programs such as LITHO, much
more detailed maps can now be drawn, such as
those proposed by Pelto (1954), Krumbein & Libby
(1957), Forgotson (1960), Sloss et a/., (1960).
Krumbein & Sloss (1963), including maps of the
number of distinct units, maps of the relative
entropy, classification maps, maps of the relative
center of gravity and maps of relative standard
deviation. Electrofacies maps can also be establis- Fig. 15-15. - Geothermal gradient map in the North Sea (from
Cornford, 1984).
hed (Fig. 15-14) which quickly provide a clear
indication of the distribution of a certain type of
facies, which will be revealed by characteristic
features on one or two logs, usually the SP and
resistivity. Temperature isogradient maps are ea-
sily constructed from bottom-hole temperature - maps of equal mean radioactivity (Fig. 15-16)
measurements (Fig 15-15). By using pressure or of maximum radioactivity;
measurements made with the RFT tool, hydrody- - maps of equal mean sonic velocity;
namic maps can also be made (pseudo-potentio- - maps of SP gradient.
metric and piezometric). Maps can also be All of these parameters are determined over a
constructed from logs which are unobtainable by certain interval or in a given formation. Such maps
often allow phenomena to be identified which are
other means, such as :
otherwise difficult to detect. As proposed by
Pirson (1970), they can also help to predict the
shape and extent of hydrocarbon accumulations.
Other maps can also be proposed, such as
maps of iso-values of the photoelectric index Pe,
measured by the LDT tool over a given interval.
Maps such as these can reveal a slow variation in
the mineralogical composition of a carbonate or
detrital reservoir. Of course, this is particularly true
on the scale of a field or basin.
In geological mapping, one has to be imagina-
tive and progressive and be ready to explore all the
possibilities while bearing in mind the existing
relationships between the mapped parameter and
the geological realities in order to successfully
interpret the map.
The interest and validity of these maps clearly
depend on the quality of the logs and their
processing, as well as on the number of control
Fig. 15-14b. - Environmental reconstruction based on gamma
points, that is, wells. Seismic sections can partially
ray patterns (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference, compensate for a lack of systematic coverage with
Nigeria, 1985). wells. However, they must be calibrated using log
 Fig. 15-16. - lsoradioactivity map of the Callovian in the Coulommes Field, France (from Pirson, 1970).
data and a vertical seismic profile. A study of the
amplitude and frequency spectra of the borehole
seismic, together with the use of models, will
enable the seismofacies to be translated into
lithofacies. This enables the variations between
wells to be followed more easily.
15.4. FIELD STUDIES
While the creation of correlations between the
different wells is an important stage in the study of
a field, the primary objective of such a study is the
lateral evolution of the petrophysical characteris-
tics of the reservoirs, together with a detailed and
precise reconstruction of the geometry of the
various facies and of the field. As was indicated
previously, such a study requires normalization of
the log data. This has to be so because the suite
of logs often changes during the development of
the field, and because the calibrations of the tools
may vary (Boutemy et a/., 1979).
15.4.1. Calibration of Measurements
for a Field
This part of the study relies on the comparison
of histograms over an interval showing perfect
homogeneity' (Fig. 15-17), or on a section of the
formation penetrated by the various wells
(Fig. 15-18).
For this purpose, a multidimensional histogram
is built using the logs recorded in key wells. This
constitute the field histogram to which each well
histogram will be compared to determine the set
of shifts to be applied to the logs in order to obtain
the best correlation between the well histogram
and the field histogram.
' The homogeneity generally appears in low-energy envi-
ronments (clays and marls). It is established from correlations
primarily using the concept of absolute similarity of shape and
of the sequences of events. The quality of the calibrations can
also be checked by comparing, where circumstances permit,
the readings opposite characteristic formations (e.g., halite,
anhydrite, gypsum, etc.) for the whole field. These readings
generally have a constant values on a worldwide scale.

Fig. 15-17. - Histogram of density and hydrogen index values
over the same interval in several wells of the same field (from
Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference, India, 1983).
:Y, .. ..
Fig. 15-18. - Another example of histograms of density, sonic
travel time and hydrogen index for the same formation
penetrated by three. different wells. Observe the shifts on the
density only (courtesy of Schlumberger).
The key wells should be selected from those
which have the most recent and complete set of
logs, and as much other information as possible,
such as extensive coring, a complete and detailed
analysis of the cores, and measurements on fluid
643
samples. The key wells themselves should first be
calibrated using measurements derived from the
core samples. This is necessary in order to esta-
blish reliable and exact relationships between the
log measurements and the petrophysical parame-
ters (principal and secondary minerals, porosity,
pore type and distribution, clay type and distribu-
tion, and permeability).
Thus, for example a permeability index can be
deduced from a combination of the log measure-
ments, and, after calibration, be converted into
true permeabilities. The validity of this method is
then tested by comparing the results with per-
meability measurements obtained from cores
(Fig. 15-19). The facies of the reservoir must be
taken into account in establishing this relationship.
Thus, in Fig. 15-20 there are clearly two relations-
hips between permeability and porosity, taking
into account the rock facies. By applying the
relationships established for a single well using
electrofacies determined by the FACIOLOG pro-
gram (Wolff & Pelissier-Combescure, 1982) and
converted into facies by comparing them with core
studies, an estimation of the permeability on
another well in the same field can be obtained
(Fig. 15-21). Very good agreement is observed
when this estimate is compared with the core
measurements.
15.4.2. Wells with Incomplete
or Old Logging Programs
In wells with an incomplete logging program or
with data recorded with old tools, a special
procedure is used. It consists in making first an
interpretation in key wells with the selected inter-
pretation model and the complete logging suite.
The log data, as well as the petrophysical results
of their interpretation, are then merged into a data
base. This data base is subsequently used to
determine the statistical relationships between
one or several log measurements and any of the
petrophysical results established in homogeneous
formations. It is based on the fact that in homoge-
neous formations same statistical relationships
between the log measurements and the petrophy-
sical parameters should exist from one well to the
next. From these relationships the missing para-
meters are est'imated of course, the uncertainty
on the results is much greater in this case than in
the case of a complete logging program.
15.4.3. Creating a Database for a Field
The FACIOLOG program allows any 'combina-
tion of logs to be used, including synthetic logs
obtained from analysis, by the SYNDIP program,
of dipmeter data processed by GEODIP or LOCDIP
programs. This allows a database to be built up for
644
-
DEPTH ESTIME : PERMEABILITY COMPARISON I OPEN-HOLE LOG DATA
CORE PERMEABILITY
E 1 md 10000
8
E70C
eeot
Fig. 15-19a. - Permeabilities estimated from the logs and
compared with measured values from cores (from Schlum-
berger, Well Evaluation Conference, United Arab Emirates/
Qatar, 1981).
the key wells, and this can subsequently be tran-
slated into lithofacies either by using the LITHO
program or by comparison with core analysis
(Widdicombe & Noon, 1984).
As we have seen in Chapter 5, each electrofa-
cies corresponds to a hypervolume in the n-di-
mensional space of the logs. In the study of a field
the number of electrofacies can be increased in
order to achieve a more detailed and precise
interpretation. A mineralogical, textural and struc-
DEPTH COMPARISON OF CORE VS. CPI RESULTS
Fig. 15-19b. - Another example of porosities and permeabilities
derived from the logs and compared with core measurements
(from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference, United Arab
EmiratedQatar. 1981).
tural model can then be associated with each
electrofacies in order to establish a quantitative
interpretation (choice of minerals and their para-
meters, choice of geological constraints, choice of
response equations or of the relationships linking
the porosity and the permeability to the log
parameters). This database of electrofacies should
be established from a suite of logs which is
common to all the key wells since it must be
usable on the other wells in the field.
 645

15.4.4. Study of the other Wells

7CCQC
3 LAGOONAL FACIES
L ALGAL M O U N D FACIES
The first stage consists of determining to which
electrofacies in the database the set of log
measurements made a t a given depth corres-
l00C
ponds. A certain tolerance is allowed in this
allocation : if the set of measurements falls out-
side any of the electrofacies, the one which is
closest is selected. Care must be taken that there
are no other possible electrofacies nearby. Also
100
ensure that the set of measurements is not too far
from the hypervolume in question; this can be
done by introducing the concept of distance. It
may be, of course, that a set of logs cannot be
attributed to any of the electrofacies in the data-
10
base. When this occurs, a new electrofacies is
added and the study of the set of wells resumes

-d4P.U.)
Fig. 15-20. - Crossplot of permeability vs porosity from con
data showing two types of relationship depending on the rock
facies (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference, India,
1983).
with the updated database.
The next stage consists of establishing correla-
tions between wells both from the chronostrati-
graphic and the facies points of view (Fig. 15-22).
This gives an indication of the lateral evolution or
continuity of the electrofacies, and may reveal
faults or other phenomena (traps) which have not
been detected by the study of each well indivi-
dually (Figs. 15-23 and 15-24). During this stage it
is important to introduce the dipmeter data which
will allow detection of a possible fault running
between the wells. It is also very important to take
into account information on fluid salinities and on
pressures measured in each reservoir of each well
to ensure the correlations between reservoirs.
We can now proceed to the quantitative inter-
pretation itself. This involves taking the same
interpretation model previously defined and the
same computation program (GLOBAL, VOLAN
etc.) for each electrofacies.
Finally, the actual mapping of the whole field is
undertaken. In some ways these maps will be
identical to the ones referred to in the course of
the study of a basin. In particular, isobath maps
can be established by introducing the dipmeter
data which provides a more exact representation
of the structure (Fig. 15-25). lsopach maps can also
be produced as well as maps of isopercentages of
a given electrofacies in a given interval, maps of
isoratios between two facies, isolith maps of a
given type of lithology, and maps of a selected
electrofacies. Vertical variability maps are also
important to draw. They allow a better description
of the both vertical and lateral evolution of the
facies to be obtained.
All these maps can help in the determination of
the geometry of a reservoir, thus defining the
depositional environment (Fig. 15-26; see also
Fig. 5-33). This type of reconstruction is essential
in order to predict the lateral evolution of the

4 F i g . 15-21. - Porosities and permeabilities derived from the

logs and taking account of facies (electrofacies) compared
with core measurements (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation
Conference, India, 1983).
646

Fig. 15-22a. - Section showing correlations based on the results of an analysis by the FACIOLOG program using a database of
electrofacies (from Schlurnberger, Well Evaluation Conference, India. 1983).

petrophysical characteristics and thus to deter-
mine the probable presence or absence of lateral
permeability barriers, and the direction of aniso-
tropy.
Further maps of a more specifically petrophysi-
cat character can be added to the list :
- maps of equal cumulative porosity (4.h) bet-
ween two time markers or over the same reservoir,
- maps of equal cumulative or integrated per-
meability (k.h),
 647

-
I'
6OC

B I'

650

70C

75c

80[

85C

got

35t

Fig. 15-22b. - Correlations between four wells of the results of

processing the logs using FACIOLOG and a database of
electrofacies (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Confe-
rence, Egypt, 1984).
648

WELL C

1700

WELL A

---- _ _ _ _ _

MARKER

Fig. 15-23. - Correlations be tween four wells. Several faults are identified (from Schlumberger. Well Evaluation Conference, Egypt,
1984).

- maps of equal average porosity, well distributed, automatic mapping techniques

- maps of equal saturation with or without
cut-off.
Maps of errors on the measurements can also
be created, which can be of considerable interest
for studies of economics and profitability. Finally,
it is also useful to produce pseudo-potentiometric
maps and pressure maps.
When the number of wells is high and they are
can be employed by using Krigepack or Bluepack
type programs (Delhomme, 1978; Delfiner et a/.,
1983). Such techniques allow more homogeneous
maps to be produced on which errors are minimi-
zed. Data from the interpretation of seismic profi-
les (depths of a marker, presence of a fault, dips)
is advisable in this case.
The advantage of log data over all other data in
 649

DEPTH
m

1650

1700

1750

I I'
/ I'
Fig. 15-24. - Correlations between the same four well after depth-matching and inclusion of dipmeter data (from Schlumberger,
Well Evaluation Conference, Egypt, 1984).

the production of all these maps is based on the and they are objective. Finally, maps produced
fact that log data are both quantitative and qualita- from log data are very easily updated when any
tive. They are also continuous, unlike core data, new wells are drilled.
650

1
N
I

STRUCTURAL M A P
r o p FORMATION iz’

FINAL

Fig. 15-25. - Structural map based on elevations and structural dip data from 5 wells, and comparison with the final map after infill
drilling (from Schlumberger, Well Evaluation Conference, Nigeria, 1974).

mos B Stratigraphic Oil and Gas Fields - Classification,
a Q @
Fig. 15-26. - Determination of depositional environment from
reservoir geometry.
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 APPENDIX

TABLE 1
SI BASE AND SUPPLEMENTARY UNITS

Unit
Quantity Unit Name Symbol Remarks
BASE UNITS
length meter, or metre m U.S. spelling is “meter”. Canadian and IS0 (International Or-
ganization for Standardization) spelling is “metre”.

mass kilogram kg This is the only base unit having a prefix. In SI the “kilogram”
is always a unit of mass, never a unit of weight or force.
time second S The “second” is the base unit, but in practice other time units
are allowable.
electric current ampere A
thermodynamic temperature kelvin K Note lower-case k in “kelvin”, but cap K for unit symbol. No
degree sign is used with “kelvin”.
amount of substance mole mol
luminous intensity candela cd Pronounced can dell’ uh.
SUPPLEMENTARY UNITS
plane angle
solid angle
radian
steradian sr
rad 1 These angular units are designated by IS0 to be dimensionless
with respect to the base quantities.
654

TABLE 2
SI FUNDAMENTAL UNITS

Unit Quantity Dimension Unit name SI Unit Other units & their
symbol correspondence
Space Plane angle rad Radian rad degree 1'
minute 1'
second I"
grade I gr
Solid angle sr steradian sr
Length m metre m foot f t = 0.305m
inch in = 2.54 cm
Surface m2 square metre m2
Volume m' cubic metre m' litre I = Idm' = lo-' m3
Time Time S second S minute mn = 60s
hour h = 60mn = 3600s
day
Frequency S-' Hertz Hz cycle/second c/s = 1 Hz
Velocity m s-' m/second m/s
Acceleration, m m/second squared m/s2 Gal Gal = 1 cm/s2
linear
Mass Mass kg kilogram kg tonne t = lo3 kg = 10'g
Density (mass) kg m-' kilogram per cubic metre kg/m' gram per cm' g/cm' = 10' kg/m'
Force Force m kg s - 2 newton N dyne dyn = 10-5N
kg-force kgf = 9.8 N
Pressure m - ' kg s - 2 pascal Pa bar bar = 10hdyne/cm' = lo5 Pa
atmosphere atm = 101.3 kPa
Dynamic viscosity m-I kgs-' pascal.second Pa.s poise Po = 1 dyn s/cm2
or poiseuille = 0.1 Pa s
Kinematic viscosity m2 -I m2/s stokes St = I cm2/s
Energy Work m2 kg s - 2 Joule J erg erg = 0.1 J
wattsecond = newton metre = J
Power mz kg sC3 Watt W W = J/s
Horsepower Hp = 735.498 W
TemperatureThermodynamic
temperature K kelvin K Degree
-Celsius O C = K + 273.15
-Fahrenheit OF= 1.8OC+32
Quantity of heat m2 kg s C 2 joule J calorie cal = 4.1868 J
Heat capacity m2 kg s-' K - ' joule per kelvin J/K
Electricity Electrical potential m2 k g s - ' A - ' Volt V V = W/A
Quantity of electricity s A Coulomb C ampere.second As = IC
Capacitance m - 2 kg-I s4 A2 Farad F F = C/V
Intensity A Ampere A
Conductance k g - ' s3 A2 Siemens S rnho mho = IS = In-'
Resistance m2 kg s-' A - 2 Ohm n s2 = V/A
Inductance m2 kg s - ? A - 2 Henry H H = Wb/A
Resistivity m' k s - ' A - 2 s2. m
Conductivity m - 3 k g - ' s' A2 Siemens per m S/m
Magnetism Magnetic potential or Gilbert Gb G b = (10/4?r) A turns
magnetomotive force
Magnetic flux strength A m - I Ampere per m A/m Oersted Oe = ( 103/4a) A turns/m
or magnetic field intensity
Magnetic flux m2 kg sC2 A-I Weber Wb Maxwell Mx = l o - @Wb
Magnetic flux density kg s - A ~ -' Tesla T Gauss G s = 10-4T
T = Wb/m2
Light Luminous intensity cd Candela cd
Luminous flux cd sr Lumen Im
Illuminance m - 2 cd sr lux Ix phot ph = 10 klx
Luminance cd m - 2 Candela per
metre squared cd/m2 stilb sb = I cd/m2
 655

