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Lecture Notes on
Textbook
You will be primarily provided with lecture notes and directed to related papers. A main
reference and basis of this lecture is “Applied Mechanics of Solids,” by A.F. Bower, Taylor and
Francis Press, 2009. Also see http://solidmechanics.org. Please refer to this monograph if you are
unclear with some discussions in this lecture. You can also consult the following books:
Computational Inelasticity, by J.C. Simo and T.J.R. Hughes, Springer, 1997. (This book
focuses on computational mechanics and algorithm development. Our course is more on
practical problems in MSE. This book is on reserve at main library.)
Introduction to Computational Plasticity, by F. Dunne and N. Petrinic, Oxford, 2005.
(Although this book is good for starting students since it discusses ABAQUS UMAT, it
contains a lot of incorrect descriptions on material aspects. Our library does not have it.)
Mechanical Metallurgy, by G.E. Dieter, McGraw-Hill, 1986. (This book is also required
in MSE 512. We will refer to this book for material aspects, particularly on
microstructure, dislocations, creep, etc.)
Evaluation
Homework: A practice of ABAQUS and UMAT (30%)
Course Project – Step 1 (20%):
Identify your own course project and give an in-class presentation on project background
Course Project – Step 2 (50%):
Final project presentation (20%)
Project report (4-page limit, 30%)
Additional Comments:
Don’t be too ambitious on your course project. What I want to see is a well-defined topic
and your effort on it.
Scientists must speak: be sure to present what you clearly know, and be prepared to
answer questions from non-experts.
Scientists must write: a well written project report is highly desirable. Do not just pile up
numerical results without illustration and explanation.
where Aij are components of the tensor, and ei e j are the basis tensors.
a ai ei ,
A Aij ei e j , (1.3)
where summation convention is implied on repeated indices (i.e., Einstein convention). The
repeated indices are also called dummy indices. The index notation will significantly simplify the
representation of vector and tensor operations. But there are some rules to follow:
the same index may not appear more than twice in a product of two (or more) vectors or
tensors, such as Aij a j
free indices on each term of an equation must agree, such as ij n j ti
Addition
c a b , ci ai bi
where the first equation is definition and the second equation can be proved from Eq. (1.6).
A a b , Aij a j bi , A a i Aij a j
a A i a j Aji
A B ij Aik Bkj
inner product A : B Aij Bij
Kronecker delta
1, i j
ei e j ij
0, i j
jm a j am (1.6)
Permutation tensor
ei e j ijk e k
where c a b sin a, b and a, b, c form a right handed triad (or called right-handed screw).
Convention confusion
Unfortunately, not everyone abides with the same conventions. One can usually tell the
difference, but sometimes it’s very confusing. Here lists a common notation difference.
dot product A a Aa
tensor product a b ab
Apparently, one can use the combination of A a and a b , or A a and ab , or Aa and a b .
But never use the combination of Aa and ab .
In this course, we will use a b for tensor product, and so that we do not need to
distinguish A a and Aa , although the latter should be avoided. Thus the basis tensors are
represented by ei e j in Eq. (1.2).
Differential vector
ei
xi
u
u u ei u,i ei
xi
vi
grad(v) v ij
x j
vi
div(v) v
xi
vk
curl(v) v ijk (1.10)
x j
Determinant
A11 A12 A13
det A det A21 A22 A23 ijk A1i A2 j A3k (1.11)
A31 A32 A33
Inverse
A 1 A I , Aik1 Akj ij (1.12)
Trace
tr A Aii A11 A22 A33 (1.13)
where li , mi , ni are direction cosines of the new coordinate basis vectors ei . Consequently, the
index notation gives
a Qa , ai Qij a j
where I is the identity tensor. This is also related to the similarity transformation in linear
algebra. Invariants of a tensor are functions of the tensor components which remain constant
under a coordinate transformation. Eigenvalues and eigenvectors belong to this category.
Clearly, there are an infinite number of invariants.
Kinematics and Strain Measure
dx
u(X+dX)
dX
e3 u(X)
X x
e2 current (deformed)
configuration
reference (original)
e1 configuration
Uniaxial strain
A uniaxial measure of strain should describe the length change, thus giving rise to infinite
number of definitions. Given the stretch ratio, l l0 , we can define
l l l0
nominal strain: e 1 ,
l0 l0
l l0 1
natural strain: 1 ,
l
1 l 2 l02 1 2
Lagrangian strain: E
2 l02
1 ,
2
1 l 2 l02 1 1
Eulerian strain: 1 2 (1.16)
2 l 2
2
All these definitions are the same when e 1 , i.e., infinitesimal deformation.
Deformation gradient
In principle, the strain definition arises from the deformation gradient tensor,
x u
F I ,
X X
xi
Fij ij ui , j , (1.17)
X j
which contains not only the stretch ratio, but also rotation.
One approach to define the strain tensor is by the length change of a differential element.
From Fig. 1.1, we have
dS 2 dX dX ,
ds 2 dx dx F dX F dX dX FT F dX ,
so that
ds 2 dS 2 dX FT F I dX .
Consequently, the Lagrangian strain tensor (or called Green’s strain tensor) is defined as
1 u u j
ε
1
2
u u , or ij i
T
,
2 x j xi
(1.22)
e3
σ23
σ22
e2
σ21
e1
Fig. 1.2: Cauchy stress components in a differential element. Only 2i are shown.
Given a stress state at a point, the force on a surface with normal n is given by the
Cauchy equation:
t n σ , t j ni ij . (1.26)
When do we consider finite deformation and the associated strain, stress, and rate measures?
For typical engineering analyses, we do not need to consider large deformation. The
strain measures such as E , strain rate measures such as D and W , and stress measures such as
S and Σ are only important when we are concerned with materials problems such as texture
evolution, crystal slip, necking, and strain localization.
Principal stresses and stress invariants
The principal stresses (eigenvalues) can be determined from the characteristic equation
det σ I 0 ,
3 I1 2 I 2 I 3 0 , (1.30)
1
For the deviatoric stress, sij ij kk ij , the three invariants are given by
3
1
J1 0 , J 2 sij sij , J 3 det sij . (1.32)
2
Note that I 2 does not degenerate into J 2 . Consequently, if we postulate that the material yield is
reached when some combination of stress components reach a critical value, this combination
must be a function of the invariants; otherwise, a coordinate transformation will change your
yield criterion.
Furthermore, we usually define
1
hydrostatic pressure: p tr σ (1.33)
3
3
von Mises equivalent stress: e s:s (1.34)
2
Force balance and momentum balance
This has been discussed in MSE 512. Given surface tractions ti* and body force bi (force
per unit mass), the force balance in small deformation is
ij ,i b j uj , (1.35)
ui ui* , at u . (1.37)
The angular momentum balance leads to ij ji , so that the Cauchy stress tensor is symmetric.
Constitutive Law
In preceding sections, we have discussed the strain measure and stress measure. The
difference between various materials lies at the relationship between strains (and strain rates) and
stresses (and stress rates), i.e., the constitutive law.
Is the constitutive law really a law? Yes or no. If the constitutive relationship is derived
from rigorous physical basis, it is a law. For example, the Young’s modulus can be calculated
from atomic interactions. Most of the constitutive laws we encounter in MSE, such as Mises
plasticity, have some phenomenological nature and a certain degree of microstructural
connection. Although the constitutive relationship should satisfy the laws of thermodynamics,
usually it involves a lot of assumptions and curve fitting to the experiments. Consequently, you
will see a large number of constitutive relationships, especially for micro-plasticity in which the
material microstructure is the key ingredient.
Elasticity
Elasticity means the full recovery of the shape after unloading. The most common one is
the Hooke’s law (linear elasticity):
ij cijkl kl ,
ij sijkl kl , (1.38)
where cijkl is the stiffness tensor and sijkl is the compliance tensor. For single crystals, the elastic
constants cijkl clearly depend on the crystallographic orientation, so that the elastic behavior is
anisotropic. For polycrystals, if our length scale of interest is much larger than grain size (e.g.,
the elastic constants of a steel truss), the elastic constants actually are derived from
homogenization procedure, which differ from the elastic constants of single crystals. These
macroscopic elastic constants usually lead to isotropic elasticity.
For isotropic elastic material, we get
E
ij ij kk ij ,
1 1 2
1
ij 1 ij kk ij . (1.39)
E
One can take an exercise of finding ij kl from the above Hooke’s law.
In addition to linear elasticity, we may have finite elasticity, meaning the elastic behavior
at finite deformation. Examples include the hyper-elastic behavior of rubber. One example of
rate dependent elasticity is visco-elasticity, such as Kelvin model, Maxwell model, etc.
3 1
1 2 2 3 3 1 Y ,
2 2 2
e sij sij 3 J 2 (1.41)
2 2
or
1
y y z z x 6 xy2 yz2 zx2 Y .
2 2 2
x
2
There are two more physical interpretation of the von Mises criterion. The shear stress on the
octahedral plane is
1
h 1 2 2 2 3 2 3 1 2 ,
3
which is also proportional to the elastic energy of distortion
1 1 2 1 2
1 2 3 1 2 2 3 3 1
2 2 2
w
2 E 3 3
1 2 9 2
h
2K 12
It is very simple. But the problem is that it usually does not work well.
In fact, the fracture of brittle material is based on the fracture mechanics principle, that is,
the stress intensity factor of a potential crack or flaw reaches the critical value. The calculation of
the stress intensity factor requires the full field stress analysis. For the fracture of ductile
material, there are more sophisticated model, such as Gurson model, which describes the history
of void nucleation, growth, and coalescence. The Gurson model only depends on the local stress
history, and can be regarded as a constitutive law.
Formulating a Boundary/Initial Value Problem (BVP/IVP)
To pose a solvable problem in continuum mechanics, we need to have the following three
ingredients, plus the appropriate boundary and initial conditions. The resulting boundary value
problems (BVPs) or initial value problems (IVPs) are standard partial differential equations to
solve. Analytical solutions are typically not possible for plastic solids. Numerical solution using
finite element is thus very critical.