TABLE 3
UNITS FOR COMMON LOGGING MEASUREMENTS

Customav Unit
Quantity

angle of dip
Unit
degree
~ ~~
Metricated Unit
degree
-
Symbol
0

Caliper, bit and inch millimeter mm

casing size,
mudcake thick
ness, micro-
spacing, tool
diameter
conductivity millimho per millisiemens per mS/m
meter meter
density gram per kilogram per cubic kglm3
cubic centi- meter*
meter
depth, bed foot meter m
thickness,
macrospacing,
invasion depth
gamma-ray A.P.I. Unit A.P.I. Unit A.P.I.
intensity Unit
interval transit microsecond microsecond per Pjm
time (Sonic) per foot meter
macroscopic capture unit per meter m- 1
thermal neu- (= 10-3
tron capture cm - 1)
cross section
Neutron-log A.P.I. Unit A.P.I. Unit A.P.I.
reading Unit
porosity fraction or cubic meter per m31m3
percent cubic meter or
porosity unit
resistivity ohm meter, o ohm meter R-m
ohm meter
squared per
meter
spontaneous millivolt millivolt mV
potential
temperature degree degree Celsius “C
Fahrenheit
‘“Megagram per cubic meter” (Mg/rns) was used in metric
Chart Book.
656

TABLE 4
SI COHERENT DERIVED UNITS

Expressed in Expressed in Terms of

Quantity Unit Name Unit Terms of Other lase- and Supplementary-
Symbol Derived SI Units Unit Symbols
absorbed dose (of ionizing ray (replaces the rad) ;Y Jlkg
radiation)
acceleration, linear neter per second squared n/s2
activity (of radionuclides) iecquerel (replaces the curie) Q
angular acceleration adian per second squared 'ad I s2
angular velocity adian per second ,ad/s
area #quaremeter n2
capacitance (electrical) arad c/v
charge (electrical) :oulomb , A-s
conductance (electrical) iemens' (replaces the mho) ; AIV
conductivity (electrical) iemens per meter j/m
current density impere per square meter lIm2
density (mass) rilogram per cubic meter cgIm3
electromotive force rolt r, W/A
energy ode* I N a m or W s
entropy oule per kelvin I/K
field strength (electrical) iolt per meter ilm
force iewton Y
frequency iertz 12
heat capacity oule per kelvin I/K
heat, quantity of ode* I
illuminance ux lx lmlm2
inductance ienry H V s/A
(= Wb/A)
luminance :andela per square meter cdIm2
luminous flux umen Im
magnetic field strength 3mpere per meter Aim
magnetic flux Neber Wb v. s
magnetic flux density tesla r Wb/m2
magnetic permeability henry per meter Him
neutron capture cross section per meter (i.e., square meter 1l m m2/m3
per cubic meter)
permittivity farad per meter F/m
potential. potential difference volt V W/A
(electrical)
power watt W J/s
pressure pascal* Pa N/m2
quantity of electricity (charge) coulomb C
radiant flux watt W J/s
radiant intensity watt per steradian Wlsr
resistance (electrical) ohm R (cap omega) VIA
resistivity (electrical) ohm meter or ohmmeter** R.m
specific heat capacity joule per kilogram kelvin J/(kg. K)
stress pascal* Pa NIm2
thermal conductivity watt per meter kelvin Wlim. lo

-
velocity meter per second mls
viscosity, dynamic pascal second or pascal. Pa s N slmz
second
viscosity, kinematic square meter per second m2/s
voltage volt V W/A
volume cubic meter m3
wave number (cycles) per meter 1/ m
work joule* 1 N.m
'Pronounce "siemens" like "seamen's", pronounce "pascal" to rhyme w i t h "rascal", pronounce "joule" to rhyme w i t h "pool"
"The "ohm meter sqJared per meter", sometimes used to designate the resistivity unit in the past, is definitely discarded.
 657

TABLE 5
ALLOWABLE UNITS AND CONVERSIONS

Allowable Comments Allowable

Coherent Units for Units for Comments
Quantity and
SI Units Logging and togging and
Related Use Conversions Conversions
Related Use
Acceleration, m/s2 mis2 1 f t / s 2 = 0,3048’ m/s2 Oistance m
linear (meter per (meter) 1 naut. mi = 1.852’ km
second
squared) Energy J 1 Btu = 1.055 056 kJ
(joule) 1 eV (electronvolt =
mmls2 Pronounce
“joule“ to 1.602 19 x 10-19 J =
Gal (gal) 1 Gal = 1 cmls2 16.0219 aJ
The “gal” and “milligal” r h y e with
are special units used in pool”
geodetic and gravity work Flow Rate, 1 lbmls = 0.453 59 k g l s
to express the acceleration k g ls k g ls
mass (kilogram (“lbm” is “pound mass”)
due to gravity. per second)
The internationally ac-
cepted value of accelera- Flow Rate, m3/s m3/s 1 BPD = 0.158 987 m3ld
tion due to gravity is volumetric (cubic meter mslmin (For standard conditions,
per second) m3lh see “Gas Volume“ and
9.806 65 m l s 2 = m3ld “Oil Volume”.)
32.1740 f t / s ? Lls I
Actual value will vary with Force N 1 Ibf (pound force) =
latitude, densities of sur- (newton) 4.448 22 N
rounding rocks, and depth. N=lkg/sz 1k (kilogram force) =
Angle, plane rad rad 9.8$ 65’ N
(radian) mrad Note: The kilogram is
(milliradian) NEVER used as a unit of
force in SI.
wrad
microradian Gamma Ray
(degree) 1” = 0.017 453 29 rad Intensity
’ (minute) (ANSI prefers the “unit

t
Gas-Oil Ratio m3/m3 itd. m3lm3 1 scflbbl (standard cubic
(second) degree” with decimal (dimension- it specified foot per barrel) =
divisions.) less) tandard 0.180 117 5 std. m3lm3.
Area mz kmz onditions (See Gas Volume.)
(square ha (hectare) 1 ha = 10,000 m2 = Gas volume m3 m3 1 scf (standard cubic foot
meter) dmz 1 hm2 (cubic meter) t specified at 60’ F and 14.65 psi) =
cm2 The “hectare” is used for tandard 2.817 399 x 10-2 m3 (at
mm2 onditions 15% and 1 atm =
land measure.
101.325 kPa)
Conductance S s 1 mho = 1 Q - 1 = 1’s
Gravity: See
(siemens)
-
LS=lA/\ The “mho” is replaced by Relative
the “siemens”. Density

I Conductivity

-
Si m
(siemens
Slrn “mS/m” replaces Interval slm wl m l&ft = 3.280 840 r s l m

t
mS/ m “mmhol m” on induction. transit time (second nicrosec-
per meter) log conductivity curves. per meter) snd per
Density kglm3 neter.
kglm3
(kilogram Mg/ m3 Length (see
per cubic Depth, Diam-
meter) 1 lbmlft3 = 16.085 kglrns eter, Distance)
I”lbm” is ”pound mass“)
1 glcm3 = 1000 kglms = Mass kg (metric ton 1t = 1 Mg (megagram)
1 Mglm3 (kilogram) ir tonne)” 1 Ibm avoir. (pound mass
Depth, bed
thickness, tooi
m
(meter)
m 1f t = 0.3048’ m
1 yd = 0.9144’ m
kg
Mg I
avoirdupois) =
0.453 592 4 kg.
length, macro- mg
spacing (and
invasion In Cana-
depth) ‘ian French
tonne”
Diameter of m mm 1 in. = 25.4’ mm iay refer to
hole, bit or (meter) 0WIb ton.
casing size,
mud-cake Mud Weight k g l m3 k g l m3 1 1bmlU.S. gal =
(see also (kilogram per 119.826 4 kglm3

I
thickness, M g l m3
microspacing, Density) cubic meter) 1 1bmlU.K. gal =
tool diameter 99.776 33 kglm3

‘Exact value
 t
658

TABLE 5
(CONTINUED)

Puantity
I I Coherent
SI Units
Allowable
Units for
Logging and1
Related Use
Comments
Con~~ions
Coherent
SI Units
Allowable
Units for
logging and
Related Use
Comments
and
Conversions

I API Unit Rotational

Speed
r/s
(revolution
per second)
Neutron c a p m-1 1 C.U. (capture unit) =
ture cross (per meter) C.U. =lO-3 10-3 cm -1 = 10-1 m-1 Specific grav- These terms are indicated
section cm-1 ity or specific :? obsolescent. See
(U.S. only) weight Relative Density".
~~

Oil Volume ~ m3 1 bbl = 1 barrel = Spontaneous V mV No change.

(cubic meter at 15°C 42 U.S. eat. Potential (volt) (millivolt)
I 1 bbl at%O°F = 0.158 91
m3 at 15°C. Temperature K
(kelvin)
"C
(degree
T.c= TK - 273.15
+
T o r = 32 1.8 X T e c
Permeability prn2 1 darcy = 0.986923 2 pmz Celsius)
(hydrodynamic ) (square (square Since the pmz differs by (No longer
meter) micrometer) only 1.3% from the darcy, called "de-
i t has been suggested to gree centi-
define a metric darcy equal grade")

I
to the pmz.The unit symbol
for the metric darcy would Temperature OC/m O C / m 1"F/ 100 f t = 0.018 227
be "D", and for the metric gradient (degree OC/m

millidarcy would be "mD". Celsius

per meter)
m3Im3 p.u. 1 p.u. = 0.01' m3Im3
S
(cubic meter
per cubic min (minutel
meter, di- h (hour)
mensionless) d (day)
a (year)
W Velocity 1 f t l s = 0.3048' m / s
1 W = 1 J/s second)
etc.
Pressure
Viscosity, Paes 1 P (poise) = 1 dyn s/
Pa Pa 1 psi = 6.894757 kPa dynamic (pascal cm2 = 0.1 Pa s
(pascal) 1 bar = 100' kPa second)
1 Pa = atmospheric pressure: 1 Pa-s =
1 Nimz 1 atm = 101.325kPa = lN.s/rnZ
760 mm Hg= 14.696 psi
Viscosity, mzl s 1 St (stokes) = 1 cm2/s =
kinematic (square 100 mmZ/s

t
Radioactivity Bq Bq 1 Ci (curie) = 37' GBq =
of radio. (becquerel) 37 x 1099 Bq meter per
nuclides second)
Radioactivity, km3 1 cubem (cubic mile) =
(cubic 4.168 182 km3

I
gamma ray.
See Gamma volume of a kilometer) 1 km3 = 109' m3
Ray API Units sedimentary
basin
Relative Den- m3Im3 The term "relative den-
sity (see also (dimension- sity" may replace "specifi Volume, large, m3 ha-m 1 acre f t = 0.123348 2
Gravity, Spe- such as volum (hectare ha m
less) gravity". The reference
of a local meter, U.S.) 1 ha a m = 104 m3
cific. and conditions (temperature
Gravity, Gas.) and pressure) should be
stated. Water is the im. m3 m3 1 yd3 = 0.764 554 9 m3
plied reference substance size, hole 1 I t 3 = 0.028 316 85 m3
for solids and liquids and volume 1 US. gal = 3.785 412 x
air for gases unless 10-3 m3
otherwise stated. i-U.K:gal = 4.546 092 x
10-3 m3
Resistance 1 bbl 142 US. gal) =
0.158 987 '3 m3
dm3 or L 1 L = '1 dm3 =
volumes (liter) 10-3' m3
Resistivity
multiplcs Volume"

'Exact value
 659

TABLE 6
ROUNDUP OF UNIT SYMBOLS FOR UNITS WITH NAMES

Symbol Unit I Status I Symbol Unit status

a, ha are, hectare Ix lux derived unit
a year (annum) allowable L, I, e liter allowable
atm atmosphere limited allowability m meter base unit
A ampere base unit min minute (time) allowable
A angstrom limited allowability mol mol base unit
b barn limited allowability N newton derived unit
bar bar limited allowability naut. mi. nautical mile limited allowability
B, dB bel, decibel allowable (no symbol)
Bq becquerel derived unit PS parsec allowable
cd candela base unit Pa pascal derived unit
C coulomb derived unit r revolution (as r/s) allowable
Ci curie limited allowability rad radian supplementary unit
"C degree Celsius allowable rd rad limited allowability
d day allowable R roentgen limited allowability
D darcy (metric) allowable S second (time) base unit
eV electronvol t allowable sr steradian supplementary unit
F farad derived unit S siemens derived unit
g gram derived unit t metric ton (tonne) ?
Gal gal limited allowability T tesla derived unit
GY gray derived unit U unified mass unit allowable
h hour allowable (formerly amu)
H henry derived unit V volt derived unit
HZ hertz derived unit w watt derived unit
J joule derived unit Wb weber derived unit
kg kilogram base unit R ohm derived unit
kn knot limited allowability 0
degree (angle) allowable
K kelvin base unit I
minute (angle) allowable
Im lumen derived unit !?
second (analel allowable

TABLE 7 TABLE 8
METRICATED VALUES OF SOME CONSTANTS SI PREFIXES

Atmosphere: 1 atm = 101.325 kPa Multipli- S1 prefix SI prefix

Density of dry air at O°C and 1.2929 kg/m3 cation for unit for unit
1 atm: factor name symbol
Molar gas constant, R: R = 8.314J/(mol.K) 1018 hexa H
Avogadro constant, N,: N, = 6.0220X lo2' penta P
mol-' 10'2 tera T
Velocity of light, c: c = 299.792 46 Mm/s 109 gigs G
Faraday constant, F: F = 96.484 kC/mol lo6 mega M
Permeability of free space, p o : p,, = 1.256 637 H/m 103 kilo k
Standard acceleration due to 102 hecto h
gravity, g: g = 9.806 65 m/s2 10 deca da
Volume of 1 mol of ideal gas 23.64 L 10-1 deci d
under standard conditions 10-2 centi C
(at 15OC and 1 atm): lo-) milli m
Planck constant, h: h=6.626176X10-34j s micro P
Boltzmann constant, k: k = 1.38054X j K-' nano n
Electron rest mass, me: m, = 9 . 1 0 9 5 6 ~ kg 10-12 pic0 P
Proton rest mass,m,: m p = 1.67261 X kg 10-l5 femto f
Neutron rest mass, m,: m, = 1.67492X kg 10-'8 atto a
660