However, if you are asked to predict failure, such as fracture, fatigue, corrosion, creep
fracture, etc. by using finite element simulation, you can ask back this question: what is the
failure model and how can we implement that into the finite element framework? The standard
finite element program only solves the PDEs, which gives nothing about failure.
constitutive kinetics
law
In the past century, a large number of constitutive laws have been developed, which, although
largely phenomenological, give very nice description of commonly used engineering materials.
Most mechanical testing methods can be directly or indirectly used to infer the material
parameters used in these laws. For example, dog-bone bar tests will give yield stress and the
strain hardening exponent. Micro-hardness will give an effective flow stress, which depends on
the indenter geometry. The objective of this chapter is to give an overview of common
phenomenological plasticity laws (for metals and alloys). The connection to the material
microstructure will be superficially discussed here, and details will be given later.
We begin by reviewing the results of a typical tensile test. For an annealed,
polycrystalline metal specimen (e.g. Cu or Al), shown in Fig. 1.4 is the typical ~ curve. (We
assume that the test is conducted at room temperature and at modest strains, <10%, at modest
strain rates, 10-4~10-9 s-1.)
In the beginning, the stress-strain relation is usually linear elastic. The stress is proportional
to the strain, and the slope is the Young’s modulus. Elastic deformation means that the
deformation is fully reversible upon unloading.
If a critical stress is exceeded, the specimen is permanently changed in length on unloading.
If the stress is removed from the specimen during the test, the ~ curve during unloading
has a slope equal to that of the elastic part of the ~ curve. If the specimen is re-loaded, it
will initially follow the same curve, until the stress approaches its maximum value during
prior loading. At this point, the ~ curve once again ceases to be linear, and the specimen
is permanently deformed further.
A pre-strained solid will usually exhibit higher yield stress, thus called strain hardening or
work hardening.
It is often difficult to identify the critical stress accurately, because the ~ curve starts to
curve rather gradually. We often define a 0.2% proof stress as the yield stress. For materials
exhibiting yield point phenomenon, we choose the lower yield point.
Materials that typically behave in a ductile manner generally have their usefulness limited by
yielding, and those that typically behave in a brittle manner are usually limited by fracture.
Holding the specimen at a constant stress or constant strain leads to creep or relaxation,
which is rate-dependent. Such a behavior is very sensitive to material microstructure (grain
size, grain boundary strength etc.), environmental temperature, applied strain rate, etc.
A cycle of loading and unloading gives the cyclic plasticity. It’s still impossible to
quantitatively predict this behavior. But phenomenological theories can be developed to fit
the measurements. Usually, cyclic loading can lead to perpetual increase of plastic strain,
called ratcheting or cyclic creep.
The tensile and compressive yield stresses may not be the same, called Bauschinger effect.
Plastic deformation of nonporous metals is essentially incompressible, i.e., volume
preserving.
…
strain
3
e sij sij 3 J 2 Y , (1.44)
2
which can also be written as
1
y y z z x 6 xy2 yz2 zx2 Y .
2 2 2
x (1.45)
2
The prefactors in the above equations are chosen so that the uniaxial stress state leads to Y .
Y 1
Fig. 1.5: Under plane stress condition, Tresca criterion prescribes a polygon:
1 2
which has the magnitude of t
3
1 22 32 . The projection of t on the octahedral plane
normal is
1
tn n σ n 1 2 3 ,
3
so that the shear component on the octahedral plane is
1 2
1 2 2 3 3 1
2 2 2
tt J2 . (1.46)
9 3
σ3
σ3
elastic
σ2 elastic
yield σ1 σ1 yield σ2
inaccessible inaccessible
Fig. 1.6: Graphic representation of the yield criterion in the principal stress space.
Any arbitrary stress state can be plotted in the so-called “principal stress space”, with the
three principal stresses as axes. Since hydrostatic stress is not involved in Tresca and Mises
where tan is the coefficient of internal friction, called the angle of friction, and c is the
cohesive strength of the material.
In general, we represent the yield function by
f J 2 , J 3 a bI1 ,
2 I 2 Y
2
g J2 f Y2 cosh 1
1 f 0, (1.50)
3 2 Y 3
where f is the porosity (void volume fraction) and Y is the tensile yield stress of the matrix
material. To improve the agreement with experimental data on ductile void growth, Tvergaard
(1982) introduced two additional material parameters q1 and q2 , so that
The above model, also called Gurson-Tvergaard model, is often used in modeling ductile
fracture of metals.
Plastic Flow
The strains can be decomposed into elastic and plastic parts:
ij ije ijp , (1.52)
While purely elastic deformation is a history independent process, in which the current
stain depends only on the current stress, elastic-plastic states of strain depend on the entire
history of loading and deformation. Consequently, the elastic-plastic constitutive equations are
more appropriately expressed in an incremental or rate-type form by relating the rate of
deformation to the rate of stress,
σ : ε ε p , (1.54)
which does not necessarily imply that the material behavior is rate dependent. Rate-dependency
and history-dependency are independent from each other.
What happens after the yield? We need to determine the plastic flow direction, and the
magnitude of the plastic strain. The latter can be described by an effective plastic strain (& its
rate), given by,
2 p p 2
2 2 2
ij ij 1
p
2p p
2 3p 3
p
1p . (1.55)
3 3
The direction of plastic flow is assumed to be determined from a flow potential ,
d ijp d ,
ij
ε p . (1.56)
σ
If f , it is called associated flow. In this case, the plastic strain rates are proportional to the
outward normal to the yield stress in stress space, so that it is also called normality assumption.
If the yield function is given by
3
f sij sij Y ,
2
1 f 3 sij
This can be proved by observing that sij ij kk ij and , so that
3 sij 2 e
2 p p 2 3 sij 3 sij
d ij d ij d d ,
3 3 2 e 2 e
2 p p
d ij d ij .
3
Now let’s examine a hindsight from the above discussion. During plastic loading, the
principal components of the plastic strain rate tensor are parallel to the components of stress
acting on the solid. Suppose you were to take a cylindrical shaft and pull it until it starts to
deform plastically. Then, holding the axial stress fixed, apply a torque to the shaft. You may
predict the occurrence of shear plastic deformation. However, experiments (done by G.I. Taylor
in 1930s) show that the shaft will initially stretch, rather than rotate. This suggests that the plastic
strain increment is proportional to the stress acting on the shaft, not the stress increment.
Hardening Behavior
Since gives the effective plastic strain, we can postulate that the yield function is a
function of ,
f ij , Y , ,... 0 .
3
f sij sij Y . (1.60)
2
Physically, it means that accumulation of irreversible deformation (note that 0 ) will increase
dislocation density, thus making dislocations less mobile. Some typical examples include:
perfectly plastic solid: Y const.
power-law hardening: Y Y0 h 1 m
An isotropic hardening law is generally not useful in situations where components are
subjected to cyclic loading. It does not account for the Bauschinger effect, and so predicts that
after a few cycles the solid will just harden up until it responds elastically. To fix this, an
alternative hardening law allows the yield surface to translate, without changing its shape. The
idea is illustrated graphically in Fig. 1.7(c). As you deform the material in tension, you drag the
yield surface in the direction of increasing stress, thus modeling strain hardening. This softens
the material in compression, so that this constitutive law can model cyclic plastic deformation.
For kinematic hardening, the yield surface is given by
3
f
2
sij ij sij ij Y 0 , (1.61)
where the evolution of the back stress ij relates to the plastic strain history. Some examples
include:
3
linear kinematic hardening: d ij cd ijp ,
2
3
cyclic creep: d ij cd ijp ij d
2
Consistency
Any plastic deformation beyond the yield point should satisfy f 0 . Suppose that
, satisfies the yield condition, and the increment is given by
ij
f f
f ij d ij , d f ij , d ij d 0 ,
ij
so that
f f
d ij d 0 . (1.62)
ij
1 2
2 2
1 2
2 2
1 2
Fig. 1.7: Illustration of various hardening behavior in the plane stress space.
Tangent Modulus
Using elastic constitutive law in Eq. (1.54) and flow rule in Eq. (1.56) give
f
d ij Cijkl d kl d . (1.63)
kl
f f f
cijkl d kl d d 0 ,
ij kl
so that
f
cijkl d kl
ij
d . (1.64)
f f f
cijkl
ij kl
Consequently, the stress increments are
f fσ : : dε
d ij Cijkl d kl Cijkl ,
kl f σ : : f σ f
: fσ fσ : ,
dσ ep : dε : dε (1.65)
fσ : : fσ f
f f
Cijqr Cstkl
ij qr st
ep
Cijkl Cijkl (1.66)
kl f f f
Cmnop
mn op
Let’s rewrite the above equations in a form that can be directly used in computer
programming. Define a hardening modulus h Y . The stress increments are given by
E 3
d ij d kk ij , sij sij Y 0
1 1 2 2
d ij
E 3E 3 skl d kl 3 sij 3
d ij d kk ij , sij sij Y 0
3E 2 1 h 2 Y 2 Y
1 1 2 2
x, x 0
where x
0, x 0
Viscoplasticity and Creep
Consequently, we get
ij Cijkl kl klp Cijkl kl g e ,.. skl . (1.69)
ij
ij* d ijp 0 , (1.70)
which can be shown graphically in Fig. 1.8. It is a consequence of convex yield surface and
normality assumption.
33 33
ij* ij* inaccessible
ij elastic
ij
22 ij 22
11 11 yield
ij
g
where fi can be called the generalized force, or configurational force, or thermodynamic
i
driving force. The evolution equations of the stable variables are
i function ij , T , j . (1.72)
At constant stress and temperature, the direction of a spontaneous change of the thermodynamic
state is in the direction of decreasing Gibbs energy,
g f j j 0 , (1.73)
Elasticity
For infinitesimal deformation, we write ij Cijkl kle . For finite deformation, we write
ij Cijkl
e
Dkle , (1.77)
3
where τ τ tr τ 3 and e τ : τ .
2
Now the question is what about W p . For materials that do not develop a noticeable
texture, we can simply set W p 0 . The macroscopic stress-strain behavior is not very sensitive
to the choice of W p , but any attempt to capture evolution of plastic anisotropy needs to specify
this carefully.
This uncertainty can be completely avoided by using single crystal plasticity and
simulating aggregates of grains, because crystal plasticity has an unambiguous definition of the
plastic spin. However, the simulation cost can be astronomically high.
(12.7,13.97)
(19.05,13.97)
(6.35,13.97)
(0,1.3361) (21.3341,1.3361)
(22.86,0) (63.5,0) mm
Fig. 2.1: A representative example of boundary value problem – compact tension test.
Part (geometric information)
A CAE module is used to sketch the geometry.
Visualization (post-processing)
where K E * 0.058 mm in this case (which is proportional to the magnitude of applied load).
20000
FEA results
kE*/(2x)+0 22
k=0.058
15000
10000
22
5000
-5000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
x
0.5
FEM results
0.45 theoretical
0.4
0.35
0.3
22
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0 -1 0 1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10 10 10
r
u 0 at u . (2.2)
ij ij dV bi ui dV ti* ui dA 0 ,
A
(2.3)
for all virtual displacement fields, then the stress field must satisfy
ji , j bi 0 , ni ij t *j on s .
And vice versa. This principle can be proved by the Gauss divergence theorem, namely,
ij ij dV bi ui dV ti* ui dA
A
ij n j ui dA ij , j ui dV bi ui dV ti* ui dA
A A
Physically, it means that the internal work and external work done by the equilibrium stress/force
fields on the equilibrium strain/displacement fields must balance.
Principle of Minimum Potential Energy
For elastic solids, the principle of virtual work can be rewritten as the principle of
minimum potential energy. That is, for arbitrary kinematically admissible displacement field, the
equilibrium solution corresponds to the minimum of the potential energy:
1
Cijkl ui , j uk ,l dV bi ui dV ti*ui dA . (2.4)
2 A
x h
y
L
Fig. 2.4: A cantilever bending problem with unit width (in z direction).
Application of Principle of Minimum Potential Energy: Beam Bending
In Mechanics of Materials course, you may have learned the beam bending problem.
Let’s revisit it from the standpoint of the principle of minimum potential energy. Assume the
Kirchhoff condition, that is,
xx y , (2.5)
where w and w is the deflection (i.e., u y ). The strain energy density is therefore
1 1
xx xx Ey 2 w2 ,
2 2
and the total potential energy of the system is
L h2 L
1 2 2 1
Ey w dydx Pw L EIw2 dx Pw L ,
0 h 2
2 0
2
h2
where I
h 2
y 2 dy is the moment of inertia.
0
L
EIw w 0 EIw w 0 EIw wdx P w L
L L
where integration by parts (i.e., Gauss divergence theorem in 1D) has been applied. Using the
principle of minimum potential energy, 0 for kinematically admissible deflection variation
(note w 0 0 and w 0 0 ), gives the differential equations:
EIw 0 ,
w L 0 , EIw L P 0 . (2.6)
Px 2
The analytical solution is given by w 3L x .
6 EI
A general numerical procedure can be derived as follows. We can assume a certain form
of deflection field, which is kinematically admissible. The unknown prefactors can be
determined by using the minimum condition. For example, assuming w x cx 2 , so that
2c 2 EIL PcL2 .
PL
Minimizing c gives c . Apparently, the accuracy of the solution depends on the initial
4 EI
guess. Such a procedure is called Castigliano method or Ritz-Galerkin method.
Motivated by the above discussion, we can represent the entire displacement field by
some sort of combination of w x a at discrete points x a , and then the potential energy
functional becomes a function of x . The so-called finite element method prescribes an
a
t u dA b u dV
*
(b) Rate of work done by the applied force: i i i i (2.8)
A
Introduce a small increment of the velocity field, v x , which is continuous and twice-
differentiable, and satisfies
v 0 at u . (2.9)
dV b v dV t v dA 0 ,
*
ij ij i i i i (2.10)
A
for all virtual velocity fields, then the stress field must satisfy
ji , j bi 0 ,
ni ij t *j on s .
And vice versa. This principle can be proved by the Gauss divergence theorem, namely,
dV b v dV t v dA
*
ij ij i i i i
A
ij n j vi dA ij , j vi dA bi vi dV ti* vi dA
A A A
ij ,i b j 0 ,
ui ui* on u ,
ij ni t *j on s . (2.11)
The key of finite element method is to use a set of nodal values to represent the continuous
displacement field. That is, the solid is discretized into a set of nodes, which are connected
through elements, as shown in Fig. 2.5. The relationship between element number and the
associated nodes is called connectivity relation.
The nodal values are denoted as
uia at xia , where a =1:n.
This is a rather tedious procedure, since we don’t want to determine ui x from all the nodal
values. If the interpolation is conducted in each element, we get
ne
ui x N a x uia , (2.12)
a 1
u2c
7
u1c
x ,x
c
1
c
2
u2b
1
#1 #17 u2a u1b
23
#11 3
#5
u a x , x
b
1
b
2
#8 2 x , x
a
1
a
2
1
10
where
N a
x , x
x 2 x2b x
c
1
x1b x1 x1b x x .
c
2
b
2
(2.14)
1 2
x a
2 x2b x
c
1 x1b x a
1 x x x
b
1
c
2
b
2
N a xb ab .
Since the solid has been discretized, these integrals are evaluated in each element, given by,
N a x a N b x b
Cijkl a x j ui b xl uk dV
e
bi N a x uia dV ti* N a x uia dA
e a se a
Therefore, the element potential energy is written as
1
e
2 a b
kaibk ukbuia fi a uia ,
a
(2.16)
where kaibk and fia are called element stiffness matrix and element force matrix, given by
N a x N b x
kaibk Cijkl
e
x j xl
dV , (2.17)
fi a b N x dV t N x dA .
a * a
i i (2.18)
e se
In terms of matrix representation, for the element #17, we can rewrite Eq. (2.16) as
where K and F are assembled from element stiffness and force matrices, respectively. This
procedure is further illustrated in the next subsection.
Finally, the principle of minimum potential energy gives rise to a set of linear algebraic
equations:
Kuˆ F . (2.21)
Finite Element Formulation from Principle of Virtual Work
Using the principle of virtual work gives
C
u ui , j dV bi ui dV ti* ui dA 0 ,
ijkl k ,l
s
(2.22)
for all virtual displacement fields ui that satisfies ui 0 on u . If ui is the exact solution of
the governing boundary/initial value problem, then the above equation should be true for all
kinematically admissible virtual displacement fields.
The principle of virtual work can be written as
.. 0 ,
element
where
kaibk ukb fia uia
a b
and kaibk and fia are given in Eq. (2.17) and (2.18), respectively.
Since this is true for any virtual displacement field, we recover Eq. (2.21).
Plate-Hole Problem
In this section, we will go through a simple matlab code that implements the finite
element procedure solving a plate-hole problem (Fig. 2.6). Codes can be downloaded from:
http://web.utk.edu/~ygao7/teaching/plate_hole_FEA.m
http://web.utk.edu/~ygao7/teaching/plate_hole_FEA_localK.m
2.5
2 15 14 13
#16 #14
#15 #13
1.5 10 9 #12
#8 8
#6
#7
1 5 4 # 5 # 4 #11 12
3 7
#3 #10
0.5
2 #2
#9
#1
0 1 6 11
-0.5
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
N a N b N c ua
0 0 0 1a
x1 x1 x1 u2
11 c b
N a N b N u
ε 22 0 0 0 1b Buˆ e , (2.25)
2 x2 x2 x2 u2
12 a
N c u1
c
N N a N b N b N c
x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 u2c
where Ae is the element area. When deriving Eq. (2.27), we note that B is a constant matrix in
the linear triangular element.
K_local (for element # 1)=
1.0000 2.0000 0
6.0000 2.0000 0
11.0000 2.0000 0
5.0000 1.0000 0
10.0000 1.0000 0
15.0000 1.0000 0
13.0000 2.0000 0.1000
14.0000 2.0000 0.1000
15.0000 2.0000 0.1000
One might wonder that, since F 0 , the solution of Kuˆ F should only give trivial
solution. Well, if we do not prescribe appropriate boundary conditions, the linear algebraic
equations actually have many solutions, since det K 0 . If we apply a displacement boundary
condition on the i -th coordinate of node a, then we need to adjust the index m 2 a 1 i in
the global stiffness matrix. That is,
k11 k12 .. k1m .. k1M u11 0
k
21 k22 .. k2 m .. k2 M u12 0
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
km1 km 2 .. kmm .. kmM uia 0
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
kM 1 kM 2 .. k Mm .. .. u2n 0
is modified as
k11 k12 .. 0 .. k1M u11 k1m
k
21 k22 .. 0 .. k2 M u12 k2 m
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
0 0 .. 1 .. 0 uia
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
k M 1 kM 2 .. 0 .. .. u2n k Mm
where M 2n .
For our problem, the original force vector is zero, and we prescribe a displacment 0.1 on
the top surface. After the modification, we get
force_global_modified =
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
original mesh
deformed mesh
2.5
1.5
0.5
-0.5
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
where j are called local coordinates. The displacement fields are then represented by
Ne
ui N a j uia , (2.30)
a 1
which can also be regarded as a kind of mapping. To this end, we can use the same interpolation
functions in Eqs. (2.29) and (2.30), which is thus called isoparametric mapping.