TABLE 9
CONVERSION FACTORS BETWEEN METRIC, A.P.I., A N D U.S.MEASURES

multiply by to find multiply 1 by to find

acres 0.4047 hectares cubic centimeters 10-6 1 cu m
43,560 sq f t

I " 1 4,047 I sq m 1
acre-feet 7,758 bbl 6.2897 x lo-'
I, ,I
43,560 cu f t cubic feet 0.1781
,!
3.259 x loJ gals 2.832 x 10' cc
,I

,, 7.481 gals
atmospheres 76 cms of Hg
,1

,, ,, 1,728 cu in.
29.92 in. of Hg
33.93 f t of water I 9r " I 0.02832 1 cu m I
I I' I 28.32 I liters I
I " I 14.70 I osi I cubic feetlday literslhr
I barrels (API) I 1.289 x lo-' 1 acre.ft I 1.18 x 10-3 cu m/hr

- 158,987 cc 0.02832 cu miday

I, 8,

It 0,
5.615 cu f t 0.1781 bbliday
** I,
42 gals I cubic feetminute I 10.686 1 bbl/hr I
1 9,702 I cu in. I " " 't I 256.5 I bbllday I
1,590 cc/sec
0.1590 7.481
barrels/day 5.615 cu ft/day 0.472 liters/sec
0.02917 cubic inches 16.39 cc
6.625 liters/hr 5.787 x 10-4
I *' I 0.1590 1 cu m/day I 1.639 x lo-'
I r9 '* 1 0.006625 I cu m/hr I !,
4.329 x
barrelslhour 0.0936 cu f t m i n
t,
1.639 x lo-* liters
9, t,
0.700 gal/min cubic meters 6.2897
9, ,, 2.695 cu in./sec I 'I I' I lo6 I cc
I bars I C.3869 I atm I
1.020 kg/cm2 6.102 x lP cu in.
14.50 35.31 cu f t
British Thermal Units 778.57 ft-lbs liters
0.2520 kgcal cubic meters/hour 151.0 bbllday
!, cu ft/day
0.2930 watt-hrs
,I I,
847.8
I Btuiminute I 0.02357 I hp I I, ,, ,, I 103 liters/hr

I ** " I 0.01758 I kw I cu m/day

0, 3,
12.97 ft.lbs/sec cubic meterslday 0.2621 bbl/hr
centimeters 3.281 x lo-* ft 6.2897
0.3937 in. 1.471 cu f t i h r
,,
1 0.01 I meters
I, I,
35.31 cu ft/day
I, I, ,, 41.67 literslhr
cm of mercury 0.0131 6 kgs/square cm 0.9807 bars
0.4461 f t of water
t, 0, ,, 32.84 f t of water
0.01360 tt 8, ,, 28.96 in. of Hg
cm per second 0.1934 If I, I,
14.22 psi
1.969 kilowatts 56.88 Btumin
0.03281 4.427 x 10' ft-tbs/min
mmin 737.8 ft.lbs/sec
cubic centimeters 3.531 x lo-$ cu f t
6.102 x 1G-* cu in. COWTlWULO +
 66 1

TABLE 9
(CONTINUED)

multiply by to find
I kilowatts 1 103 I watts I pounds'ssuare in 1 51.70 mrn of HE
,,
I kilowatt.hours I 3,413 I Btu I 3,
0.07031 kg/cm'
I I* I' I 2.656 x lo8 I ft-lbs I ,I ,I

1
144 I
Ibsicu f t
I I I I seconds I 1.157 x I days
1
1.341 hphrs
t
"
I I

I 2.778 x lo-' I hrs

I 1
j'

I 3.672 x lo5 I kgrn I 1.667 x lo-* rnin

I liters I 103 I cc I square cm I 1.076 x I sq f t
6.2897 x I r, 1 0.1550 I sq in. I
0.03531 I I' I 10-4 I sqrn I
0.2642 gals I )' 'I I 100 I sq mrn I
61.02 cu in. I square feet I 2.296 x I acres I
10-3 cu rn I 929.0 1 sq crn I

I 0.09290 I sq m I
I square inches I 6.452 I sqcm I
I )' I 6.944 x I sq f t I
!* t,
645.2 sq rnm
square meters 10.76 sq f t
I (I t,
I 2.471 x lo-' I acres I

3.281 ft/rnin
196.9 ftihr
0.05468
mile 5,280
1.609 krn
rnile/hour 44.70 cm/sec

I 26.82 I m/rnin I
1 millimeters I O.! I cm I
I " I 3.281 x I ft I
I " 1 0.03937 I in. I
I minutes I 6.944 x lo-' I days I 1 feet I 30.48 I cm 1
I 1 1.667 x lo-* I hrs I I !' I 12 1 in.
I parts, million 1 0.05835 I grainslgal I I ', I 0.3048 I meters I
I " I 8.337 1 Ibs/lOGgals I I feet of water I 0.02950 I atm I
I pound I 7,000 I grains I I ') '! I 0.8826 I in. of Hg I
I I' I 453.6 I grn I I )' ') )' 1 0.03048 I kg sq cm I
I I 0.4536 I kg I I 'I " 'I
I 62.43 I Ibs sq f t I
I pounds, cubic f t I 0.1337 1 Ibs/gal I I ') I 0.4335 I psi
I "
I, ,I

I 0.01602 I grn/cc I feet /hour ] 0.008467 I cm'sec I

I "
I, I,

I 16.02 1 kgicu rn I 5.086 x l o - ' mlmin

I "
I, t t
1 5.787x lo-' I Ibsicu rn I
I ooundsisauare in. I 0.06805 I atrn I feetiminute 0.5080 cm set
I "
,t ,t
I 2.309 1 f t of water I
I I'
8, ,, 2.036 I in. of Hg
CONTINUED-,
662

TABLE 9
(CONTINUED)

I multiply I by I to find I
I horsepower I 0.7457 I kw I
I *' I 745.7 I watts I
horsepower.hour 2,544 Btu
641.1 kg.cal
2.737 x 10' kgm
0.7455 kw.hr
inches 2.540 cm
-1 8.333 x lo-* ft
1 foot.pounds/second I 1.818 x I hp I in. of mercury 0.03342 atm
I ') 2v " 1 1.356 x I kw I I 'I I' 1 1.133 1 ft of water I
1 gallons (US) I 0.02381 I bbl I I " ] 0.03453 I kg/sq cm I
I I' I 3,785 I cc I " 8 v I 0.4912 I psi I
1 0.1337 I cu f t I in. of water I 0.002458 I atm I
I 231 I cu in. I ' ) I 0.07349 I in. of Hg I
I rf rr " I 0.002538 I kg/cm* I
I )' " I 3.785 I liters I " " I 0.03609 I psi I
I gallons (Imperial) I 1.2009 I gal (U.S.) I kilograms 103 gm
2.205 Ibs
I 34.286 I bbl/dav I 1.102 x 10-3 tons (short)
!t ,, 0.1337 cu ft/min kg-calories 3.986 Btu
fI I,
192.5 cu ft/day
I, t,
3,088 ft.lbs
,, !,
9 ) I,
3.785 liters/min 1.560 x hp-hrs
I t I,
90.84 litersihr I rv ', I 427 1 kg-meters
train (avoir) 0.06480 gm I 'I 1 1.163 x lo-$ 1 kw-hrs I
grainsigal 17.12 PPm I kg-caloriesmin I 0.09358 I hp I
tv I,
142.9 Ibsil0' gals I I 0.06977 I kw I
1
" " "

" I,
~ 1 0.01714 1 gmlliter I
I grams 1 15.432 I grains I I kgsisquare cm I 0.9678 I atm I
I " I viscosity, Ib-sec/sq in. 1 6.895 x 10' I viscosity, cp 1
I I 0.3215 I oz I viscosity, Ibsecisq f t I 4.78 x l(r I viscosity, cp I
I
"

I I 2.205 x lo-? I Ibs I I viscosity, centistokes I density I viscosity, cp

I
"

I gramsjcc 1 62.43 I Ibicu f t I watts 0.05688 Btuimin

I " " 1 8.344 I Ibsigal I 44.27 ft-lbs /min
I " !) 1 0.03613 I Ibsicu in. I 0.7378 ft.lbs/sec
I gramslliter I 58.42 I grainsigal I 1.341 x lo-$ hp
I hectares I 2.471 I acres I 0.01433 kg-calmin
I I' 1 1.076 x 10' I SQ f t I 10-3 kw
I ') I 0.010 I sq km I watt-hours 3.413 Btu
I horsepower 1 42.40 I Btumin I 1 I' I 2,656 I ft4bs 1
I " I 33,000 I ft-lbsimin I I '* " I 1.341 x I hp.hrs -1
I " I 550 I ft-lbs, sec I I " I' I 0.860 I kg-cal I
I I 1.014 I metric hp I I (I " 1 367.2 1 kg-m 1
I I' I 10.68 I kg.cal/min I
 663

TABLE 10

CONVERSIONS
TEMPERATURE PRESSURE MUD WEIGHT
kg Ib Ib psi
meters f t OF C' sq cm psi atm MPa cc c u t gal T
0- 0 3 2 -0 0 .433
2 0 0 --
- 1000
400-.
50 -- 10 ,450
GOO-- 2 0 0 0 -- 20 10

8 0 0 -.
looo-: 3000 _- 3 0 20
,500
loo -- 4 0
1200--4000
-
1400-'
-- 50 30
1600-:
3000
-
1800-- 6 0 0 0 -- 60 40
2000-* I 5 0 --
~~oo--~OOO -- 70 50
2400 -- eooo - 80
2600-.
2 0 0 -_
60
23@3-- 9 0 0 0 -90
3000-- 10000 -- 100 70
3200-
-- 110
3400-'11000
--
=O0-- 12000
BOO -.
250 -- 120
RO

4 m - - 13000 _-1 3 0 90
4200-- 14000
4400-.
- 140
300 -- 1x1
100
4 I5000
4800--
16000 -- 160 I I0
5000-.
5200-- 17000 -- I70
5400-
5 600 -.- I8000
350 1: 180 120

5800-- 19000
-- 190 1300 130
6000-'
- 20000 -- 2 0 0 ---- - I 124
4 0 0 -- -
6200-. 2.0
140 26
6 4 0 0 - - 21000 --210 _- 128 - 17.0
I500
6600-'
_-2 2 0

roo
- 22000 I50
6800-.
-:2x)
1700i24m0
7000--2 3 0 0 0
450
1600 -- 16.0
160
-- 2 4 0 -- I36 - ,950
7200::
7400
24000
2 ' 2 1-I 3 8 -- 16.5
1 {
7600- 25000 -- 2 5 0 I700
170 -- 140
7800-' -- 142 -- 19.0
8000--26000
500-- 2 6 0 26000 I80 2 - 3 1- 144 - - 1.00

$
8200-- 27000 -- 2 7 0 I800
-- 146 -- 19.5
8400-. 148
8600--
28000 - 280 I9Oo 1 2 8 0 0 0
2000 I900
190
2.4 150 _- 20.0
e8O0-- 29000 550:- 290 -- 152 - 1.05

1 1-I 5 4 _-20.5
L J

1
200
--
9Ooo
--
9 2 0 0 30000
-L 300 2100 3oooo 2000 - r 1.08
woo-- 31000
9600-- OC = (OF-32) X p s i = kg/sq cm 14.22 Igm/cc= 62.43 I b / f t 3
WOO-- 32000 O F = ("C X8 1+ 32 atm=kg/sqcrnx ,968 =8.345Ib/gaI(U.S.)
loooo-- a t m = psi X ,068 p s i / f t =.433x gm /cc
33000
psi = MPa x 1 4 5 0 3 8 =Ib/ft'/ 144
I m 13.28 f t = I b / g a l /19.27
664

TABLE 11

hmwd
CONVERSIONS AND EQUIVALENTS

CONCENT RAT1ON USEFUL EQUIVALENTS

of
NaC1 SoLUTloNS TEMP GRADIENT LENOTH
CONVERSION 1 foot (ft) 30.48 cm
1 inch (in.) 2.540 cm
1 meter (m) 3.281 h
39.37 in.
VOLUME
0.15- I50 - 00 1 ocre-foot 7,758 bbls
- 10 1 barrel (bbl) of oil
43,560 cu ft
42 U.S. gal
o.2
-- 2w -- 12.5 5b154 cu ft
158.98 liters
-- I 5
- 1 cubic foot (cu ft) 7.481 U.S. gal

.-2 0 28.32 liters

03-- 300
> 1 US. gallon (gal) 231.OO cu in.
0.4 -- 400 - _25 > I I-' 0.1 337 cu h
3.785 liters
0.5 -- 500 -_ 30 5 1 imperial gollon (England,
0 6 -- -
600 Conodo, Austrolio, etc.) 1.2009 U.S. gal
17--
_-4 0 4.5460 liters
-- 8 0 0 - ~o 1 liter (1000 cc) 0.03532 cu ft

:
0.m ¶ .-3 0 0.2642 U.S. gal
1.0 -- 1000 -- 8 0 16-- W S
1 grain 0 0001429 (or
$ 1 /7000 Ib)

a
0.6480 g
15- 1 pound (Ib) ovoirdupon 0.4536 kg
1 metric ton (1000 kg) 2205 Ib
9
DENSITY, SPECIFIC ORAVITY, o k .

[
'- I50 14-

3 -- 3W0 - :-2 5 1 gram per cubic centi-

meter ( g/cc ) 62.43 Ib/cu ft
.-200
-- 4 0 0 0 -_250
8.345 Ib per
4 13- us. gal
.r .- .T6 1 U S. gollon of liquid weighs (in pounds ovoir.)
5 -- -- SO0 8.345 multiplied by density in g/cc
- .m -- .76
_-4 0 0
- - 6000
6 30 1 imperial gollon of woter ot 62'F weighs 10 Ib
12-'
.-.mo 1 barrel of oil weighs (in pounds ovoir.)
8 -- 8000 - 5oo 350 multiplied by density of oil in g/cc
40
i- , m 2 Oil g n v i v in degrees API is computed as.
I1--2 0 141.5
1- 64
.- 4 6
'API = Spec. Grov. 6O/6OF - I3l3
where "Spec. Gmv. 60/6OF" moons specific grovity
'0:- 88 of oil ot 6O'F referred to water at 6 0 ° F
IO-
.-.so
1.01 .-.s2 PRESSURE
14.70 psi
-- I S 0 0 09
.- so
1 otmosphere (atm)
1.0332 k g / q cm
30--30ooQ-
_-2000 1.02 .-I5
.- ms 1 kilogmm per quore
centimeter prnwre
to-- 1.00
4 0 - - 4 ~ 0 Q - - 2500
om- :-1.02 ( k g / q cm) 14.22 psi
1 pound per squore inch
50-, -- 3000 .-1.04
I .03
.- 1.06 (psi) 0.07031 k g / q cm
0.06805 otm
1.04 07-
60:-60--- 4000 Prosruro O r d i o n t
I05 141.5 psi/ft. = 0.433 x p/cc
1- BOWO-- 5000 API = ~

@ @Of
-131.5 = Ib/ft'/lU
I .oI 5p. 91.

1.07
= lb/go1/19.27
kg/sq cm/meter = 0.1 x g/cc
1.0.
1.09 0.6[ 1.0 = psi/fc x 0.231
1.10 1 ~ 1 1 O O f t. .b ~ Z Z * C 1 1 0 0 n TCMPERATURC CONVERSION!
O F = 1.8'C i -32 R(Ronkine) = "F + 459.69
1.12
1.14
I.C/K)Om* 0b400*C11000l.
OC = 5/9("F -32) K(ke1vins) = 'C + 273 16
1.16
LIB CONCENTRATIOM
1.20 0.0171 18 g/liter
1 groin/U.S. gallon
1 gr0idU.S. gollon 17.1 18 divided

1 grom/liter 58.417 groins/gal

1 grom/liter 1000 divided t
 665

TABLE 12
SYMBOLS
---
'raditional itandard 'tandard Description hstomary units or relation Standard
ymbols ;PE of AIME omputer eserve
ind SPWLA a ymbols !ymbols
I 4 rMP amplitude
I
-
4 iWT
iCN
atomic weight
:onductivity, electric
itomic mass units (amu)
nillimhos per meter (mmhos/m)
,.(gamma)
I

P 3, p ?ORCP wnic compaction correction factor 'SVcor = &p,sv -CP

:NC :oncentration (salinity)
:lectronic density coefficient = 2Z/A
) D IPH depth eet (ft) or meters (m) '. H
iLMY Young's modulus
E ZM F electromotive force nillivolts (mV) V
F, :ACHR formation resistivity factor 'R= KR/+"'
I :LMS shear modulus
I 3 3MF geometrical factor (function of d , ) G;
I [ti iYX hydrogen index H
I Y index
FFI 1Fr FFX free fluid index 1 Ff

SI IS,
3LX silt index I.,,. 1.1. 1.11

10
?RX porosity index 0
SPI PRXSE secondary porosity index '02
, 102
3MFP pseudo geometrical factor fJ
GP
c K, ZOEC electrochemical SP coefficient M,. K,'
Y BKM bulk modulus
M space modulus
M M SAD slope. sonic interval transit time men
vs Densityx0.01, in M-N Plot
Y NUMQ number. dimensionless
Ir' N SN D slope. Neutron porosity vs m9NO
Density. in M-N Plot
V N EU neutron
3
C CNC salinity grams per gram. parts per million c. n
7 P PRS pressure pounds/sq. inch (psi), kilograms per P
sq cm ', atmospheres
D
c pc PRSCP capillary pressure (same units as for "pressure") I: ' 'P
a, shaliness (CEC per ml water) milliequivalents per milliliter
Q R RES resistivity ohm-meters (ohm-m) P (rho). r
F S SAT saturation fraction or percent of pore volume P (rho). s
r T TEM temperature degrees ( " F or "C), or kelvin ( K ) 8 (theta)
BHT, T,, Tbh TEMBH bottom-hole temperature (same units as Temperature) 'BH, 8 h h ' 8Bl

Tf m
IT. Tf TEMF formation temperature (same units as Temperature) 'fm, @f.
V V LT potential difference (electric) volt
V V VOL volume cubic centimeters (cc).cubic feet. etc. 0

V V VOL volume fraction f". F"

Z Z AN M atomic number
1 a ACT electrochemical activity equivalents per liter. moles per liter
1 KR COER coefficient in F , - $I relation f , = KR/$I"' M u . u. C
C CMP compressibility
d d DIA diameter inches (in.) D
f FRC fraction
f FQN frequency Hz
R GRD gradient
h h THK thickness (bed, mud-cake, etc.) feet. meters. inches d.P
k k PRM permeability. absolute (fluid flow) millidarcies (md) K
k SUSM susceptibility. magnetic
m MAS mass
m m MXP porosity (cementation) exponent
n MOL number of moles
n n SXP saturation exponent
P PRS pressure
4 'qshd FIMSHD dispersed-shale volume fraction of +irnf\hrl.
intermatrix porosity
r r RAD radial distance from hole axis inches R
r RST resistance ohms
666

TABLE 12
(CONTINUED)

Standard Description Customary units or relation Standard

~

rraditional Standard
;ymbols SPE of AIME computer reserve
and SPWLA a symbols a symbols

TIM time microseconds (microsec). seconds r (tau)

(sec) minutes
> t VAC velocity (acoustic) feet per second, meters per second v. u
L DEL difference
Lr 1, DELRAD distance. radial (increment along
radius)
it t TAC sonic interval transit time microseconds per foot
i9Ncx (e) excavation effect porosity units (P.u.)
a ANGD angle of dip
D DAZ azimuth of dip
E XST neutron capture cross-section
XSTMAC macroscopic cross-section capture units (c.u.), cm- ’
n ohm ohm
a COEA coefficient, attenuation
a XSP REDSP SP reduction factor due
to shaliness
a ANG angle
P BRGR relative bearing
r CRY gamma ray
r r SPG specific gravity ( p / p , or
P,/P*, r)
6 DCR decrement
6 SKD skin depth
6 ANGH hole deviation
(drift angle)
6 sound attenuation
c DIC dielectric constant
8 AGL angle
? viscosity
x LAM decay constant x = I/Td
x K,”, COEANI coefficient of anisotropy
x WVL wavelength
P G ELMS . shear modulus
P PRMM magnetic permeability
P RAZ azimuth of reference on sonde
P PSN Poisson’s ratio
B VIS viscosity (dynamic)
Y frequency
P P DEN density g cm-’
0 SFT interfacial tension
U XN L microscopic cross-section
U PSN Poisson’s ratio
7 d
‘ N TIMD decay time (thermal neutron) microseconds
cp cp POR porosity

a References: Supplement V to 1965 Standard--“Letter and Computer Symbols for Well Logging and Formation Evaluation”.
in Journal of Petroleum Technology (October. 1975). pages 1244-1261, and in The Log Analyst (November-December 1975). pages 46-59
Reserve symbols are to be used only if conflict arises between standard symbols used in the same paper.
 667

TABLE 13
SUBSCRIPTS

Traditional Standard Standard Explanation Example Standard

subscripts SPE of A I M E Computer Reserve
and SPWLA a Subscripts a Subscripts
a LOG L apparent from log reading (or use tool-description R L O GR~ L L log
subscript)
a a A apparent (general) aP
abs cap C absorption, capture
anh anh AH anhydrite
b b B bulk B. t
bh bh BH bottom hole w, BH
clay cl CL clay :la
cor, c cor COR corrected
C C C electrochemical CC

CP CP CP compaction
dis shd SHD dispersed shale
do1 do1 DL dolomite
e, eq eq EV equivalent EV
f, fluid f F fluid fl
fm f F formation (rock) fm
g. gas g G gas G
gr GR grain
gxo gxo GXO gas in flushed zone GXO
gYP gYP GY Gypsum
h h H hole H
h h H hydrocarbon H
hr hr HR residual hydrocarbon HR
I I I invaded zone (inner boundary) I
Ig ig IG intergranular (incl. disp. and str. shale)
Im, z im IM intermatrix (incl. disp. shale)
Int int I intrinsic (as opposed to log value)
irr I IR irreducible ir. i(script).
J j J liquid junction L (iota)
J invaded zone (outer boundary)
k k K electrokinetic ek
lam 1(script) LAM lamination, laminated L
Iim lim LM limiting value
h L L liquid &('script)
log LOG LOG log values 1%
Is Is LS limestone 1st
m m M mud
max max MX maximum
ma ma MA matrix
mc mc MC mud cake
mf mf MF mud filtrate
mfa mfa MFA mud filtrate. apparent
min min MN minimum value
ni non-invaded zone
0 0 0 oil (except with resistivity) N
or or OR residual oil
0 (zero) ZR 100-percent water saturated zr
0.0
PSP PSP PSP pseudo-static SP
1 (one) PR primary p. pri
Prl
r r R relative R
r r R residual R
S S S adjacent (surrounding) formation
sd sd SD sand sa
ss ss ss sandstone SSt
sec 2 (two) SE secondary s, Sec
sh sh SH shale sha
Sllt sl SL silt slt
SP SP SP spontaneous potential SP
SSP SSP SSP static SP
str sh st S H ST structural shale S
t, ni t T true (as opposed to apparent) tr
T t T total T
668

TABLE 13
(CONTINUED)

Traditional Standard Standard Explanation Example Standard

subscripts SPE of AlME Computer Reserve
and SPWLA a Subscripts Subscripts
W W W water, formation water W
wa wa WA formation water, apparent WA
wf wf WF well-flowing conditions f
ws ws ws well-static conditions S
xo xo xo flushed zone
z, im im IM intermatrix
0 (zero) 0 ZR 100-percent water saturated zr
IL I I from Induction Log I
I Ld ID ID from Deep Induction Log id
I Lm IM IM from Medium Induction Log im
LL LL (Also LL3, LL from Laterolog. (Also LL3, LL7, LLS. LLd, LLs.) Il(script)
LL8, etc.)
6FF40 from 6FF40 IL
MLL MLL MLL from Microlaterolog mll
PL P P from Proximity Log P
N N N from normal resistivity log n
16”. 16’” from 16”-normal log
I”X 1” from I ” X 1” microinverse (ML)
2” from 2 micronormal (ML)
D D D from Density Log d
GG GG from gamma-gamma Log u
N N N from Neutron Log n
SN P SN SN from Sidewall Neutron Log sn
CNL CN CN from Compensated Neutron Log cn
TDT PNC PNC from Thermal Decay Time Log
S sv sv from Sonic Log sv
ND from Neutron and Density Logs
GR GR GR from Gamma Ray Log gr

a References: Supplement V to 1965 Standard-“ Letter and Computer Symbols for Well Logging and Formation Evaluation”.
in Journul o/ Petroleum Technology (October. 1975). pages 124-1261, and in The Log Anolysr (November-December 1975). pages 46-59.
Reserve symbols are to be used only if conflict arises between standard symbols used in the same paper.
 TABLE 14
ABBREVIATIONS

.Icre *pel1oul megahertz(rnega = 10') MHz

dcrc-f<xu acre-ft meter m **
altcrndt~ng-current(a, adjecurr) AC mhoa prr meter mho/m
ampere A. amp microsecond (mlcro 10.")
.
; m~crosec
dnipere-hour amp-hr m~le \pel1 out
alig*lroni unlt (10 * em) A m~lesper hour mph
atrn~,\phere atm mill~ampereh(mllll = 10 ' ) m~ll~amp
.)berage a\g m~ll~cur~e mC
hdrrel hhl m~ll~darcy. m~ll~darc~er md
hdrrel* llquld per dab BLPD mill~equ~valent "9
hdrrel* oll per dry BOPD mill~gram mg
hdrrelb of urler per day BWPD mill~l~ter ml
hdrrelh per day B/D m~llimeter mm
hdrrek per mlnute bhl/m~n m~ll~mho mmho
hllllon cuhlc feet ( h ~ l l ~ o
=n10') Bcf m~lllonoublc feet ( m ~ l l ~ o
=n10") MMcf
h~ll~o cuhlc
n feet per ddy Bcf/D n i ~ l l ~ cublc
o n feet per day MMcf/D
h~ll~o stdndard
n cuh~cfeet per day Bscf/D million electron volts meV
hcrtt<,m-hole prersure BHP mllllon standard cuhlc feet per day MMwf/D
hottom-hole temperature BHT m~ll~aeconds millisec
Br~t~rh unlt Btu m~ll~volt mV
cenllmeter (cent, = 10 ' )
thermal cm m~nimum m~n
cenupolae cp minutes spell out *
cent~atoke otk mole mol
CO\CCdfll cosec nanosecond (nano = 10.') nsec
c0*1ne cos ohm spell out
cotangent cot ohm - cent~meter ohm-cm
coulomb C ohm-meter ohm-m
cuhlc cu ounce oz
cuhlc cenumeler CC,em' outstde d~ameter OD
C U ~ I C1~x11 cu It. ft' parts per mill~on PPm
cuhlc feel per harrel cu ft/bbl p~cofarad(plco = 1 0 12) PF
cubic feet per day cu f t / D pint Pt
cuhlc feet per mlnute cu ft/min pore volume PV
cublc feet per pound cu ft/lb pound Ib
cublc feet per second cu ft/sec pounds per cubic foot Ib/cu ft
cuh~clnch cu in. pounds per gallon Ib/gal
cuh~cmeter vu m. m' pounds per square inch psi
ruble mrlllrneter cu mm. mm" pounds per square inch absolute psia
cub~cyard cu yd pounds per square Inch gauge ~sig
darcy, darcles spell out pressure-volume-temperature PVT
day spell out productiv~tyindex PI
dead-we~ghtton DWT quart qt
decibel (deci = 10.') dB reservoir barrel res bbl
degree (American Petroleum Institute) OAPl reservoir barrel per day RB/D
degree Cels~us "C revolutions per minute 'Qm
degree Fahrenhe~t "F secant sec
degree Kelv~n (see " kelv~n") seconds spell out
degree Ranklne OR self-potential SP
d~rect-current(as adjective) DC sine sin
electromotive force emf specific productivity index SPI
electron volt eV square Sq
farad F square centimeter sq cm. cm'
feet per minute ft/m~n square foot sq It, h 2
feet per second ft/sec square inch sq in.
feet square ft2 square meter sq m. m2
foot It square millimeter sq mm, mm2
foot-pound It-lb standard std
gallon gal standard cublc feet per day rf/D
gallons per minute gal/min standard cubic foot rf
gas-oil ratio GOR stock-tank barrel STB
gigawatt (giga = 10') GW stock-tank barrels per day STB/D
gram gm stoke spell out
hertz Hz tangent tan
horsepower hp teragram (tera = 10") Tg
horsepower-hour hp-hr thousand cubic feet Mcf
hour spell out * thousand cubic feet per day Mcf/D
hyperbolic slne, coslne. etc.
Inch
Inches per second
sinh, cosh. etc.