2 2
5 4
1 6 1
3 1 3 1
2 2
2
3
4
1 4 1
1
3
1 2 3
N a N a i
, (2.31)
x j i x j
where
N a a
1
ξ x xi Ne a a
Ne
, N xi xi ,
x ij ξ ij j j a 1 a 1 j
x
and J det i .
j
Properties of the stiffness matrix
The stiffness matrix (either element or global ones) is symmetric and singular. The
modified global stiffness matrix is nonsingular. Since the components of stiffness matrix is given
by kaibk , so that if two nodes are not connected by any element, then the corresponding
component in the stiffness matrix is zero. Apparently, nodes are connected only through their
surrounding elements, so that the stiffness matrix is sparse and banded.
Solving a set of linear algebraic equations with a gargantuan sparse, banded, and almost
singular coefficient matrix is not as simple as it appears. You can refer to any textbook on
numerical algebra for details on this issue. This also implies that the FEA code you wrote is
usually much less robust than the commercial codes.
Gaussian quadrature
The integration in Eq. (2.27) is simple since B and other matrices are constants. In
general, we have to carry out numerical quadrature. This is a rather tedious procedure, if we use
too many points.
A very efficient numerical scheme for polynomials is the Gaussian quadrature, giving
1
M
g d wI g ,
I
1 I 1
f 1 , 2 d1d 2 wI wJ f 1I , 2J ,
1 1 I 1 J 1
where I , I 1..M are the integration points, and wI are the integration weights. They are
tabulated below:
M 1 , 1 0, w1 2 ,
>> syms x
>> F=inline('x.^3-10*x.^2');
>> quad(F,-1,1)
ans =
-6.6667
>> x1=0.5773502691;
>> ((-x1)^3-10*(-x1)^2)*1+(x1^3-10*x1^2)*1
ans =
-6.6667
>> F=inline('x.^4-10*x.^2');
>> quad(F,-1,1)
ans =
-6.2667
>> ((-x1)^4-10*(-x1)^2)*1+(x1^4-10*x1^2)*1
ans =
-6.4444
ui ui* , on u ,
ij ni t *j , on s , (2.32)
1
ije ij kk ij ,
E 1
3 Sij
ijp , (2.33)
2 e
3 2 p p
Sij Sij , and
where Sij ij kk ij 3 , e ij ij . For rate-independent solid, is
2 3
obtained from the consistency condition. For rate-dependent solid, is usually specified as a
function of Mises stress. The constitutive parameters involved in the flow equations will evolve
according to the hardening behavior.
Note that we now have a history dependent problem. We need to specify the time
variation of the applied load and boundary conditions, and our objective is to calculate the
displacements, strains, and stresses as functions of time.
We shall establish the finite element formulation based on the principle of virtual power
(i.e., the rate form of the principle of virtual work). If ij satisfies
t v
ij i, j dV bi t vi dV ti* t vi dA 0 ,
s
(2.34)
for all virtual velocity fields vi (note ij vi , j ijij ), then the stress field must satisfy the
force balance equation and the traction boundary condition.
n
vi x N a x via ,
a 1
1 1 n N a N a
ij ui , j u j ,i ui
a
u aj . (2.35)
2 2 a 1 x j xi
ij t t ij kl uia , t ij t ij kl , t . (2.36)
N a
ij kl um , t dV bi t t N a dV ti* t t N a dA 0 , (2.37)
b
x j s
can be done by the Newton-Raphson method. Start from an initial guess x 0j , and we can iterate
and update the solution x kj at the k -th step to x kj 1 at the k 1 -th step, according to the
following equation:
x1k 1 x1k f1k
k 1 k 1
k
x2 x2 J x j
k
f2 , (2.39)
... ... ...
where
f1 f1
x ...
x2
1
f f 2
J 2 ... f i , j
x x2
1
... ... ...
The above procedure is derived from the Taylor expansion,
f x k 1 f x k J x k 1 x k 0 .
ij N a
ij
t
ij wb
m
kl
d kl dV bi N a dV ti* N a dA 0 ,
x j s
which, together with Eq. (2.35) (i.e., relating d kl and dwkb by N b xl ), gives
with
N a N b
K aibk C ep
ijkl dV ,
x j xl
R
i
a
ij t ij kl wm
b
N a
x j
dV ,
Fi a bi N a dV ti* N a dA ,
s
ij
ep
where Cijkl is the material tangent (or material stiffness, or material Jacobian, or
kl
algorithm stiffness), K aibk is the stiffness matrix, Ria is the residual vector, and Fi a is the force
vector.
k
σ u a , t , ep
σ
ε k , t
, (2.42)
at each Gaussian integration point of each element. These updates will then be passed to the
routines that calculate element residual and element stiffness information. Using the global
Newton-Raphson iteration, once a convergent solution has been found, the stress and all state
variables at the element integration points must be updated, before starting the next load step.
The Step (b) is called stress/constitutive update subroutine or material integration
subroutine. This step is independent of element information, global solution method, and
boundary conditions. What is required is the initial condition at tn and the loading parameter ε ,
and our task is to update the stress and to calculate the material Jacobian.
In ABAQUS, the Step (b) is done by a User defined MATerial (UMAT) subroutine.
Many other FEA packages provide similar user interfaces. There’s a lot more bookkeeping to do
to keep track of the history dependence of the material. Specifically, it is necessary to store, and
to update, the stress, accumulated plastic strain, constitutive parameters, and internal state
variables.
integration algorithm
ABAQUS
UMAT No
N-R converge?
Specify Δtnew
Yes in UMAT
No
N-R converge?
Specify Δtnew by
Yes Abaqus automatic
p incrementation
Update σ, ε, ε , q at time tn+1=tn+Δt
Fig. 2.9: The flow chart for the finite element implementation. The dashed box specifies the
procedure for the ABAQUS UMAT subroutine.
Integration Scheme and Consistent Material Tangent
As discussed in Chapter 1, the constitutive law is specified in a set of partial differential
equations. With a given time step t and strain increment ε , the procedure to obtain the stress
increment is called integration scheme, since we need to integrate the constitutive differential
equations.
ep
The tangent modulus Cijkl ij kl
They are the same since ij t and ij t are known conditions. To this end, we do not need to
differentiate various names such as material tangent, material stiffness, Jacobian, and tangent
modulus.
If we directly take the derivatives based on this equation, the resulting material tangent is called
consistent material tangent.
The biggest advantage of using consistent material tangent is the considerable
enhancement of numerical stability and accuracy. However, the computational cost and
ep
implementation difficulty increase. It should also be noted that if a wrong Cijkl is implemented in
UMAT, the convergence rate will slow down, but the results (if obtained) are unaffected.
Compute ε n 1 , ε np1 , q n 1
The constitutive law is specified as follows:
σ C : ε ε p ,
f σ, q 0 ,
ε p r σ, q ,
q h ,
Kuhn-Tucker condition,
so that
f σ : C : ε
,
fq h fσ : C : r
σ ep : ε ,
ep
: r fσ : . (2.44)
fq h fσ : : r
The simplest method for the stress update is the forward (explicit) Euler integration
scheme, given by
ε n 1 ε n ε ,
ε np1 ε np nrn ,
q n 1 q n nh n ,
σ n 1 σ n ep : ε . (2.45)
This is very simple to implement, but it is conditionally stable. We will discuss (1) why we need
the stress update algorithm in FEA, and (2) how to derive stable and efficient methods to do so.
Results with two different strain steps are shown below, giving that very fine step is needed for
convergence.
1.5
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
=10-4
=10-3
-1.5
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16
Fig. 2.10: Example results of an explicit integration scheme, showing dependence on step size.
2.6.2 Explicit (one-step) Return Mapping Algorithm (rate-independent solids)
(i) We define an elastic trial stress,
σ trial
n 1 : ε n 1 ε n .
p
(2.46)
n 1 , q n 0 ,
f σ trial (2.47)
then the trial stress is the new stress, and the Jacobian is the elastic stiffness matrix.
(iii) If the yield condition is satisfied, we need to return to the yield surface at σ*n . The
increment of effective plastic strain, , can be determined using the consistency condition:
f f
f σ n 1 , q n 1 f σ*n , q n
σ n
: σ n 1 σ*n
q n
: q n 1 q n 0 , (2.48)
σ trial
n 1
yield surface
σ n 1
*
σ n
f σ n 1 , q n 1 0
σn f σn , qn 0
where 0 , Y0 , 0 , m and n are material constants. Since the plastic strain rate is proportional to
the deviatoric stress, we get ijp eijp , where eij is the deviatoric (shear) components of ij .
E 3 *
S*n 1 S n e , e*, n 1 S n 1 : S*n 1 , (2.55)
1 2
which can also be thought of as an elastic predictor for the deviatoric stress.
Step (ii): Integration
To calculate the plastic strain increment, we need to integrate the expression for plastic
strain rate with respect to time over the interval t . Since the material is rate-dependent, the
yield surface is not included. Let us use an implicit (i.e., backward Euler) method to integrate
Eqs. (2.50), (2.51), and (2.52), giving
3 S n 1
e p eff , (2.56)
2 e n 1
m
e , n 1
eff t0
Y , n 1
, (2.57)
1n
eff
Y , n 1 1 eff , n
0
. (2.58)
Y
0
This is an implicit scheme, because the strain rate is computed based on values of stress and state
variables at the end of the time interval. The implicit scheme can be shown to be unconditionally
stable (you can take large time steps without encountering numerical instabilities) and also leads
to symmetric material tangents, as we will see shortly.
Substitute Eq. (2.55) and Eq. (2.56) into Eq. (2.54), we get
E 3E S n 1
S n 1 S*n 1 e p S*n 1 eff , (2.59)
1 2 1 e ,n 1
which shows that S n 1 and S*n 1 are proportional to each other. Therefore, we assume
S n 1 S*n 1 , where the numerical factor can be determined as follows. Re-arranging Eq.
(2.59) gives
3E S n 1
S n 1 eff S*n 1 ,
2 1 e ,n 1
3E S*n 1
S *
S *
eff (2.60)
2 1 e*n 1
n 1 n 1
3E
1 eff . (2.61)
2 1 e*,n 1
Consequently, the elasticity constitutive law and the flow rule give
3E
E
S n 1 S*n 1 1 eff S n e , (2.62)
2 1 e ,n 1 1
*
3E
e,n 1 e*,n 1 1 eff e*,n 1 . (2.63)
2 1 *
e , n 1
So far, we have not utilized the creeping law and the hardening behavior. Combining
Eqs. (2.57) and (2.58) give
1m
eff e,n 1 e,n 1
. (2.64)
t0 Y ,n 1 1n
eff
Y0 1 eff ,n
0
Combining Eqs. (2.63) and (2.64) lead to
1n 1m
e*,n 1 3E eff eff
0
1 eff 1 eff ,n 0 (2.65)
Y 2 1 e ,n 1
*
0 t0
d ij dSij 1 dp
ij (2.66)
d kl d kl 3 d kl
where
dp E
kl (2.67)
d kl 1 2
The deviatoric term follows by differentiating the expression in Eq. (2.62), given by
3E S*n 1 : d ε 3E S n 1 : d ε
d e*,n 1 , (2.69)
2 1 e ,n 1
*
2 1 e ,n 1
d e*,n 1 3E
d eff
0
Y 2 1 Y0
. (2.70)
eff eff eff
1n 1m
1 1
1 d eff 0
0 t0 n 0 eff eff m eff
Finally noting that
d eij 1
ik jl ij kl (2.71)
d kl 3
we can collect together all the relevant terms to show that
3 3E eff 1 Sij
n 1 n 1
E 1 S kl E
ik jl ij kl , (2.72)
ep
C
1 2 2 1 e ,n 1 e ,n 1 e, n 1 3 1 2 ij kl
ijkl
3
where is given in Eq. (2.61) and
3E 1 1
. (2.73)
2 1 e ,n 1 n 0 eff eff m eff
200
150
(MPa)
100
50
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
x 10
-3
Fig. 2.12: The uniaxial tension test and the resulting stress-strain behavior ( 33 and 33 ).
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Given:
a boundary value problem (uniaxial tension, if you like)
User defined MATerial (UMAT) Subroutine on Mises plasticity (the one I gave you here)
Perform:
understand the format and usage of UMAT
compare results using ABAQUS alone and using ABAQUS UMAT
Hand in 1-page writing:
briefly explaining Mises plasticity and UMAT
showing one plot of comparison
**-----------------------------------------
*USER MATERIAL,CONSTANTS=8
200.E3,.3,200.,0.,220.,.0009,220.,.0029
*DEPVAR
13,
(see http://web.utk.edu/~ygao7/teaching/uniaxial_tension.inp)
** alternatively replace the above lines by the following
*Elastic
200.E3, 0.3
*Plastic
200., 0.
220., 0.0009,
220., 0.0029
(see http://web.utk.edu/~ygao7/teaching/uniaxial_tension_aba.inp)
Cup-and-cone fracture in Al
Transgranular
fracture
Fig. 3.1: Ductile versus brittle fracture of metallic materials (W.D. Callister, Materials Science
and Engineering: An Introduction, 7th edition, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2007).
The low strength of engineering materials can be interpreted by the existence of defects.
Small voids, cracks, or defects inside the solid are locations with a large stress concentration,
which facilitates material failure. This was observed by da Vinci (1500s) from his tensile tests on
Fig. 3.2: Static fatigue crack observed in the interface of organosilicate glass and SiO2 (Tsui and
Vlassak, J. Mech. Phys. Solids 2006).
Usually, the relationship between da dt versus K or G exhibits:
a threshold load,
crack growth regime (sensitive to temperature and chemical concentration),
rapid crack growth.
Fatigue
Mechanical engineers generally have to design components to withstand cyclic as
opposed to static loading. Fatigue failure is a familiar phenomenon, but a detailed understanding
of the mechanisms involved and the ability to model them quantitatively have only emerged in
1E-9
1E-10
1E-11
0.5 1 10 20
1/2
K (MPam )
Fig. 3.3: A typical plot of crack growth rate versus the range of applied stress intensity factor
(courtesy of Dr. Gongyao Wang at UT).
Besides the S-N curve, the fatigue behavior is often described by the Paris plot, i.e.,
da dN versus K . We should discriminate this from the static fatigue problem.
Fig.3.4: A multiscale point of view at the crack tip (van der Giessen and Needleman, Interface
Science, 2000).
Crack Tip Elasticity
You may have learned that the crack tip elastic field can be described by the stress
intensity factor. The following gives a mechanistic way of deriving this.
We assume: (1) plane strain condition, (2) a slit-like crack, (3) the crack tip is a point, and
(4) the linear elasticity works all the way to the crack tip. From the strain-displacement
relationship, we obtain
2 xx yy 2 xy
2
2 , (3.1)
y 2 x 2 xy
which is known as the compatibility equation. From the stress balance equation, we have
xx yx 1
0 xx , yx 1 ,
x y y x
One form of Airy’s stress function that satisfies Eq. (3.5) is given by
r , r 1 A cos 1 B cos 1 , (3.6)
where , A and B are constants to be determined by using traction boundary conditions. The
stress components are
2
1 r 1 A cos 1 B cos 1 ,
r 2
1
r A 1 sin 1 B 1 sin 1 .
1
r
r r
Using the traction boundary conditions, i.e., r 0 at , we get
1 A cos 1 B cos 1 0
A 1 sin 1 B 1 sin 1 0
k
and the solutions are , k=0,1,2… Taking the lowest order (i.e., 1 2 ) gives
2
~ r 1 r 3 2 , ~ r 1 r 1 2 , u ~ r r1 2 . (3.8)
The above analysis shows that the elastic stress fields near a crack tip must have the
following asymptotic structure:
KI
ij r , f ij , (3.9)
2 r
where K I is a scaling parameter, called stress intensity factor (SIF). We can also derive similar
representations for Mode II and Mode III. Also note that a constant transverse stress (called T-
stress) can also appear in Eq. (3.9). The SIF depends on the applied load, contact, and geometric
shape. The crack tip process zone depends on K and material properties, but not on far fields.
geometric
K-annulus boundary
crack tip
process
zone
where Y is the material yield stress. For another example, during brittle fracture (cleavage, or
negligible plastic deformation), the crack process zone is given by
2
1 K appl
rcz , (3.11)
2 0
where 0 is the cohesion strength of the solid.
The observation of the K-annulus allows us to pose a fracture criterion: if the applied
stress intensity factor is less than a critical value, the crack will not propagate, i.e.,
K appl K C , (3.12)
where this critical value K C is called toughness. Equivalently, we can state that if the energy
release rate G is less than the fracture energy , the crack will not propagate, i.e.,
G, (3.13)
where the Irwin’s relationship gives
1 2 K2
G
E
K I2 K II2 III .
2
(3.14)
The validity of the above Griffith-Irwin fracture criterion depends on the validity of the K-
annulus. With a valid K-annulus, the crack-tip process zone is solely governed by K appl , and is
independent of geometric boundary conditions at far away.
For brittle solids such as glasses and ceramics, taking cohesion strength 0 10GPa and
K C 1MPa m , Eq. (3.11) gives the size of the crack tip process zone:
2
1 KC 9
rcz ~ 10 m .
2
0
which is in nanometer regime. Consequently, the fraction-mechanics-based failure analysis can
be applied to brittle solids. This is the Griffith fracture mechanics when rcz a, d . Thus the
design rule should focus on determining K (or G ). This is rather a routine chore. From
dimensional analysis, it must be K a , where is a geometric parameter. You can
either refer to Tada’s handbook of stress analysis or use finite element to determine this.
However, when sizes of materials flaws are sub-micrometer, the analysis should rely on
1 KC
rp ~ 4cm .
2 Y
For typical crack sizes, the Griffith-Irwin criterion is invalid because these materials have
very large plastic zone size, i.e., large scale yielding. To test the toughness, the standards of
the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) requires a crack length larger than
25rp , which can lead to large specimens.
To this end, nonlinear fracture mechanics is developed. The crack-tip plastic zone again has
certain asymptotic properties with a given constitutive law. For instance, with a power-law
hardening solid, the plastic field near the crack tip is called Hutchinson-Rice-Rosengren
(HRR) field. Such analyses avoid the use of large specimens in experiments.
For short cracks (>mm), the crack process zone usually does not involve microstructures.
Summary of Failure Analysis Methods
Depending on (1) the validity of the K-annulus and (2) the microstructural length scales
involved in the problem, the failure analysis can be categorized as follows:
a valid K-annulus (e.g., crack-tip process zone size is very small)
o linear elastic fracture mechanics (i.e., Griffith-Irwin criterion, where the stress
intensity factor is calculated from the known geometry of the crack and applied load)
o toughness is measured experimentally (ASTM standards)
0 1.8
1.6
1.4
SSB
0
1.2
max/0
0.8
LSB
0.6
0.4
2c 0.2
0 -1
2a
0 1
a0/E*0
10 10 10
Fig. 3.6: (a) Barrenblat-Dugdale model of cohesive interface. (b) A bridged central crack
subjected to remote traction. (c) The strength max 0 as a function of a 0 E * 0 shows two
types of bridging features: small scale bridging (SSB) and large scale bridging (LSB).
The exact shape of the cohesive interface model is usually of secondary importance, and
therefore the cohesive law can be represented by the Barrenblat-Dugdale model, as shown Fig.
Since the cohesive interface model defines the relation between stress and separation, a
length scale arises, namely, E 0 0 , (or E * 0 0 with E * E 1 2 ). The consequence of
this length scale is illustrated by the boundary value problem shown in Figure 3.6(b). Consider a
central crack with total length 2c and un-bridged length 2a . The cohesive zone length 2c a
is determined by solving the elasticity boundary value problem (for instance, see Tada et al.