in./=
~n. -
thousand standard cubic feet per day
trillion cubic feet (trillion 10")
trillion cubic feet per day
Mrf/D
Tcf
Tcf/D
inside d~ameter ID versus vs
kelvin K volt V
I kilogram (kilo = 10') kg volume per volume vol/vol
1 k~lohertz kHz water-oil ratio WOR
kllovolt kV watt W
kilowatt kW yard yd
kilowatt-hour kW-hr
l~quefiedpetroleum gas LPG
liter spell out
logarithm 108
logar~rhm(natural) In ' Except in combinat~onssuch as ft/D, cc/sec. ft/hr.
, maximum max ** Except with the number I : I meter, not I m.
 INDEX - GLOSSARY
Here below are listed terms or expressions used in geology and
well logging, followed by a short definition or explanation. When they
are explained more fully in this book, only the relevant chapter and
paragraph is referred to. See also the Index and Glossary of Volume 1
for all the usual well logging terms. The first figure refers to the
chapter, the second to the paragraph, etc.
A Anion : a negatively charged ion.
Absorption :
- the process of taking up by capillary, osmotic, chemical or solvent
action.
- the process by which energy. such as that of electromagnetic or
acoustic waves, is converted into other forms of energy.
Abyssal plain : flat regions at the bottom of major ocean basins
with a water depth greater than 4 000 m.
Accessory minerals : minerals present in such small amount (i.e.
less than 1 %) that their presence or absence is not significant when
considering the mineral composition for classification purposes, but
which can affect some logging measurements if their inherent proper-
ties are considerably different from those of the principal minerals (i.e.
zircon and monazite which have a so high content in thorium and
uranium that they affect the total radioactivity even with a percentage
less than 1 %).
Accretion : a gradual increase in size of an inorganic body by the
external addition of new particles deposited by a stream.
Acidic : a descriptive term applied to those igneous rocks that
contain more than 60 % SiOl.
Acoustic : of or pertaining to sound.
Acoustic impedance : the product of acoustic velocity and density.
Activation: technique in which the rocks are irradiated with
neutrons that transmute some nuclei into radioisotopes which are
characterized by the energy of the induced gamma rays and by their
decay time schemes.
Actualism : see Uniformitarianism.
Adsorption : adherence of gas molecules, or of ions or molecules
in solution, to the surface of solids with which they are in contact.
Aeolian : pertaining to the wind; 6.3.
Agglomerate : a pyroclastic rock composed mostly of bombs. 9.6.2.
Aggredation : the building-up of the Earth’s surface by deposition
of detrital material by a stream.
Aggregate : a mass or body of rock particles or mineral grains or
both.
Albite : pure sodium-feldspar end member in the plagioclase
series.
Allochthonous : formed or produced elsewhere than in its present
place.
Allogenic : formed or generated elsewhere, usually at a distant
place.
Alluvial : pertaining to or composed of alluvium, or deposited by a
stream or running water.
Alluvial fan : 6.2.
Alluvium : a general term for detrital material deposited by a
stream or running water in the bed of the stream or on its flood plain
or delta ,or as a cone at the base of a mountain slope.
Alteration : any change in the chemical or mineralogical composi-
tion of a rock produced by weathering or by the action of hydrothermal
solutions.
Amphibola : a group of dark rock-forming ferromagnesian inosilica-
X = Mg, Fe”, Ca, or Na. and Y -
tes having the general formula : x2--3 YS (Si,Al)a 022 (OH)2, where
Mg, Fe+2, Fe+3, Al or Ti.
Amphibolit : a metamorphic rock consisting mainly of amphibole
and plagioclase with little or no quartz. 2.11.1.
Amplitude: half the height of the crest of a wave above the
adjacent troughs. The maximum value of the displacement in an
oscillatory motion.
Anadiagenesis : 7.1.6.
Anaerobic : said of organisms that can live in the absence of free
oxygen, or of conditions that exist only in the absence of free oxygen.
Anastomosis [streams] : a product of braiding; esp. an interlacing
network of branching and reuniting channels.
Andesite : a dark-colored, fine-grained extrusive (volcanic) rock.
Anhydrite : anhydrous calcium sulfate of the evaporite group. 2.9.
Anisotropy : the condition of having different properties in different
directions.
Anorthite : pure calcium-feldspar end member of the plagioclase
series.
Anorthoclase : sodi-potassic alkali feldspar.
Anticline : a convex upward fold. 14.2.4.4.
Antiform : a fold whose limbs close upward. 14.2.4.4.
Antithetic : pertaining to minor faults that are oriented opposite to
the major fault with which they are associated.
Aragonite : orthorhombic calcium carbonate with greater density
and hardness and less stability than calcite.
Arcuate delta : a curved or bowed delta with its convex outer
margin facing the sea or lake. 6.6.2.4.
Arenaceous : said of a sediment or sedimentary rock consisting
wholly or partly of sand-size fragments.
Arenite : a general name used for consolidated sedimentary rocks
of sand-size fragments irrespective of composition.
Argillaceous : pertaining to, largely composed of, or containing
clay-size particles or clay minerals.
Arkose : a feldspar rich, coarse-grained sandstone, pink or reddish.
9.6.1.2.
Arrow plot : a display of dipmeter data. 14.4.1.
Ash : fine ( < 2 mm in diameter) pyroclastic material.
Asthenosphere : the layer or shell of the Earth below the litho-
sphere.
Authigenasis : the process by which new minerals form in place
within a sediment or sedimentary rock. 7.1.5.; 7.3.1.4.
Authigenic : formed or generated in place.
Autochthonous : formed or produced in the place where now
found. 2.12.2.
Avulsion : an abrupt abandonment of a segment of a river channel.
Axial surface : 14.2.4.3.
Axis : the line which, moved parallel to itself, generates the form of
a fold.
Azimuth : direction of a horizontal line as measured clockwise from
North on an imaginary horizontal circle.
Azimuth frequency plot : 14.7.3.
Azoic : said of an environment that is devoid of life.
B
Beck r e e f : the landward side of a reef.
Bar : a generic term for any of various elongate offshore ridges,
banks or mounds of sand, gravel, or other unconsolidated material
,submerged at least at high tide.
Barchan : an isolated crescent-shaped sand dune lying transverse
to the direction of the prevailing wind. 6.3.2.5.
Barite : sulfate of barium.
B a m e r : an elongate offshore ridge or mass rising above the
high-tide level, generally extending parallel to, and at a some distance
from, the shore ,and built up by the action of waves or currents, or by
organisms.
Besal-conglomerate : a conglomerate that forms the bottom strati-
graphic unit of a sedimentary series and that rests on a surface of
erosion, thereby marking an unconformity.

Basalt : a general term for dark-colored basic and mafic igneous
rocks, commonly extrusive but locally intrusive.
Basement : the undifferentiated complex of rocks that underlies
the rocks of interest in an area.
Basic : said of an igneous rock having a relatively low silica content,
relatively rich in iron, magnesium and/or calcium, and thus includes
most mafic minerals.
Basin : a low area in the Earth's crust, of tectonic origin, in which
sediments have accumulated.
Bathyal: pertaining to the ocean environment or depth zone
between 200 and 2 000 metres.
Bauxite : a rock composed of a mixture of various amorphous or
crystalline hydrous aluminium oxides and hydroxides. A common
residual of clay deposits in tropical and subtropical regions.
Bay : a wide, curving open indentation, recess, or inlet of a sea into
the land.
Beech : a shore of a body of water, formed and washed by waves
or tides, usually covered by sandy or pebbly material.
Bed : the smallest formal unit in the hierarchy of lithostratigraphic
units, distinguishable from layers above and below. 4.3.1.
Bedding : the arrangement of a sedimentary rock in beds or layers
of varying thickness and character. 4.3.
Bed load : the part of the total stream load that is moved on or
immediately above the stream bed, such as the larger or heavier
particles transported by traction or saltation along the bottom.
Bedset : a group of strata bounded by stratification surfaces. 4.3.4.
Bell shape : an evolution of a curve (i.e. SP or resistivity) with depth
drawing the shape of a bell. 5.2.
Benthic : pertaining to the benthos.
Benthos: those aquatic organisms that live on or within the
sediment at the bottom of a body of water.
Bentonite : a soft, plastic, porous, light-colored rock composed
essentially of clay minerals of the montmorillonite group plus colloid
silica, produced by devitrification and accompagnying chemical altera-
tion of a glassy igneous material, usually a tuff or volcanic ash.
Biochemical : characterized by. or resulting directly or indirectly
from, the chemical processes and activities of living organisms. 2.1.2.2.
Bioclastic : consisting primarily of fragments of organisms. 2.1.2.1.
Biogenic : produced directly by the physiological activities of
organisms.
Bioherm : a moundlike. domelike, lenslike, or reeflike mass of rock
built up by sedentary organisms, composed almost exclusively of their
calcareous remains.
Biostrome : a distinctly bedded and widely extensive blanketlike
mass of rock built by and composed mainly of the remains of sedentary
organisms.
Biotite : a dark and dense mineral of the mica group.
Bird-foot delta : 6.6.2.4.
Bird's-eye fabric : a common pattern in supratidal carbonates in
which former gas bubbles become preserved as open or calcite-filled
cavities .These cavities are typically 2 to 5 mm in diameter and may
constitute 50% of the rock.
Block :
- [part. size] a large, angular rock fragment having a diameter
greater than 256 mm; it may be nearly in place or transported by gravity
or ice. 6.12.1.2.
- [volc.] a pyroclastic particle larger than 64 mm ejected from a
volcano in a solid state.
u Blue pattern n : a convention used in dipmeter interpretation. It
corresponds to an increasing dip magnitude with decreasing depth
with nearly uniform azimuth. 4.3.7.; 14.4.1.
Body Force : 11.2.1.
Bog : waterlogged, spongy ground, consisting primarily of mosses,
containing acidic, decaying vegetation that may develop into peat.
Bomb : a pyroclastic particle larger than 64 mm ejected from a
volcano while viscous but solidified and received its more or less
rounded shape while in flight.
Bone bed : a sedimentary layer characterized by a high proportion
of fossil bones, scales, teeth, coprolites (phosphatic deposits).
Bottomset : a nearly horizontal layer of sediment deposited in front
of the advancing foreset beds.
Boulder : a rock fragment or particle having a diameter greater than
256 mm.
Bounddone : [Dunham's classification] a term used for a sedimen-
tary carbonate rock whose original components were bound together
during deposition and remained substantially in the position of growth.
3.3.; 9.6.4.
671
Bound water :
~ water which has become adsorbed to the surfaces of solid
particles or grains. Under natural conditions this water tends to be
viscous and immobile but might not have lost its electrolytic properties.
- water which is chemically bound by becoming part of a crystal
lattice. This water cannot be removed without changing the structure
or composition of the material. It has lost its electrolytic properties.
Braided : 6.4.
Break : syn. : discontinuity. 13.3.1.
Breccia : a general term for a coarse-grained clastic rock consisting
of angular, broken rock fragments held together by a mineral cement
or in a fine-grained matrix. This implies a minimum transport of
fragments.
Brine : a term used for highly saline waters present in restricted
basins. 6.10.
Brittle: 11.2.3.1.
Bulk density : the weight of a material divided by its volume
including the volume of its pore spaces.
Bulk modulus : 11.2.2.
Burrow : a tubular or cylindrical hole made by a mud-eating animal.
Button : a small disc-shaped, button-like electrode used in micro-
resistivity pads (ML, MLL. SHDT, FMS).
C
Cable : a wireline.
Calcerenite : [Grabau's classification] a limestone consisting pre-
dominantly (more than 50 % ) of detrital calcite particles of sand size.
Calcereoua : said of a substance that contains more than 10 % and
less than 50 % calcium carbonate.
Calcilutita : [Grabau's classification] a limestone consisting predo-
minantly (more than 50 %) of detrital calcite particles of silt and/or clay
size.
Calcirudite : (Grabau's classification] a limestone consisting pre-
dominantly (more than 50 % ) of detrital calcite particles larger than
sand size.
Calcite : a calcium carbonate.
Calibration : the process wherein the scale and sensitivity of the
measuring circuit is adjusted to meaningful units. 1.1.1.
Caliper : a wireline logging tool which measures hole diameter.
Capillary forces : 10.2.2.
Cap rock : an impervious rock overlying a reservoir.
Carbonate : a sediment formed by the organic or inorganic precipi-
tation from aqueous solution of carbonates of calcium, magnesium, or
iron.
Carnallite : an evaporite mineral. 2.9.
Cast : a sedimentary structure representing the infilling of an
original mark or depression made on top of a soft bed, and preserved
as a solid form on the underside of the overlying stratum.
Cation : a positively charged ion.
Cation exchange : the displacement of a cation bound to a site on
the surface of a solid, as in clay-minerals, by a cation in solution.
Cation Exchange Capacity : 9.10.3.4.
Cave : part of a borehole where the hole diameter becomes larger
than the drill bit diameter.
Celestite : sulfate of strontium occurring in deposits of salt,
gypsum, and associated dolomite and shale, and in residual clays.
Cement : mineral material usually chemically precipitated in the
spaces between the individual grains or crystals (pores), thereby
binding them together as a rigid, coherent mass.
Cementation : 7.1.5.; 7.3.1.3.
Cementation factor : the porosity exponent rn in Archie's formula.
Syn. : tortuosity factor.
Chalk : a soft, friable, pure, earthy, fine-textured limestone of
marine origin consisting almost wholly (90-99 %) of calcite, formed
mainly by shallow-water accumulation of calcareous tests of floating
microorganisms.
Chamosite : an hydro-alumino-silicate of the chlorite group, rich in
iron. An important constituant of many oolitic and other bedded iron
ores.
Channel : an elongate depression where a natural body of water
flows; an abandoned or buried watercourse represented by stream
deposits of gravel and sand. 6.4.; 6.5.
Channel lag : a deposit consisting of the coarsest material that
settles out and accumulates along the deepest part of a river channel.
672
Chemical rock : a sedimentary rock composed primarily of material
formed directly by precipitation from solution or colloidal suspension.
2.1.2.2.
Chert : a hard, extremely dense or compact, dull to semivitreous,
microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline sedimentary rock, consisting do-
minantly of interlocking crystals of quartz less than about 30 pm
indiameter. It may contain amorphous silica (opal). It occurs principally
as nodules, less commonly as areally extensive layers.
Chlorite : an hydrous-alumino-silicate of iron and magnesium.
Clastic: pertaining to a rock composed principally of broken
fragments that are derived from preexisting rocks or minerals and that
have been transported some distance from their place of origin.
Clay :
- a rock or mineral fragment or a detrital particle of any composition
having a diameter less than 1/256 mm.
- a loose, earthy, extremely fine-grained, natural sediment or soft
rock composed primarily of clay-size or colloidal particles and charac-
terized by high plasticity and by a considerable content of clay
minerals.
- a clay mineral.
Clean : containing no appreciable amount of clay or shale.
Cluster analysis : a procedure for arranging a number of objects in
homogeneous subgroups based on their mutual similarities and hierar-
chical relationships. 5.3.2.3.
CLUSTER : a Schlumberger trade mark for a dip computation
technique.
Coal : a readily combustible rock containing more than 50 % by
weight and more than 7 0 % by volume of carbonaceous material,
formed from compaction of altered plant remains similar to those in
peat. 2.10.
Cobble : a rock fragment or sediment particle having a diameter in
the range of 64-256 mm.
Cohesiveness : a mass property of unconsolidated, fine-grained
sediments by which like or unlike particles (having diameters less than
0.01 mm )cohere or stick together by surface forces.
Cohesive strength : 11.2.1.
Compaction : 7. ; 8.
Competent : said of a layer which, in contrast to adjacent layers,
has formed more nearly parallel folds (the adjacent layers being more
nearly in similar folds). 14.2.4.2.
Component : one of a set of chemical compositions the relative
masses of which may be varied to describe all compositions within it.
2.3.2.
Composite log : 1.3.; 2.6.; 15.3.1.5.
Composition : 2.
Compressibility : 11.3.3.
Compression : 11.2.1.
Compressive stress : 11.2.4.2.
Cone : 14.2.4.2.; 14.4.3.4.
Confining pressure : 11.2.1.
Conformable : said of strata or stratification characterized by an
unbroken sequence in which the layers are formed one above the other
in parallel order by regular, uninterrupted deposition under the same
general conditions.
Conglomerate : a coarse-grained clastic sedimentary rock, compo-
sed of rounded to subangular fragments larger than 2 mm in diameter.
9.6.1.4.
Conical fold : a fold model that can be described geometrically by
the rotation of a line about one of its ends, which is fixed. 14.2.4.2.;
14.4.3.4.
Consolidated : pertains to a rock framework provided with a
degree of cohesiveness or rigidity by cementation or other binding
means.
Contact metamorphism : 2.1.3.
Core :
- a cylindrical section of rock. Introduction 1.3.
- the central zone or nucleus of the Earth's interior.
Correlation : 15.3.1.
CORIBAND : a Schlumberger mark for a program of interpreta-
tion for complex lithologies. 9.10.3.2.
Coset : a sedimentary unit composed of two or more sets. 4.3.3.3.
Crack : 11.1.
Creton : a part of the Earth's crust that has attained stability, and
has been little deformed for a prolonged period.
Creep : 11.2.3.3.
Crest : 14.2.4.3.
Crestal line : 14.2.4.3.
Crestal surface : 14.2.4.3.
Crevasse :
- a wide breach or crack in the bank of a river. 6.6.2.4.
- cracks in the top of a glacier. 6.1.
Cross-bedding : cross-stratification in which the cross-beds are
more than 1 cm in thickness. 4.3.3.3.
Crosaplot : a graphic plot of one parameter versus another. 9.7.2.
Crust : the outermost layer or shell of the Earth.
Crystal : a homogeneous, solid body of a chemical element,
compound, or mixture, having a regularly repeating atomic arrange-
ment that may be outwardly expressed by plane faces.
Cuapate delta : 6.6.2.5.
Cuttings : rock chips cut by a bit in the process of well drilling.
Introduction 1.3,
Cycle : 5.1.
Cyclic sedimentation : 5.1
Cyclographic plot : 14.4.3.1.
Cylinder: 14.2.4.2.; 14.4.3.4.
Cylindrical f l o w : 10.4.2.2.
Cylindrical fold : a fold model that can be described geometrically
by the rotation of a line through space parallel to itself. 14.2.4.2.;
14.4.3.4.
D
DAPSA plot : 14.4.2.; 14.7.6.
D C A ' : a Schlumberger mark for a program of Detection of
Conductive Anomalies. 11.4.1 1.1.
Debris : any surficial accumulation of rock fragments, soil material,
and sometimes organic matter detached from rock masses by chemical
and mechanical means. 2.1.2.1.
Debris flow : a moving mass of rock fragments, soil and mud, more
than half of the particles being larger than sand size. 6.2.
Decompaction : 8.10.
Deep-sea fan : a submarine equivalent of an alluvial fan. Syn. :
turbidite. 6.9.
Deformation : 11.2.1.
Delta : 6.6.
Deltaic : pertaining t o or characterized by a delta. 6.6.
Dendrogrem : a treelike diagram depicting the mutual relationships
of a group of items sharing a common set of variables. 5.3.2.4.
Density current : any current that flows downslope because of it is
denser than the fluid around. 6.9.
Density stereogram : 14.7.8.
Depositional environment : a natural geographic entity in which
sediments accumulate. 6.
Depth of investigation : the radial distance from the measure point
of a sonde within which material contributes significantly to the
readings from the sonde.
DETFRA ' : a Schlumberger mark for a program of Detection of
Fractures. 11.5.
Deviation : departure of a borehole from vertical. Syn. : drift.
Detrital : pertaining to or formed from detritus. 2.1.2.1.
Dextral : 14.2.5.3.
Diagenesis : 7.
Diapir : a dome or anticlinal fold in which the overlying rocks have
been ruptured by the squeezing-out of plastic core material (salt, shale,
or igneous intrusions). Syn. : salt dome.
Diapirism : the process by which a diapir is formed.
Diatomite : a siliceous sedimentary rock consisting chiefly of
opaline frustules of the diatom, a unicellular aquatic plant related to the
algae.
Dike : a tabular igneous intrusion that cuts across the bedding or
foliation of the country rock.
Dilation : deformation by a change in volume but not shape. 11.2.1.
Diorite : a group of plutonic rocks intermediate in composition
between acidic and basic. 2.8.
Dip : the angle that a structural surface makes with the horizontal,
measured perpendicular to the strike of the structure and,in the vertical
plane. 14.2.5.2.
Dipmeter: 4.3.; 4.4.; 4.6.; 6.; 11.4.11.; 14.3.; 14.4.; 14.8.
Dip pattern : 4.3.7.; 14.4.1.
Dip slip : 14.2.5.2.
Discontinuity : any interruption in sedimentation, whatever its
cause or length, usually a manifestation of nondeposition and accom-
panying erosion. 13.