2000, §30.7). When the cohesive zone length is small ( c a ), the maximum applied stress, max
(i.e., strength), is determined by the Griffith’s criterion, i.e.,
2
K2 max a
G * ,
E E*
max 0 E * 0 0 a . (3.16)
When the cohesive zone length is large ( c a ), Griffith fracture mechanics is not applicable,
and we need to match the crack opening displacement, giving
8 a 0 c 8 a 0 max
ln ln sec 1 . (3.17)
0 E * a 0 E * 2 0
Fig. 3.7: Fiber pull-out versus fiber cross-over (Bao and Suo, Appl. Mech. Rev. 1992).
Finite Element Simulations
The nonlinear finite element procedure, developed in Chapter 2, will be applied here. The
principle of virtual work is given by
V
u
ij i, j dV T dA t u dA ,
int
i i
s
i i (3.18)
where the relationship between traction Ti and separation i is prescribed by the cohesive
interface model.
T
max Tn, Δn
Tt, Δt
GP
n u u n , t u u t , (3.19)
Therefore, in the global Newton-Raphson iteration to solve the field equations, the element
stiffness matrix and element force vector are given by
R* B TdA ,
T
(3.21)
int
T
K* B
T
BdA . (3.22)
int
Δ
Fig. 3.9: Tvergaard-Hutchinson cohesive zone model, and the mesh used in the calculation.
Fig. 3.11: Coating delamination example illustrating the use of cohesive interface model (Xia, et
al., Int. J. Solids Struct. 2007).
Example (2): Delamination of elastic coating
As shown in Fig. 3.11, an elastic coating is subjected to spherical indentation. During
unloading, the coating can delaminate from the elastic-plastic substrate. Here we add cohesive
elements in the coating-substrate interface, using the model in Fig. 3.8(a). You can download the
codes from:
http://web.utk.edu/~ygao7/teaching/delamination_uel.for
http://web.utk.edu/~ygao7/teaching/delamination_fig3iv.inp
http://web.utk.edu/~ygao7/publications/xia_gao_bower_lev_cheng_ijss07.pdf
60
2.5
50
2
n
40
1.5
30
20 1
10 0.5
0 0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
(mm) N (cycle)
n
Fig.3.12: An irreversible, hysteretic cohesive zone model and the resulting crack growth
behavior (the boundary value problem is the compact tension specimen under cyclic loading).
We have applied this model for the compact tension specimen, and calculated the fatigue
crack growth rate. As shown in Fig. 3.12(b), once an overload is applied, the crack growth rate
will be slowed down. It should be noted that such an approach is purely phenomenological. Its
usefulness can be viewed from the crack tip field. What is implicitly modeled is the crack tip
process zone (including any microstructural details of damage initiation and evolution), and what
is explicitly modeled is the surrounding plasticity. When the overload effect is of our interest, we
can trust our numerical simulations. If our interest is on the exponent involved in Paris law,
da dN AK m , great care is needed to differentiate the roles played by the crack tip process
zone and the surrounding plastic zone.
with specimen volume V0 and material constants 0 and m . The survival probability Ps for a
V m
specimen volume V is given by Ps V exp .
V0 0
0.9 m=10
0.8
m=100
0.7 m=5
0.6
0.5
P
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.5 1 1.5
/
0
3
f ij sij sij c kk 1 c Y eff 0 , (3.28)
2
where c is a material constant controlling the variation of strength with respect to the hydrostatic
pressure. The plastic flow can take the associated assumption. In more complicated theories, the
plastic strain rate is taken as a weighted summation of statistical distribution of micro-cracks.
It should be noted that, since compressive response of brittle solids is similar to metal
plasticity, some works blindly use Mises plasticity or other theories to model experimental works
such as indentation on polycrystalline ceramics. Although the observed deformation behavior
appears similar, the fundamental deformation mechanisms are quite different.
Fig. 3.14: Top view and side view of indentation in heterogeneous silicon nitride with tungsten
carbide sphere (radius=1.98mm, load=3000N). The indentation hardness versus the effective
indentation strain can be fitted to FEM simulations using a linear strain-hardening model.
(Frischer-Cripps and Lawn, J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 1996)
Ductile fracture
Ductile fracture in tension occurs by the nucleation, growth and coalescence of voids in
the material. A crude criterion is based on the accumulated plastic strain, e.g.,
In more complicated theories, the processes that control void nucleation, growth and
coalescence are modeled in a phenomenological way. One classic model is the Gurson-
Tvergaard model, in which the yield surface is given by
2 q I 2
g J2
f Y2 q1 cosh 2 1 1 q12 f 2 Y 0 , (3.30)
3 2 Y 3
where f is the porosity (void volume fraction), Y is the tensile yield stress of the matrix
material, and q1 and q2 are material constants to fit experimental data. Note that the yield
surface is pressure-dependent (decreasing with hydrostatic tension), and the yield stress
decreases as the volume fraction of voids increases, dropping to zero when f 1 .
g
To complete the yield surface, we add associated flow, d ijp , and evolution of the
ij
void volume fraction as a function of strain,
df 1 f d kkp A kk , eff d eff , (3.31)
where the first term accounts for void growth, and the second term accounts for strain controlled
void nucleation. There is no consensus on the choice of A kk , eff , so that most of these
calculations remain qualitative.
Finally we note that the material failure is a broad topic, because there exist a variety of
failure mechanisms.
We usually start from a qualitative mechanism understanding, and translate it into
mathematical models.
Quantitative predictions from most of these deformation and failure theories are oftentimes
not trustworthy. However, we can examine the competition among various mechanisms.
Plastic instability is also a failure mode, but we will discuss this later.
The scope in this section is limited; many interesting topics are not addressed, including
nonlinear fracture mechanics, interface fracture, damage mechanics, etc.
Schmid law
The onset of plasticity occurs when the resolved shear stress RSS of a slip system reaches
a critical value, CRSS . For most single crystals, CRSS is on the order of 1MPa, because it is a
measure of resistance to the dislocation slip.
The calculation of RSS is often explained in the uniaxial tension example. If the angle
between the tensile direction and the slip direction is , and that between the tensile direction
and the normal direction of the slip plane is , then the resolved shear stress is
RSS cos cos , (4.1)
where the unit vector s gives the slip direction, and the unit vector m gives the slip normal.
Strain hardening
Most metals exhibit strain hardening during cold-working. As plastic deformation
continues, the increase of number and density of dislocations, as well as the evolution of
dislocation microstructure, will make dislocation slip more and more difficult to proceed. In
macroscopic tests of typical engineering materials, the stress-strain curves can be described by
kinematic, isotropic, or other hardening laws. Typical stress-strain curves for a single crystal
shows three stages of work hardening: (1) “easy glide” with low hardening rates; (2) high and
constant hardening rate, where the secondary slip systems are activated; and (3) decreasing
hardening rate. The hardening curves depend on the initial crystal orientation, temperature, and
strain rate.
Fig. 4.1: Strain hardening behavior for single crystal copper with various initial orientations.
(Haasen, Physical Metallurgy, Cambridge Press, 1996)
The most important feature of crystal plasticity is latent hardening, which means that the
dislocation slip on one slip system can harden the other slip systems. There are many dislocation-
based mechanisms involved in this behavior. For example, dislocations can cross slip, meaning
that dislocations can move to a different slip plane. For another example, dislocations in different
slip systems can form Lomer-Cottrell junctions/locks, which prevent further dislocation motion.
Latent hardening behavior has been quantified for most metals.
Polycrystals
The deformation in polycrystals is more complicated. Since grains have different
orientations, with the application of a uniaxial tension, the resolved shear stress varies from one
grain to another. Therefore, grains with the largest resolved shear stress will yield first, and the
deformation becomes nonuniform. The neighboring grains have different slip orientations, so
Fig. 4.2: Plastic incompatibility at the grain boundary (Ashby, Phil. Mag. 1970).
If each grain deforms according to their orientations and Schmid factors, without the
surrounding geometric constraints, there will be overlap or void between neighboring grains. We
need to introduce additional plastic deformation to accommodate such an incompatibility. The
resulting additional dislocations are called geometrically necessary dislocations. Clearly, each
grain should be capable of a general plastic shape change, to preserve the continuity. This means
that the strain in each grain must conform to five independent components of the strain tensor
(the 6th is then fixed by the condition that the volume remains constant). This necessitates five
independent slip systems. A slip system is independent if the shape change it produces cannot be
achieved by a combination of other slip systems. At low T, HCP metals slips only on the basal
plane which contains two linearly independent Burgers vectors. These metals thus exhibit very
little plasticity in the polycrystalline state, as opposed to the single crystal state. FCC and BCC
crystals do have five independent slip systems.
Texture and Anisotropy
A textured polycrystalline solid, as characterized by a distribution of grain orientations,
will demonstrate anisotropic deformation behavior. The most famous example along this line is
the “earing” formation in deep-drawn cups. Apparently, this cannot be predicted by Mises
plasticity; the simulation must have a measure of texture in it. It is not our goal here to elaborate
this topic. Interested students can refer to Texture and Anisotropy, Kocks et al., Cambridge
University Press, 1998.
The key of the crystal plasticity is that the plastic deformation rate is a consequence of the
shearing on a set of slip systems, which are characterized by unit vectors parallel to the slip
direction s , and unit vectors normal to the slip plane m . The plastic rate of deformation is
given by
N
F p F p 1 s m , (4.8)
1
or written as
Fikp Fkjp 1 si mj , (4.9)
Elasticity
The Cauchy stress is the force on the unit area in the deformed coordinates. However,
this cannot be directly used in the constitutive law. The 2nd-type Piola-Kirchhoff stress (or called
material stress) is defined as
Tij Fike 1 J kl Flje , (4.10)
where J det F e . The elastic relation is
Flow rule
The shear rate is a function of the resolved shear stress (or called Schmid stress) and
the strength of that slip system flow
. In the Peirce-Asaro-Needleman model, the plastic flow
equation is taken as a power-law form:
Hardening law
The evolution of flow
is given by the hardening law:
flow
h , (4.14)
where h are the slip hardening moduli. There are many kinds of proposed models for h . The
Peirce-Asaro-Needleman (PAN) model gives
h0
h h0 sech 2 , (no sum on ), (4.15)
s 0
t
with dt . The latent hardening moduli are given by
0
h qh , ( ). (4.16)
Another hardening model is proposed by Bassani and Wu (1991), which describes the
three stage hardening of crystalline solids. In this model, we have
G
; 1 f tanh , (4.18)
0
where 0 governs the transition from stage I to state II deformation, and f measures the latent
hardening behavior. To this end, q is taken to be zero because latent hardening is explicitly
accounts in f .