Discordance : lack of parallelism between adjacent strata. Angular
unconformity.
Dispersed : a term used to refer to particles (clays) distributed
within the interstices of the rock framework.
Distal : said of a sedimentary deposit consisting of fine clastics and
formed farthest from the source area. 6.2.; 6.9.
Distortion : 112.1.
Distributary: a divergent stream flowing away from the main
stream and not returning to it, as in a delta or on an alluvial plain. 6.6.
Dolomite : a carbonate of calcium and magnesium.
Dolomitic : said of a rock that contains 10-50 % t h e mineral dolomite
in the form of a cement and/or grains or crystals.
Dolomitization : the process by which limestone is wholly or partly
converted to dolomite rock or dolomitic limestone. 7.3.2.2.
Dome : an uplift or anticline structure, either circular or elliptical in
outline, in which the beds dip gently away in all directions.
Drag : the bending of strata on either side of a fault, caused by the
friction of the moving blocks along the fault surface.
Drawdown : 10.4.1.
Drih:
- [drilling] the attitude of the borehole; the drift angle or deviation
is the angle between the borehole axis and the vertical.
[glacial geol.] 6.1.2.1.;
~
- [geophysics] 12.2.5.
Drumlin : a low, smoothly rounded, elongate oval hill, mound or
ridge of compact glacial till. 6.1.2.1.
DUALDIP : a Schlumberger mark for a program of dip computa-
tion for SHDT dipmeter tool.
Dual-weter model : 9.10.3.4.
Ductile : 11.2.3.1.
Ductility : 1123.1,
Dune : 6.3.
E ced by Schlumberger.
Effusive : see extrusive.
Eh : oxidation-reduction potential.
Elastic : said of a body in which strains are instantly and totally
recoverable and in which deformation is independent of time. 11.2.2.
Elastic behaviour : 112.2.
Elastic limit : 11.2.2.
Electrobad : corresponds to an interval of depth in which log
responses are nearly constant.
Ekctrofacies : 2.; 2.6.4.; 5.2.2.
Electrosequence : 2.; 2.6.4.; 5.2.3.
Elongate : 6.6.2.4.
Eluvium : fine soil or sand moved and deposited by wind, as in a
sand dune.
End member: one of the two or more pure components of a
mixture. 2.3.2.; 2.4.
Endogenetic : derived from within; said of a geological process, or
of its resultant feature or rock, that originates within the Earth. The
term is also applied to chemical precipitates (evaporites) that originate
within the rocks that contain them. 2.1.2.2.
Endogenous : endogenetic.
Entropy : a mesure of the degree of mixing of the different kinds
of rock components in a stratigraphic unit.
Environment : 6.
Environmemtal effects : effects related to the influence of the
borehole on the measurements made by wireline tools. 1.2.
Eogenetic : 7.1.6.
Eolian : see aeolian.
Epidiagenesis : 7.1.6.
Epigenetic : 4.1.3.
Epsomite : a hydrous sulfate of magnesium. 2.9.
Eruptive : said of a rock formed by the solidification of magma.
2.1.1.
Esker: a long, narrow, sinuous, steep-sided ridge composed of
irregularly stratified sand and gravel that was deposited by a subglacial
or englacial stream flowing between ice walls or in an ice tunnel of a
stagnant or retreating glacier. 6.1.
Estuary : the seaward end or the widened funnel-shaped tidal
mouth of a river valley where fresh water comes into contact with
seawater and where tidal effects are evident.
673
Eustasy : the worldwide sea-level regime and its fluctuations,
caused by absolute changes in the quantity of seawater.
Eustatism : syn. : eustasy.
Euxinic : pertaining to an environment of restricted circulation and
stagnant or anaerobic conditions.
Evaporite : a non clastic sedimentary rock composed primarily of
minerals produced from a saline solution. 2.1.2.2.; 2.9.; 6.10.
Excavation effect : a decrease in the neutron log apparent porosity
reading below that expected on the basis of the hydrogen indices of
the formation components. 9.10.2.2.
Exogenetic : said of processes originating at or near the surface of
the Earth, such as weathering and denudation, and to rocks and
landforms that owe their origin to such processes. 2.1.2.1.
Exogenous : exogenetic.
Extrusive : said of igneous rocks that has been erupted onto the
surface of the Earth. 2.1.1.
F
Fabric : the orientation in space of the elements composing a
sedimentary rock. 3.2.; 3.2.1.4.
Facie. : 5.1.
Faciea model : 6.
FACIOLOG.: a Schlumberger mark for a program of facies
analysis. 5.3.2.; 9.7.3.
Factor :
- cementation- : the porosity exponent rn in Archie's formula.
- formation- : symbol F; 1.5.1.3.
Failure : fracture or rupture of a rock that has been stressed beyond
its ultimate strength. 11.
FAST plot : a contraction for Formation Anomaly Simulation Trace,
a plot versus depth obtained by the intersection of dip planes with the
borehole considered as a cylinder in space. Dip presentation introdu-
Fault: 11.1.; 14.2.1.; 14
formula MAI(A1,Si)sOa where M -
Feldspar : a group of abundant rock-forming minerals of general
K, Na, Ca, Ba, Rb, Sr, and Fe.
Feldspars are the most widespread of any mineral group and constitute
60 % of the Earth's crust. On decomposition, they yield a large part of
the clays.
Feldspathic : said of a rock containing feldspar.
Felsic : a mnemonic adjective derived from feldspar + had
+
(feldspathoid) slica + c, and applied to an igneous rock having
abundant light-colored minerals in its mode; also, applied to those
minerals (quartz, feldspars, feldspathoids. muscovite) as a group.
Fetmmagnasian : containing iron and magnesium.
Femginous : pertaining to or containing iron.
FIL' : a Schlumberger mark for the Fracture Identification Log.
1.11.; 11.4.11.1.
Fissure : 11.1,
Flank : limb. 14.2.4.3.
FIaser : ripple cross-lamination in which mud streaks are preserved
in the troughs but incompletely or not at all on the crests. 4.3.4.
Flexure : syn. : hinge. 14
Fluvial : of or pertaining to a river. 6.4.; 6.5.
FMS : see Formation MicroScanner tool.
Fold : 14.2.4.
Footwall : the underlying side of a fault or the wall rock beneath an
inclined fault. 14.2.5.2.
Fore reef : the seaward side of a reef.
Foreset : pertaining to or forming a steep and advancing frontal
slope, or the sediments deposited on such a slope. 4.3.3.2.
Formation : a general term applied in well logging to the external
environment of the drilled well bore without stratigraphic connotation.
Formation factor : 1.5.1.3.
Formation MicroScanner tool (FMS) : 4.2.
Formation w a t e r : water present in the virgin formation under
natural conditions, as opposed to introduced fluids such as mud filtrate.
Fossil : any remains. trace, or imprint of a plant or animal that has
been preserved in the Earth's crust since some past geologic time.
Fracture : 11. l .
Free Fluid Index (FFI) : 10.3.5.
Funnel shape : an evolution of a curve (Le. SP or resistivity )with
depth drawing the shape of a funnel. 5.2.
674
G Hemipelagic: deep-sea sediment in which more than 25% the
Gabbro : a group of dark-colored basic intrusive igneous rocks. 2.8.
Gash : a small scale tension fracture. 11.1.
Geochemistry : the study of the distribution and amounts of the
chemical elements in minerals, rocks, ores, soils, waters, and the
atmosphere.
GeoColumn : a Schlumberger mark for a program of automatic
lithofacies determination. Syn. : LlTHO *. 1.6.3.; 2.12.; 9.7.3.
GEODIP : a Schlumberger mark for a dip computation program by
pattern recognition technique written for the HDT dipmeter tool.
GEOGRAM : a Schlumberger mark for a program of synthetic
seismogram. 12.4.
Geology : the study of the planet Earth.
Geometry : the three dimensional (length, width and thickness)
shape of a sedimentary body.
Geophysics : study of the Earth by quantitative physical methods.
12.
Geostatic pressure : 8.1.
Glacial : of or relating to the presence and activities of ice or
glaciers. 6.1.
Glacier : a large mass of ice. 6.1.
Glass : an amorphous product of the rapid cooling of a magma.
Glauconite : a dull-green earthy or granular mineral of the mica
group. It occurs abundantly in greensand. and seems to be forming in
the marine environment. It is an indicator of very slow sedimentation.
Gneiss: a foliated metamorphic rock. 2.11.
G w t h i t e : an hydrous oxide of iron, the commonest constituent of
limonite.
Graben : an elongate, relatively depressed crustal unit or block that
is bounded by faults on its long sides.
Gradod bodding : a gradual and progressive change in grain size.
4.3.3.4.
Grain : a mineral or rock particle of all sizes more or less rounded.
3.1.2.
Grain sire : the general dimensions of grains or particles in a
sediment or rock. 3.2.
Grainstone : [Dunham's classification] a term used for a mud-free,
grain-supported. carbonate sedimentary rock. 3.3.; 9.6.3.
Grsnite : a plutonic acidic rock in which quartz constitutes 10 to
50 % of the felsic components. 2.8.
Granulite : a metamorphic rock. 2.1 1.1.
Granulometry : the measurement of grain size.
Gravel : a particle having a diameter in the range of 2-20 mm. Syn. :
pebble.
Graywacke : 9.6.1.3.
a G r w n p n e m n : a convention in dipmeter interpretation. It
represents a succession of dips of relative constant azimuth and
magnitude. 4.3.7.; 14.4.1.
G r w n u n d : e sand having a greenish colour, consisting largely of
dark greenish grains of glauconite.
Growth fault : a fault in sedimentary rock that forms contempora-
neously and continuously with deposition. 14.2.5.3.
Gypsum : hydrous calcium sulfate of the evaporite group. 2.9.; 6.10.
H Isobath : a line on a map connecting points of equal depth.
Heematits : iron oxide.
Halite : sodium chloride of the evaporite group. Syn. : salt. 2.9; 6.10.
Halmyrolysis : the geochemical reaction of sea water and sedi-
ments in an area of little or no sedimentation. 7.1.6.
Halokineair : a general term for the study of the mechanism of salt
movement and related structures.
Hsnging wall : the overlying side of a fault or the wall rock above
a fault. 14.2.5.2.
Hard-ground : a zone at the sea bottom, usually a few cm thick, the
sediment of which is lithified to form a hardened surface, often
encrusted, bored, and solution-ridden. It implies a gap in sedimenta-
tion. 7.3.2.5.
Hardness : the resistance of a mineral to scratching.
Heave : 14.2.5.2.
Heavy mineral : a detrital mineral from a sedimentary rock, having
a specific gravity higher than a standard (usually 2.85), and commonly
forming as an accessory mineral (less than 1 % ).
fraction coarser than 5 pm is of terrigenous, volcanogenic, and/or
neritic origin.
Heterogeneous : said of a bed showing numerous uncorrelated
events on dipmeter or FMS resistivity curves. 4.3.3.5.
Hinge : syn. : flexure. 14.2.4.3.
Homogeneous : said of a bed without any resistivity variations on
the dipmeter or FMS resistivity curves. 4.3.3.1.
Homopycnal flow : 6.6.2.4.5.
Horizontal slip : in a fault, the horizontal component of the net slip.
Syn. : heave. 14.2.5.2.
Hornblende : the commonest mineral of the amphibole group.
Homt : an elongate, relatively uplifted crustal unit or block that is
bounded by faults on its long sides.
Humic : pertaining to or derived from humus.
Humus : the generally dark, more or less stable part of the organic
matter of the soil.
Hydrostatic pressure : stress that is uniform in all directions. 11.2.1.
The pressure exerted by the water at any given point in a body of water
at rest. 8.1.
Hyperpycnal flow : 6.6.2.4.5.
Hypopycnal flow : 6.6.2.4.5.
I
Iceberg : a large, massive piece of floating or stranded glacier ice
of any shape, detached from the front of a glacier into a body of water.
6.1.
Igneous : said of a rock or mineral that solidified from molten or
partly molten material, i.e. from a magma. 2.1.1.; 2.8.
Illite : a clay mineral containing less potassium and more water than
true mica. 9.10.3.4.
Imbibition : the absorption of a fluid by a granular rock or any other
porous material under the force of capillary attraction in the absence
of any pressure.
Immature : said of a clastic sediment characterized by unstable
minerals ( i s . feldspars and plagioclases), abundance of mobile oxides
(i.e. alumina), presence of weatherable material (such as clay). and
poorly sorted and angular grains, indicating processes (i.e. transport
and weathering) acting over a short time andlor with a low intensity.
3.2.1.6.; 9.6.1.
Incompressibility modulus : 11 2.2.
Injection : the forcing, under abnormal pressure, of sedimentary
material (downward, upward, or laterally) into a pre-existing deposit or
rock.
Intertidal : pertaining to the benthic ocean environment or depth
zone between high and low tide. Syn. : littoral. 6.8.
Intrusion : the process of emplacement of magma in pre-existing
rock.
Intrusive : of or pertaining to intrusion, both the processes and the
rock so formed.
Invasion : the process by which the mud filtrate penetrates in a
porous rock. 9.10.2.
Irreducible saturation : it corresponds to the minimum saturation of
a fluid when the fluid is displaced from a porous medium by another
fluid immiscible with the first. 10.2.5.
Isobar : a line on a map connecting points of equal pressure.
Isochore: a line on a map connecting points of equal drilled
thickness.
Isochrone : a line on a map connecting points of equal travel time.
Iaohypae : a line on a map connecting points of equal elevation.
Isolith : a line on a map connecting points of equal aggregate
thickness of a given lithologic facies within a formation.
Isomorphic : having identical or similar form.
lsopach : a line on a map connecting points of equal true thickness.
Iaopic : said of sedimentary rocks of the same facies.
laopycnic : a line on a map connecting points of equal density.
Isorad : a line on a map connecting points of equal radioactivity.
Isostasy : the condition of equilibrium, comparable to floating, of
the units of the lithosphere above the asthenosphere.
Isotope : one of the two or more species of the same element
having the same number of protons in the nucleus but differing from
one another by the number of neutrons.
Isotropy : the condition of having properties that are uniform in all
directions.