Infinitesimal deformation
Under infinitesimal deformation condition, the multiplicative decomposition in Eq. (4.5)
becomes additive decomposition, ij ije ijp , where the plastic strain rates are given by
ijp
1
2
si mj s j mi , (4.19)
Referring to Fig. 4.3 again, we get the slip direction and the slip normal direction after
the deformation F e ,
s* F*s , s* F *F*1s* , (4.22)
* m* F *F*1 ,
m* m F*1 , m (4.23)
so that
Lp F*F p F p 1F*1 F* s m F*1 s* m* . (4.24)
Substituting the elastic constitutive law, Eq. (4.25), and the hardening law, Eq. (4.28),
into the incremental flow equation, Eq. (4.27), will give us a set of nonlinear equations to
tn t
calculate from the knowledge of information at t and strain increments ε
tn
Ddt .
Fig. 4.4: Representative FEM results for indentation on copper single crystal. Slip strain on
111 0 11 and 1 11 011 respectively. The coordinates are 112 , 111 , are 1 10 . (Gao,
Larson, and Pharr, unpublished results.)
In this example, a single crystal copper (using PAN parameters in Table 1) is indented by
a spherical indenter. Since we can normalize length by the indenter radius and the constitutive
law has no length scale, feel free to interpret the length in Fig. 4.4. As shown by the finite
element results, the slip strain contours on two slip systems are radical different.
crack [101]
Fig. 4.5: Slip strain contours ahead a two-dimensional crack. Analytical solution: Rice, Mech.
Mater. 1984. Finite element results: Cuitino and Ortiz, Modelling Simul. Mater. Sci. Eng. 1992.
This equation prescribes the plastic kinematics. We also need to specify f , such as
1m
f ,
s
Fig. 4.6: Decomposition of the deformation gradient for a material undergoing a stress-assisted
martensitic transformation (Grujicic et al., J. Mater. Sci. 2001).
Fig. 5.1: (left) Engineering stress-strain curve illustrating the uniaxial tensile test (W.D. Callister,
Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction, 7th edition, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2007)
(right) Micro-compression test on an Au-based metallic glass pillar at 10-3s-1 and room temperature:
SEM image of the pillar after deformation (courtesy of Prof. Nieh).
5.1.1 Necking Analysis
If we test a cylindrical specimen of a very ductile material in uniaxial tension, it will
initially deform uniformly. At a critical load the specimen will start to neck, as shown in Fig. 5.1.
It turns out that the point of maximum load coincides with the condition for unstable neck
formation in the bar.
Considère construction
The above analysis can also be represented by the Considère condition. There is actually
no need to assume Eq. (5.1). Define the stretch ratio L L0 , so that the engineering strain is
eng 1 . The true stress is P A . Consequently, 1 eng dA Ad eng 0 , and
dP Ad dA A d d eng , (5.3)
1 eng
so that the necking condition corresponds to
d
. (5.4)
d 1 eng
-1 εeng
Fig. 5.2: Graphic illustration of the Considère construction in true stress versus engineering
strain plot.
A general necking condition
Yet a more general analysis requires the consideration of both strain hardening and strain
rate hardening. The condition for plastic stability is given by (P. Haasen, Physical Metallurgy,
Cambridge University Press, 1997)
A A 0 . (5.5)
The symbol “ ” refers to the variational changes along the length of the specimen. The
condition means that at random localized constrictions ( A 0 ), the rate of necking ( A ) must
be smaller than elsewhere in the specimen ( A 0 ) in order that the deformation at these points
does not proceed in an unstable manner.
A+δA
P
Fig. 5.3: Perturbation of the cross-sectional area in a bar under uniaxial tension.
Using the following equations:
P 0 A A , ,
L A A A A A
, , 2
L A A A A
and defining the work hardening coefficient by
This means that the two points shown in Fig. 5.4 are the two bifurcation points. During plastic
deformation, the strain inside of the shear band jumps from A to B, and that outside of it follows
the elastic unloading path. If the shear band with w is infinitesimally small, the onset of shear
band occurs at the peak stress.
load
A A
w
displacement
Fig. 5.4: Shear band initiation under simple shear. (Left) Dashed lines, having slope of
w w , are tangent to the stress-train curve at the two bifurcation points. (Right) The
macroscopic load-displacement curve exhibit elastic snap-back instability.
Hill (J. Mech. Phys. Solids 1962; and subsequent works by Hutchison and Rice) has
developed the general theory of bifurcation of a homogeneous elastic-plastic flow field into a
band of localization deformation. If the localization occurs in a thin planar band of unit normal
n , the kinematical restriction gives that the velocity gradient field, vi , j , inside the band differs
from that outside, vi0, j , by an expression of the form
vi , j vi0, j gi n j , (5.12)
at incipient localization, where ij is the stress rate within the band and ij0 that outside of it.
The constitutive relation in rate form is given by
ij Cijkl
ep
vk ,l . (5.14)
n C
i
ep
ijkl l
n gk 0 . (5.15)
To attain a nontrivial solution, the determinant of the coefficient matrix must be zero.
In other words, the necessary criterion for the classical discontinuous bifurcation, which
corresponds to the loss of ellipticity, is that the acoustic tensor has a zero eigenvalue. That is, the
2nd order acoustic tensor is singular:
det n ep n 0 . (5.16)
det ep 0 , (5.17)
meaning that at least one eigenvalue of the fourth order tangent modulus is zero.
Further remarks
The above analysis is valid for rate-independent solids.
The condition for Eq. (5.16) to be satisfied is very sensitivity to the constitutive laws
(Rudnicki and Rice, J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 23, 371-394, 1975). The classical elastic-
plastic solid with a smooth yield surface and normality of the plastic flow rule is quite
resistant to localization, but deviations from the classical model can have a strong effect.
For instance, localization can occur in a solid that develops a vertex on the yield surface,
as arises in physical polycrystalline models based on the concept of single crystal slip.
Also dilatational plastic flow and non-normality of the plastic flow rule, as induced by,
for example, the porous ductile material model have a significant destabilizing effect.*
For materials with associated flow rules, the acoustic tensor is symmetric, and the loss of
strong ellipticity (i.e., determinant of the symmetric part of the acoustic tensor is equal to
zero) and classic discontinuous bifurcation criteria (i.e., Eq. (5.16)) identify the same first
discontinuous bifurcation point.† For materials with non-associated flow, the loss of
strong ellipticity criterion will predict that localization may occur prior to the point
identified by the classical discontinuous bifurcation criterion.
*
Thus we note strain localization is neither necessary nor sufficient for strain localization to occur.
†
A Hermitian (or symmetric) matrix is positive definite if and only if all its eigenvalues are positive.
Fig. 5.5: (Left) Typical unstable static response. (Right) Modified Riks algorithm. (Pictures taken
from ABAQUS theory manual.)
The essence of the modified Riks method is that the solution is viewed as the discovery
of a single equilibrium path in a space defined by the nodal variable and the loading parameter.
As shown in Fig. 5.5, starting at A0, we move a given distance (as determined by ABAQUS’s
automatic incrementation algorithm for static cases) along the tangent line to the current solution
point A1, and then searching for equilibrium in the plane that passes through the point thus
obtained and that is orthogonal to the same tangent line. Thus the solution is updated to A2.
Graphically it can be shown that a snap-back instability can be passed over provided an
appropriate choice of AN 1 AN .
E *U
exp 1 , (5.19)
2a max n n
with E * n 2a max . When decreases, i.e., a stiff interface and a compliant elastic spring,
the unstable pathway will show the snap-back instability. The introduction of a fictitious
viscosity term, n , in Eq. (5.18) will give a stable solution, as shown in the right picture (Fig.
5.6). When n is made sufficiently small, a sudden load drop can be shown.
Fig. 5.6: (Left) A simple boundary value problem used to test the influence of viscosity in the
cohesive interface model. (Right) For several values of fictitious viscosity, max as a function
of U n with 1 5 . (Gao and Bower, Modelling Simul. Mater. Sci. Eng. 12, 453-463, 2004).
0.5
/max
-0.5
-1
unstable solution
stable solution
-1.5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
/b
x
(a) (b)
2.5
2.0
3
/ b
1.5
3D
(1)Uact
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
/max
(c) (d)
Fig. 5.8: (a) One d.o.f. model leads to a uniform slip of all the atoms on the slip plane. (b) 3D
model of homogeneous dislocation nucleation under pure shear load. (c) The saddle-point
configuration of dislocation x along the x-direction at y = 0 with max . (d) The activation
energy as a function of applied shear stress.
100 μm
β μ
1 1
yield p
surface
Fig. 5.10: Geometric interpretation of the coefficient of internal friction, μ, and the dilatancy
factor, β (reproduced from Rudnicki and Rice, JMPS 1975). The yield surface is plotted when
the solid is subjected to a hydrostatic stress p (positive in compression) and a pure shear stress τ.
The tangent defines μ, while the plastic flow direction, as indicated by the solid arrow line,
defines β.
Strain localization can be understood as instability in the macroscopic constitutive
description of inelastic deformation of the material, as thoroughly discussed in Section 5.2. A
smoothly varying strain field can evolve into narrow bands inside of which the shear strain field
grows large and outside of which the shear strains are almost negligible. The constitutive model
1
where 1 N 1 , N max I , N II , N min III , mises 3 , and
3
I , II , and III are principal deviatoric stresses.