J M
Joint : a surface of fracture in a rock without displacement. 11.1.
K mantle, which may solidify to form an igneous rock. 2.1.1.
Kainite : a mineral of the evaporite group. 2.9.
Kame : a low mound, knob, hummock, or short irregular ridge,
composed of stratified sand and gravel deposited by a subglacial
stream as a fan or delta at the margin of a melting glacier. 6.1.
Kaolinite : a common clay mineral of the kaolin group, generally
derived from alteration of alkali feldspars and micas. 9.10.3.4.
Karst : a type of topography formed on carbonate or gypsum rocks
by dissolution.
Kettle : a steep-sided, usually basin- or bowl-shaped hole or
depression in glacial-drift deposits. 6.1.
Key well : 15.4.1.
Kieserite : a hydrous sulfate of magnesium of the evaporite group.
2.9.
L
Labile: said of rocks and minerals that are mechanically and
chemically unstable.
Lacustrine : pertaining to, produced by, or formed in a lake.
Lamina : the thinnest recognizable unit layer. 4.3.1.1.
Laminated : y i d of a rock that consists of laminae. 4.3.3.2.
Lamination : the finest stratification or bedding. 4.3.1.1.
Langbeinite : a sulfate of potassium and magnesium of the evapo-
rite group. 2.9.
Layer: a general term for any tabular body of rock. 4.3.1.1.
Leaching : selective removal of soluble minerals by throughgoing
water. 7.1.5.; 7.3.2.3.
Lens : a geologic deposit bounded by converging surfaces.
Lenticular bedding : a form of interbedded mud and ripple cross-
laminated sand, in which the ripples or lenses are discontinuous
vertically and horizontally. 4.3.4.
Lignite : a brownish-black organic rock that is intermediate bet-
ween peat and coal. 2.10.
Limb : that area of a fold between adjacent fold hinges. 14.2.4.3.
Limestone: a sedimentary rock consisting of more than 50%
calcium carbonate.
Limnic : said of coal deposits formed inland in freshwater basins,
peat bogs, or swamps.
Limonite: a general term for a group of brown, amorphous
naturally occurring hydrous ferric oxides.
Lip : 14.2.5.2.
Listric : a curvilinear, concave spoon-shaped, usually pointing
upward, surface of fracture or fault, which becomes less steep as one
goes deeper, becoming nearly horizontal at some depth. 14.2.5.3.
Lithification : the conversion of a newly deposited unconsolidated
sediment into a coherent solid rock. 7.
LlTHO : see GeoColumn.
Lithofacies : a facies characterized by particular lithologic features.
Lithology : the description of rocks on the basis of colour, minera-
logic composition and texture (grain size).
Lithosphere : a layer of strength relative to the underlying astheno-
sphere .It corresponds to the relatively rigid outer shell of the Earth
comprising the crust and upper mantle.
Lithostatic pressure : 8.1.
Littoral : syn. : intertidal. 6.8.
Load : the material that is moved or carried by a stream, a glacier,
the wind, or waves, tides and currents.
Lobste delta : syn. : arcuate. 6.6.2.4.
LOCDIP : a Schlumberger mark for a dip computation program by
derivative technique written for the SHDT dipmeter tool.
Log : a continuous record of a parameter as a function of depth.
Longshore bar : a low, elongate sand ridge, built chiefly by wave
action, occurring at some distance from, and extending generally
parallel with, the shoreline.
Lutite : a general term used for consolidated rocks composed of silt
and/or clay.
675
Mafic : a mnemonic term derived from magnesium ferric +
ic to +
denote ferromagnesian minerals.
Magma : a naturally molten mass, formed within the crust or upper
Mantle : this portion of the Earth’s interior lying between the crust
and the core.
M a h I e : a metamorphosed carbonate (chiefly limestone). 2.1 1.
Marker : 13.2.; 15.
Mad : an argillaceous limestone.
Marsh : a water-saturated, poorly drained area, intermittently or
permanently water-covered, having aquatic and grasslike vegetation,
without the formation of peat.
Masaive : said of a rock that occurs in very thick homogeneous
beds. 4.3.3.1.
Matrix :
- for a log analyst the solid framework of rock, except shale, which
surrounds pore volume.
- for a geologist the smaller or finer-grained material filling the
interstices between the coarser grains or particles of a sediment or
sedimentary rock. 3.1 2.
Mature : said of a clastic sediment characterized by stable minerals
(i.e. quartz), deficiency of the more mobile oxides (such as soda),
absence of weatherable minerals (such as clay), and well sorted but
subangular to angular grains, indicating processes acting over a long
time and with a high intensity. 3.2.1.6.; 9.6.1.
Meander : one of a series of regular freely developing sinuous
CUNES, bends, loops, turns, or windings in the course of a stream. 6.5.
Meandering stream : a stream having a pattern of successive
meanders. 6.5.
Mechanical behaviour : 112.2.
Meaogenetic : 7.1.6.
Matamorphiam : the processes by which changes in solid rocks
under influence of heat, pressure and chemically active fluids. 2.1.3.
Mica : a group of minerals pertaining to phyllosilicates of general
formula (K.Na.Ca) ( M ~ , F ~ , L ~ , A ~ ) ~ - ~ ( A ~ , S ~ ) ~ O ~ O ( O H , F ) Z .
Micrite : a descriptive term for carbonate mud with crystals less
than 4 microns in diameter.
Microcline : the triclinic form of potassium feldspar.
Migration : the movement of liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons
fromtheir source rocks through permeable formations into reservoir
rocks. 14.1.
Mineral : a naturally occurring inorganic element or compound
having an orderly internal structure and characteristic chemical compo-
sition, crystal form, and physical properties. 2.3.2.
Mineralogy : the study of minerals.
Mixed-layer mineral : a mineral whose structure consists of alterna-
ting layers of clays minerals and/or mica minerals.
Mode : the mode is the percentage (by weight) of the individual
minerals which make up a rock.
Modulus of elasticity : the ratio of stress to its corresponding strain
under given conditions of load for materials that deform elastically.
11.2.2.
Mohr stress circle : 112.1,
Mohr atreas envelope : 112.1.
Monogenetic : said of a conglomerate composed of a single type
of rock. 9.6.1.4.
Montmorillonite : a group of expanding-lattice clay minerals. Syn. :
smectite. 9.10.3.4.
Moraine : an accumulation of material which has been transported
or deposited by ice. 6.1.
Mouth : the place of discharge of a stream.
M u d cake : the residue deposited on the borehole wall as the mud
looses filtrate into porous, permeable formations.
M u d filtrate : the effluent of the continuous phase liquid of drilling
mud which penetrates (invades) porous and permeable formations.
Mudflow : a general term for a mass-movement landform and a
process characterized by a flowing mass of predominantly fine-grained
earth material possessing a high degree of fluidity during movement.
6.2.
’ Mudstone :
- an indurated mud having the texture and composition of shale.
- [Dunham’s classification] a term used for a mud-supported
carbonate sedimentary rock containing less than 10 % grains. 3.3.; 9.6.3.
Muscovite : a white mineral of the mica group.
676
N P
Nadir : the point on the celestial sphere that is directly beneath the
observer and directly opposite the zenith. 14.4.3.1.
Natron : hydrous sodium carbonate occurring mainly in solution in
soda lakes or in saline residues.
Natural levee : a long broad low ridge or embankment of sand and
coarse silt, built by a stream on its flood plain and along both banks of
its channel. 6.4.; 6.5.; 6.6.
Neogenesis : the formation of new minerals by diagenesis or
metamorphism.
Neritic: Pertaining to the ocean environment or depth zone
between low-tide level and approximately the edge of the continental
shelf.
Net : a stereographic or an equal-area projection of a sphere in
which the network of meridians and parallels forms a coordinate
system.
Net slip : 14.2.5.2.
Nodule : a small, irregularly rounded knot, mass, or lump of a
mineral or mineral aggregate (La. pyritic nodules in a coal bed, chert
nodules in limestone, anhydritic nodules in limestone or dolomite,
phosphatic nodules in marine strata). 4.3.3.5.; 7.1.5.
Norm :
- the theoretical mineral composition of a rock expressed in terms
of normative mineral molecules that have been determined by specific
chemical analyses for the purpose of classification and comparison.
- recognized type as reference. 6.
Normal stress : 11.2.1.
Normative mineral : a mineral whose presence in a rock is theore-
tically possible on the basis of certain chemical analysis.
0 Platform : that part of a continent that is covered by flat-lying or
Offlap : the progressive offshore regression of the updip termina-
tions of the sedimentary units within a conformable sequence of rocks,
Oligomictic : said of a clastic sedimentary rock composed of a
single rock type. 9.6.1.4.
Olistostrome : a sedimentary deposit accumulated as a semifluid
body by submarine gravity sliding or slumping.
Olivine : a group of common rock forming minerals of basic,
ultrabasic, low silica igneous rocks (gabbro, basalt) of formula
(Mg,Fe,Mn,Ca)zSiOc
Onlap : an overlap characterized by the regular and progressive
pinching out, toward the margins or shores of a depositional basin, of
the sedimentary units within a conformable sequence of rocks.
Oolite : a sedimentary rock, usually a limestone, made up chiefly of
ooliths.
Oolith : one of the small round or ovate accretionary bodies in a
sedimentary rock, having the size of a sand.
Opal : a mineral or mineral gel of the silica group, having a varying
proportion of water. 9.6.4.
Orogeny : the process by which structures within fold-belt moun-
tainous areas were formed.
Orthoquartzite : 9.6.1.1.
Orthose : the monoclinic form of the potassium feldspar. Syn. :
orthoclase.
Outcrop: that part of a geologic formation or structure that
appears at the surface of the Earth.
Outwaah : stratified detritus removed or a washed out from a
glacier by meltwater streams and deposited in front of or beyond the
end moraine or the margin of an active glacier. 6.1.
Overburden : the upper part of a sedimentary deposit compressing
and consolidating the material below.
Overburden pressure : syn. : geostatic pressure. 8.1.
Overlap : a general term referring to the extension of marine,
lacustrine. or terrestrial strata beyond underlying rocks.
Overlay : graphic data on a transparent sheet to be superimposed
on another sheet. 1.
Overpressure : pressure in excess of lithostatic pressure, from
tectonic stress.
O x b o w : the abandoned crescent- or bow-shaped channel of a
former meander. 6.5.
Packing : the manner of arrangement of the solid clastic particles
in a sediment or Sedimentary rock. 3.2.1.5.
Packstone : [Dunham's classification] a term used for a sedimen-
tary carbonate rock whose granular material is arranged in a self-
supporting framework. 3.3.; 9.6.3.
Psralic : said of coal deposits formed along the margin of the sea.
Particle : a general term for a separate or distinct unit in a rock
without restriction as size, shape, composition, or internal structure.
3.1.2.
Peat : an unconsolidated deposit of semicarbonized plant remains
in a watersaturated environment such as bog or fen, and of persistently
high moisture content. 2.10.
Pebble : a general term for a small roundish rock fragment having
a diameter in the range of 4-64 mm.
Pelagic : said of marine organisms whose environment is the open
ocean, rather than the bottom or shore areas.
Pelite : syn. : lutite.
Pellet : a silt or sand-sized aggregation of carbonate mud, generally
fecal in origin.
Permeability : 9.1.; 10.1.
p H : the negative logto of the hydrogen-ion activity in a solution; a
mesure of the acidity or basicity of a solution.
Pitch : the angle between the horizontal and any linear feature.
14.2.5.2.
Plagioclase : a group of triclinic feldspars of general formula
(Na,Ca)AI(Si,AI)Si,O8, which form a complete solid-solution series from
albite (pure Na) to anorthite (pure Ca) .They are among the commonest
rock-forming minerals of igneous rocks. 2.8.
Plsnktonic : said of that type of pelagic organism which floats.
Plastic : 11.2.2.
gently tilted strata, mainly Sedimentary.
Plays lake : a shallow, intermittent lake in an arid or semiarid
region.
Plunge : the inclination of a fold axis or other linear structure,
measured in the vertical plane. 14.2.4.3.
Plutonic : pertaining to igneous rocks formed at great depth. 2.1.1.
Point bar : one of a series of low, arcuate ridges of sand and gravel
developed on the inside of a growing meander by the slow addition of
individual accretions accompagnying migration of the channel toward
the outer bank. 6.5.
Poisson's ratio : 11.2.2.
Polsr p l o t : 14.4.3.1.; 14.7.2.
Polyhslite : a mineral of the evaporite group. 2.9.; 6.10.
Polymictic : said of a clastic sedimentary rock composed of many
rock types suc as arkose, graywacke, conglomerate.
Pore : a small to minute opening or passageway in a rock. Syn. :
interstice.
Pore-bridging : 3.2.1.6.
Pore-filling : 3.2.1.6.
Pore-lining : 3.2.1.6.
Porogenesis : 7.1.7.
Poronecrosis : 7.1.7.
Porosity; the percentage of the bulk volume of a rock that is
occupied by interstices, whether isolated or connected. 1.4.; 9.10.3.
Pressure : the force exerted across a real or imaginary surface
divided by the area of that surface. 8.1.; 11.2.1.
Principal axis of stress : 11.2.1.
Principal plane of stress : 11.2.1.
Proximsl : said of a sedimentary deposit formed nearest the source
area .6.2.; 6.9.
Pyroclsstic : pertaining to clastic rock material formed by volcanic
explosion. 9.6.2.
general formula ABSilOs, where A -
Pyroxene: a group of dark rock-forming minerals having the
-
Ca, Na. Mg, or Fe", and B Mg,
Fe", Fe+3, Fe, Cr, Mn, or Al. They constitute a common constituent of
igneous rocks.
Q
Qusrtz : crystalline silica, an important rock forming mineral. It is,
next to feldspar, the commonest mineral and has a widespread
distribution in igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks.
 677

Quartzaranite : a sandstone that is composed primarily of quartz Sapropelic : pertaining to or derived from sapropel, indicating a
(more than 95 %). high sulfate or reducing environment.
Quartzite : a very hard but not metamorphosed sandstone, consis- SARABAND : a Schlumberger mark for a program of interpreta-
ting chiefly of quartz grains that have been completely cemented. tion of shaly sand. 9.10.3.1.
Quartzosa : containing quartz as a principal constituent. 9.6.1.1. Saturation : the percentage of the pore volume occupied by a
Quartz wacke : a moderately well-sorted, commonly fine-grained specific fluid. 9.10.3.
sandstone containing up to 90 % quartz and chert, and with more than SCAT plot : 14.4.2.; 14.7.7.
10 % argillaceous matrix, less than 10 % feldspar, and less than 10 % Schist : a strongly foliated crystalline rock, formed by dynamic
rock fragments. metamorphism. 2.1 1.1,
Quick Look: a general term for a rapid survey of logs. 1.; 14.4.1. Schmidt stereonet : 14.4.3.3.
Scour and fill : a process of aternate excavation and refilling of a
channel, as by a stream or the tides.
R Sedimentary rock : 2.1.2.
Sedimentary etructure : a structure in a sedimentary rock. 4.
Radiolarite : a comparatively hard fine-grained chertlike homoge- Sedimentation unit : 4.3.1.
neous consolidated rock composed predominantly of the remains of S e i f : a very large, sharp-crested tapering longitudinal dune. 6.3.
Radiolaria. 2.1.2.2.; 9.6.4. Seiemogram : 12.4.
Recrystallization : the formation, essentially in the solid state, of Sequence : 5.
new crystalline mineral grains in a rock. 7.1.5.; 7.3.2.2. Shale : a fine-grained detrital sedimentary rock, formed by the
Recumbent fold : an overturn fold. 14.2.4.6. consolidation of clay, silt, or mud. It is characterized by finely laminated
Redoxomorphism : a diagenetic phenomenum characterized by structure, and by an appreciable content of clay minerals and detrital
mineral changes primarily due to oxidation and reduction. It is typical quartz. 9.10.3.1.
of unlithified sediments. Shear modulus : 11.3.3.
a R e d p m e m n : a convention used in dipmeter interpretation to Shear strength : 11.3.4.
denote decreasing formation dip with decreasing depth with a near Shear stresa : 112.1,
constant azimuth. 4.3.7.; 14.4.1.
Shelf : a stable cratonic area that was periodically flooded by
Reef: a ridgelike or moundlike structure, layered or massive, built shallow marine waters and received a relatively thin, well-winnowed
by sedentary calcareous organisms. 9.6.4. cover of sediment.
Reflectivity log : 12.4. Siderite : carbonate of iron.
Regression : the retreat or contraction of the sea from land areas. Sill : a tabular igneous intrusion that parallels the planar structure
Repeat section : a short section of a log that is recorded in addition of the surrounding rock. 2.1.1.
to the main S U N E ~ section in order to provide an inter-run comparison Silt :
of log similarity, and, therefore, instrument stability and repeatability.
1.1.2.
- a rock fragment or detrital particle having a diameter in the range
of 1/256 to 1/16 rnm. 3.2.
Reservoir rock : a porous and permeable rock. 1.4.; 9.1. - a loose aggregate of unlithified mineral or rock particles of silt
Rhyolite : a group of extrusive igneous rocks. size. 9.6.1.5.
Rhythm : 5.1. Siltstone : an indurated silt.
Rhythmic sedimentation : the consistent repetition of a regular Sinistral : 14.2.5.3.
sequence of two or more rock units organized in a particular order and Skin effect: 10.4.1.1.
indicating a frequent and predictable recurrence or pattern of the same
sequence of conditions. 5.1. Slate : a metamorphic rock 2.11.1.
Rift : a long, narrow continental trough that is bounded by normal Slickenside : 14.2.5.2.
faults. Slip : the relative displacement of formerly adjacent points on
Rigid* : 11.2.2. opposite sides of a fault. 14.2.5.2.
Ripple mark : an undulatory surface consisting of alternating Slump : a landslide characterized by a shearing and rotary move-
subparallel small-scale ridges and hollows formed at the interface ment of a generally independent mass of rock. 4.3.3.7.
between a fluid and incoherent sedimentary material. 4.1.2.; 4.3.3.3. SODA plot : 14.7.6.
Rotation : 14.2.5.2. Solution : a process of chemical weathering by which mineral and
Roundness : the degree of abrasion of a clastic particle as shown rock material passes into solution.
by the sharpness of its edges and corners. 3.2.
Sorting : the spread or range of particle-size distribution. 3.2.
Rudite : a general term used for consolidated sedimentary rocks
composed of rounded and angular fragments coarser than sand. Source rock :
- the parent rock from which other sediments or rocks are derived.
Ruptura point : 11.2.2. - sedimentary rock in which organic material was transformed in
Ruptura strength : the differential stress that a material sustains at hydrocarbons under pressure, heat and time influences.
the instant of rupture.
Sparite : a descriptive term for clean, relatively coarse-grained
calcite accumulated during deposition or introduced later as a cement.
Spherical flow : 10.4.2.1.
S Sphericity : the relation to each other of the various diameters of
a particle. 3.2.
Sabkha : a supratidal environment of sedimentation, formed under Stack : the sum of several seismic traces. 1.15.
arid or semiarid conditions. 6.3.; 6.8. State of stress : 112.1.
Salt : syn. : halite. Stereogram : 14.4.3.
Saltation : a mode of sediment transport in which the particles are Stereographic projection : 14.4.3.1.
moved forward in a series of short intermittent jumps. Stereonet : 14.4.3.
Salt dome : syn. : diapir. Stick plot : 14.4.1.; 14.7.5.
Sand : Stoneley wave : 11.4.9.
- a rock fragment or detrital particle having a diameter in the range
of 1/16 to 2 mm. 3.2. Strain : 11.2.1.; 11.2.7.
- a loose aggregate of unlithified mineral or rock particle of sand Stratification : the formation, accumulation, or deposition of
size. 9.6.1 .l. material in layers. 4.3.3.2.
Sandstone : a lithified. consolidated sand. 9.6.1.1. Stratigraphy : the science of rock strata. It is concerned with all
Sapropel : an unconsolidated, jellylike ooze or sludge composed of characters and attributes of rocks (succession, age, form, distribution,
plant remains, mostly algae, macerating and putrefying in an anaerobic composition, fossil content, geophysical and geochemical properties).
environment on the shallow bottom of lakes and seas. It may be a STRATIM ' : a presentation of the borehole image obtained from
source material for hydrocarbons. the SHDT dipmeter data.
678
Stratum : a tabular or sheetlike body or layer of sedimentary rock.
Strength : 11.2.1.; 11.2.6.
Stress : 11.2.1
Stress components : 11.2.1.
Stress difference : the difference between the greatest and the
least of the three principal stresses. 11.2.1.
Stress ellipsoid : 11.2.1.
Straas field : the state of stress.
Stress-strain diagram : 11.2.2.
Stress-strain ratio : 11.2.2.
Stretch : the measure of the change in length of a line.
Strike : the direction or trend taken by a structural surface (bedding
or fault plane) as it intersects the horizontal. 14.2.5.2.
Strike alip : 14.2.5.2.
Structural geology : 14.2.1.
Structure :
- a megascopic feature of a rock mass or rock unit. 4.
- the general disposition, attitude, arrangement, or relative posi-
tions of the rock masses of a region or area. 14.
Stylolita : a surface or contact marked by an irregular and interloc-
king penetration of the two sides. 7.1.5.; 7.3.2.4.
Subsidence : the sudden sinking or gradual downward settling of
the Earth's surface with little or no horizontal motion.
Subtidal : below low tide level. 6.8.
Supermature : said of a mature clastic sediment whose well-sorted
grains have become subrounded to well-rounded.
Supratidal : above high tide level. 6.8.
Surface force : 11.2.1.
Suapension : a mode of sediment transport in which the upward
currents in eddies of turbulent flow are capable of supporting the
weight of sediment particles and keeping them indefinitely held in the
surrounding fluid.
Swamp : an area intermittently or permanently covered with water,
having shrubs and trees but essentially without the accumulation of
peat.
Sylvite : potassium chloride of the evaporite group. 2.9.; 6.10.
Syncline : a concave upward fold. 14.2.4.4.
Syndiagenesia : 7.1.6.
SYNDIP : 4.4.
Synform : a fold whose limbs close downward. 14.2.4.4.
Syngenetic : 4.1.3.
Synsedimentay : accompagnying sedimentation.
T
Tectonics : a branch of geology dealing with the broad architecture
of the outer part of the Earth. 14.2.1.
Telogenetic : 7.1.6.
Tensil strength : 11.3.4.
Tension :
- [tect.] a state of stress in which tensile stresses predominate.
11.2.5.
- [interfacial] 10.2.3.
Tenigenous : derived from the land or continent. 9.6.1.
Texture : the general physical appearance or character of a rock. 2.
Throw : 14.2.5.2.
T h ~ :dan overriding movement of one crustal unit over another.
14.2.5.3.
Tidal flat : an extensive, nearly horizontal, marshy or barren tract of
land that is alternately covered and uncovered by the tide.
Till : dominantly unsorted and unstratified drift. 6.1.
Toe : the lowest part of a slope.
Toeset : the forward part of a tangential foreset bed.
Topset : one of the nearly horizontal layers of sediments deposited
on the top surface of an advancing delta and continuous with the
landward alluvial plain. 6.6.
Torsion : 11 2.1.
Tortuosity factor : syn. : cementation factor.
Traction :
- the stress vector acting across a particular plane in a body. 112.5.
- a mode of sediment transport in which the particles are swept
along and parallel to a bonom surface by rolling, sliding, dragging,
pushing or saltation.
Transgression : the spread or extension of the sea over land areas.
Tranaportmtion : a phase of sedimentation that includes the
movement by natural agents of sediment, either as solid particles or
in solution, from one place to another.
Trap: any barrier to the upward movement of hydrocarbons
allowing them to accumulate. 14.1.
Trona : a bicarbonate of sodium ourring in saline residues.
Trough : 14.2.4.3.
Trough crosa-bedding : cross-bedding in which the lower boun-
dingsurfaces are curved surfaces of erosion; it results from local scour
and subsequent deposition. 4.3.3.3.
Tuba wave : 11.4.9.
Tuff : a general term for all consolidated pyroclastic rocks. 9.6.2.
Tutbidite : 6.9.
U
Unconformable : said of strata or stratification exhibiting the
relation of unconformity to the older underlying rocks.
Unconform'w : a substantial break or gap in the geologic record.
13.3.2.; 15.
Uniformitarianism : the fundamental principle or doctrine that
geologic processes and natural laws now operating to modify the
Earth's crust have acted in the same regular manner and with essen-
tially the same intensity throughout geologic time, and that past
geologic events can be explained by phenomena and forces observable
today. Introduction.
Unstable : said of a constituent of a sedimentary rock or mineral
that does not resist further mineralogic change under weathering.
Upthrow : 14.2.5.2.
V
Vadose zone : zone of aeration. 7.1.3.
Varve : a glaciolacustrine layer seasonally deposited in a glacial
lake. 6.1.
Vertical resolution : the minimum thickness of formation that can
be distinguished and fully characterized by a tool under operating
conditions.
Viscosity : 11.2.2.
Viscous behaviour : 11.2.2.
VOLAN : a Schlumberger mark for a program of interpretation of
shaly sand. 9.10.3.4.
Volcanic : pertaining to the activities, structures, or rock types of a
volcano. 2.1.1.; 9.6.2.
Vug : a small cavity in a rock.
W
Wecke : a a durty sandstone containing more than 10 % argilla-
ceous matrix.
Weckestone : [Dunham's classification] a term used for a mud-
supported carbonate sedimentary rock containing more than 10 %
grains. 3.3.; 9.6.3.
Wadi : the channel in an arid region that is usually dry except
during the rainy season. 6.3.
Washing : the selective sorting, and removal, of fine-grained
sediments by water currents.
Wavy bedding : bedding characterized by undulatory bounding
surfaces. 4.3.4. ,
Weathering : the destructive processes (physical disintegration and
chemical decomposition) which transform earthy and rock materials on
exposure to atmospheric agents, and prepare sediments for transporta-
tion.
Wettability : the ability of a liquid to form a coherent film on a
surface owing to the dominance of molecular attraction between the
liquid and the surface over the cohesive force of the liquid itself.
Winnowing : the selective sorting, or removal, of fine particles by
wind action, leaving the coarser grains behind.
Wireline: a general term for any flexible steel line or cable
connecting a surface winch to a tool assembly lowered in a well bore.
WuHf net : 14.4.3.2.

Y REFERENCES
Young's modulus : a modulus of elasticity in tension or compres-
sion, involving a change of length. 11.2.2.; 11.3.3.
z
Zenith : the point on the celestial sphere that is directly above the
bbserver and directly opposite to the nadir.
Zeolite : a generic term for a large group of hydrous aluminosilica-
tes.
Zircon : the silicate of zirconium. A common accessory mineral.
Zoning : 5.3.2.1.
679
BATES, R.L., & JACKSON, J.A. (1980). - Glossary of Geology .
Amer. Geol. Inst., Falls Church. Virginia.
SHERIFF, R.E. (1973). - Encyclopedic Dictionary of Exploration Geophy-
sics. Soc. Explor. Geophysicists, Tulsa, Oklahoma, U S A .
Society of Professional Well Log Analysts (1975). - Glossary of terms
and expressions used in well logging.
WHITEN, D.G.A., & BROOKS, J.R.V. (1972). - Dictionary of Geology.
Penguin Books Ltd, Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England.