Fig. 5.11: The direction of the shear band in the principal stress space. The shear-band plane is
parallel to the II direction, and makes an angle of 0 with the I direction in the I ~ III
plane. The three principal stresses are ranked as I II III .
Fig. 6.1: (Left) Schematic diagram of a spherical solid in a liquid. (Right) The rate of phase
transformation is a net result of nucleation rate and growth rate, which exhibit opposite
dependence on the temperature. (W.D. Callister, Materials Science and Engineering: An
Introduction, 7th edition, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2007).
Fig. 6.2: Microstructural development in the Fe-C system: (a) hypoeutectoid, (b) eutectoid, and
(c) hypereutectoid. (W.D. Callister, Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction, 7th
edition, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2007)
As we have learned in high school physics, a point mass moving on a morphological
profile will be at equilibrium state if the potential energy reaches minimum. In other words, it
moves on an energy landscape, with x, y being the generalized coordinates and z being the
potential. Local valleys provide the energetically favorable (metastable) equilibrium
configurations, while the trajectory on the energy landscape is governed by kinetics. The same
applies to the microstructural evolution problem, in which the free energy minimum gives the
energetically favorable state while the kinetics determines the intermediate states. As you can
see, energetic study is usually not deterministic since we live in a non-equilibrium world.
6.1.1 Energy Minimization: an Example of Precipitate Shape
Consider an inclusion embedded inside an infinite matrix. If the elastic constants of these
two phases are different, the second phase is usually called inhomogeniety. The inclusion has
experienced a transformation strain, or called eigenstrain,
m a0 a a0 , (6.2)
which can also be regarded as lattice mismatch strain. A stress field will be induced, as governed
by the equilibrium equations:
with elastic constants cijkl . Eshelby (Proc. R. Soc. London A 1957) derived the strain energy of
this inclusion-matrix system. For a spherical inclusion,
8 1 2 3
Gel ma , (6.4)
3 1
where a is the radius of the spherical inclusion.
The equilibrium shape of the inclusion minimizes the following free energy:
G n dA Gel , (6.5)
where n gives the surface normal of the inclusion. In general, we need to consider the following
factors: (1) anisotropy in the interface energy; (2) difference in the elastic constants of the two
phases; (3) elastic anisotropy; (4) inclusion size (volume); (5) interface coherency (i.e., misfit
dislocation); (6) lattice diffusion; (7) interface diffusion; etc. The phase boundary should be
described by a continuous surface, and the resulting kinetic equation should be solved by
discretizing the surface into nodes. Such a treatment is beyond a reasonable scope of this course.
Fig. 6.3: The equilibrium shape of an elliptical cylinder (as characterized by U ) as a function of
the inclusion size (as characterized by A Ac ). Beyond a critical area, the equilibrium shape
is elliptical. (Johnson and Cahn, Acta Met. 1984)
To illustrate key concepts, we follow the work by Johnson and Cahn (Acta Met. 1984) by
assuming a 2D elliptical cylinder. The elastic strain energy can be solved by repeating Eshelby’s
method. Minimizing the surface energy and elastic strain energy, Fig. 6.3 shows the equilibrium
shape of an elliptical 2D inclusion, where
a b
U , (6.6)
ab
F r dA G .
n (6.7)
Let vn be the actual velocity of the interface in the direction normal to the interface (i.e., the
volume of atoms added to the particle per area per time). The relationship between vn and F is
treated differently in the interface migration problem and in the diffusional phase transformation
problem.
δrn
Interface Migration
In this case, we are concerned with short-range material transport. Examples include
grain growth, surface depositional growth, etc. The mass in a domain of interest does not
necessarily conserve. In this case, the interface normal velocity vn is usually assumed to be
linearly proportional to the driving force:
vn LF . (6.8)
For example, we consider the curvature-driven, depositional growth of a solid-liquid
interface (as described by a profile h ). According to Eq. (6.7), the driving force is defined with
respect to the change of surface profile, so that F where is atomic volume. The
chemical potential is 0 , where is the curvature of the interface (positive if the
surface is convex). Consequently, the governing equation is
h
L 2 h , (6.9)
t
Since this course is about computational plasticity, we can reformulate the above
framework in terms of the principle of virtual work. Using Eqs. (6.7) and (6.8) gives
vn
L r dA G .
n (6.10)
H j
ij q j f i , (6.12)
where
1
H ij N i N j dA . (6.13)
L
Now the task becomes the solution of a set of partial differential equations.
Diffusional Process
Because of mass conservation, we have to include the continuity equation, which states
that the velocity normal to the free surface is equal to the flux divergence:
vn J 0 . (6.14)
The diffusion flux is assumed to be linear with the driving force,
J MF . (6.15)
1
For the concentration profile, the driving force is F , as in the Fick’s first law.
For example, if we consider the surface-diffusion-driven morphological change of a
solid-liquid interface (as described by a profile h ), the governing equation is
h
t
M 2 2 h . (6.16)
Cahn-Hilliard Model
To further illustrate the discussion in the above, let’s discuss the famous Cahn-Hiliard
model. For a binary alloy, the total free energy consists of
G g C h C dV ,
2
(6.17)
V
where
C
P C ln 1 2C . (6.23)
1 C
In order to solve Eq. (6.22), we consider the 2D case and use Fourier transformation,
C x1 , x2 , t Cˆ k , k , t exp ik x ik x dk dk
1 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 , (6.24)
Solving the ordinary differential equation in Eq. (6.25) is easy. We can use Runge-Kutta,
Euler method, etc. Here we use a semi-implicit method, giving
Cˆ k 2 Pˆn t
Cˆ n 1 n . (6.26)
1 2k 4 t
0.9 0.9
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5
C
C
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0 0
50 100 150 200 250 50 100 150 200 250
x/b x/b
1 1
0.9 0.9
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5
C
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0 0
50 100 150 200 250 50 100 150 200 250
x/b x/b
Fig. 6.5: Temporal evolution of the concentration profile as in the Cahn-Hilliard model.
----------------------------------
The following matlab code solves the 2D Cahn-Hilliard model.
clear all;
tic
aviobj=avifile('cahn_hilliard_2d.avi','fps',5);
% controlling parameters
flag_refine_inc=0;
flag_refine_tolerance=0.02;
flag_count=0;
% initial condition
N=64;
delta_x=2;
%time_inc=0.1;
time_inc=2;
c0=0.5;
omega=2.2;
for m=1:N
for n=1:N
c(m,n)=c0+0.001*rand(1);
end
end
figure;
[X,Y]=meshgrid(1:1:N);
% update concentration
for m=1:N
for n=1:N
c_hat_next(m,n)=(real(c_hat(m,n))-
ksquare(m,n)*real(P_hat(m,n))*time_inc)/(1+2*ksquare(m,n)^2*time_inc);
c_hat_next(m,n)=c_hat_next(m,n)+i*(imag(c_hat(m,n))-
ksquare(m,n)*imag(P_hat(m,n))*time_inc)/(1+2*ksquare(m,n)^2*time_inc);
end
end
c_next=ifft2(c_hat_next,N,N);
c_next=real(c_next);
if max(max(abs(c_next-c)))>flag_refine_tolerance
time_inc=time_inc*0.1;
disp('reduce the time increment');
flag_refine_inc=1;
flag_count=count;
else
count=count+1;
c=c_next;
c_average=sum(sum(c))/N/N;
if mod(count,count_output)==0
[time_current c_average]
meshc(X,Y,real(c));
%contour(X,Y,real(c)); axis square
xlabel('x/b','FontSize',24,'FontName','Times New Roman');
ylabel('y/b','FontSize',24,'FontName','Times New Roman');
zlabel('C','FontSize',24,'FontName','Times New Roman');
axis([1 N 1 N 0 1]);
set(gca,'FontSize',16,'FontName','Times New Roman','LineWidth',2);
str1=sprintf('time: %7.4f',time_current);
text(0.75*N,N,1,str1,'FontSize',16,'FontName','Times New Roman');
frame=getframe(gca);
aviobj=addframe(aviobj,frame);
end
if (flag_refine_inc==1) & (abs(flag_count-count)>4)
disp('increase the time increment');
time_inc=time_inc*10;
flag_refine_inc=0;
end
time_current=time_current+time_inc;
end
end
aviobj=close(aviobj);
toc
where w is the change of the strain energy density on the solid surface due to the surface
roughness.
Similarly, if we consider the surface-diffusion-driven morphological change of a solid-
liquid interface, together with the effect of elastic stress field, the governing equation in Eq.
(6.16) becomes
h
t
M 2 w 2 h . (6.28)
Fig. 6.6: A smear-out model of grain boundary cavitation and representative finite element
simulation results (taken from Yu et al., Eng. Fract. Mech., in press, 2012).
Here we briefly introduce the Tvergaard-van der Giessen smear-out model for the grain
boundary cavitation process. in which the distribution of cavities on each grain boundary (Fig.
6.6a) was replaced by a continuous varying separation as shown in Fig. 6.6b. Adopting this
where V1 and V2 represent the contributions of atom diffusion and creep, respectively, and have
been derived previously. See van der Giessen and Tvergaard (Acta Mater, 1996) for details.
Fig. 6.7: In addition to the diffusive cavity growth, the creep plasticity in the surrounding grains
contributes to the microstructural evolution (Needleman and Rice, Acta Met., 1980).
where is the remotely applied tensile stress, is the associated creep strain rate, and
D Db b kT ( Db b =grain boundary diffusion coefficient, =atomic volume, kT =energy per
atom measure of temperature). Specifically, L decreases with increasing stress and temperature.
In general, the cavity growth is dominated by creep for large values of a/L, while the atom
diffusion is more important for small values of a/L (e.g., a/L < 0.1).
where the residual stress in the film is f, the curvature is , the substrate thickness is hs , and M s
is the biaxial elastic modulus of the substrate. For instance, if the residual stress arises from the
lattice mismatch m , then f M f h f m .