Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Sex Education
Riya Bhadana
Sex Education
Introduction
Sex education is instruction on issues relating to human sexuality, including emotional relations
and responsibilities, human sexual anatomy, sexual activity, sexual reproduction, age of consent,
reproductive health, reproductive rights, safe sex, birth control and sexual abstinence. Sex
education that covers all of these aspects is known as comprehensive sex education. Although
some form of sex education is part of the curriculum at many schools, it remains a controversial
issue in several countries, particularly with regard to the age at which children should start
receiving such education, the amount of detail which is revealed, and topics dealing with human
sexuality and behavior (eg. safe sex practices and masturbation, and sexual ethics).You can't opt
your children in or out of math, but when it comes to sex education, one of the most important
things you can learn in school, a parent can take their kid out for no reason at all. Sex education
is important. It's been proven time and time again. Students who receive formal sex education in
schools are shown to first have sexual intercourse later than students who have not had sex
education. Sex education does not encourage teenagers to have sex, it does quite the opposite
(Gabe L., 2016). Planned Parenthood is the nation's largest provider of sex education.
Mcgaughey (2018) studied the unique demographic and cultural drivers for young
traveler marriage and pregnancy. Mcgaughey found that engaging in pre-marital sex and being
pregnant outside of marriage are not only seen as bringing shame to the traveler girl and her
family, but may lead to retribution of the girl. Marsman and Herold (1986) found that most
supported the teaching of sex education but were divided about which values should be taught.
Whereas more than half disapproved of premarital sex, only one-third believed that an important
objective of sex education should be to discourage premarital sex. Anandhi (2007) suggested that
SEX EDUCATION 3
both the opponents and the proponents of the Adolescence Education Program (sex education)
share the same ideological premise of sexual restraint as a national virtue. Oettinger (1999)
found that sex education in the 1970's had some causal impact on teen sexual behavior, probably
in significant part by providing information that enabled teens to alter the risks of sexual activity.
In a study by Pearson (1979) a survey concerning the implementation and content of a potential
sex education program was sent to parents of enrolled students at M.S.S.D. Some 93% of the
respondents were in favor of a sex education curriculum. More than 50% of the parents
supported all 15 topics listed in the survey. Study by Scales & Kirby (1983) provides the median
and mean ratings of the individual barriers and a factor analysis of the most highly-rated barriers
to sex education. The single greatest barrier to sex education was administrators' fear of
community opposition. In order to determine the kinds of formal sex education programs within
residential facilities for the deaf, a sex education survey was conducted by Gerald & Gerald
(1976). It was found that many of these programs seemed to be crisis oriented and thus it is
hoped that the development of ongoing, long-range and more comprehensive programming will
be forthcoming in the area of sex education. Malfetti & Rubin (1968) found that despite general
found but few offering courses specifically designed to prepare teachers of sex education and
even fewer planning to do so. Tjaden (1988) states that little is known about the relationship
between pornography and sex education. There is little scientific information on how
pornography teaches people about sex, whom precisely it teaches about sex, or what it teaches
people about sexuality relative to other sources of information. Wiechmann & Ellis’s (1969)
study of the Effects of "Sex Education" on Premarital Petting and Coital Behavior suggested that
SEX EDUCATION 4
students who had received "sex education" were not found to have significantly more premarital
petting or coital experience than those without "sex education." No group differences were found
when premarital petting and coital experience of students with "sex education" exposure were
compared on the basis of the grade level of first exposure. Sabia (2006) found that while sex
education is associated with adverse health outcomes, there is little evidence of a causal link after
controlling for unobserved heterogeneity via fixed effects and instrumental variables. A study by
Bass (1974) found that parents and teachers are aware of the need of sex education but little is
being taught in the special education classes or in schools for the handicapped. Some basic
principles of sex education are listed along with suggestions for teaching the blind, the deaf, and
the retarded. Drazenovich, (2015) argues that as a sex education strategy, the essentializing of
sexual identity within sex education should be supplanted by more constructivist approaches;
ones that allow for maximum individuation and self-expression. Queer-positive sex educators
might consider adopting some methods associated with spiritual pedagogy to assist students in
rethinking questions of sexuality and creating new possibilities for identities and creative self-
expression. Buston, Wight & Scott (2001) state that within schools, the values, experiences and
education is actually delivered, particularly where the Guidance Team lacks cohesion. Kirkendall
& Hamilton (1954) found that sex education is being redefined so as to include both
psychological and emotional aspects of sex. Such matters as inter-sex associations, sex roles,
masculine and feminine adaptation and adjustment, emotional maturity and personality
development are more and more recognized as necessarily including sex education, and as being
conditioned by sex in its various manifestations. Libby (1970) found that the great majority of
parents approved high school sex education integrated throughout the curriculum, as well as
SEX EDUCATION 5
requiring a course in family life and sex education. Most parents wanted chastity taught as "best"
if sex education is to be required, and at the same time wanted contraceptive education, but also
acceptance and the attitude and skills of interpersonal relationship. It also helps an individual to
cultivate a sense of responsibility towards others as well as oneself. It is time for us to understand
the need and importance of sex education for our growing children that is as essential as formal
education in developing a normal, healthy and aware individual. This study aims to examine the
current scenario and focuses on people’s contrasting perspectives regarding sex education by
METHOD
Survey is a method which uses questionnaires or interviews to obtain information about many
people (Passer & Smith, 2013). Survey research is the collection of data attained by asking
individuals questions either in person, on paper, by phone or online (Rouse). Kraemer (1991)
identified three distinguishing characteristics of survey research. First, survey research is used to
quantitatively describe specific aspects of a given population. Second, the data required for
survey research are collected from people and are, therefore, subjective. Finally, survey research
uses a selected portion of the population from which the findings can later be generalized back to
the population. Verbal surveys are often known as interviews and written surveys are
questionnaires (Glasow, 2005). Decision makers in both the public and private sectors use survey
results to understand past efforts and guide future direction. Yet there are many misperceptions
SEX EDUCATION 6
regarding what is required to conduct a good survey. Poorly conceived, designed, and executed
surveys often produce results that are meaningless, at best, and misleading or inaccurate, at
worst. The resultant costs in both economic and human terms are enormous. (Cowles and
Nelson, 2015) The aim of survey research is to measure certain attitudes and/or behaviors of a
population or a sample. The purpose of survey is to collect information from many individuals,
phenomena. Rather than manipulating phenomena, survey research attempts to influence the
attitudes and behaviors it measures as little as possible. Most often, respondents are asked for
information. Survey research is primarily quantitative, but qualitative methods can be used too.
Survey research is a widely used data collection method that involves getting information from
people typically by asking them questions and collecting and analyzing the answers. Such data
can then be used to understand individuals’ views, attitudes, and behaviors in a variety of areas
such as political issues, quality of life at both the community and individual levels, and
The modern survey goes back to ancient forms of the census. Early census assessed the property
available for taxation or the young men available for military service. Surveys for social research
in the United States and Great Britain began with social reform movements and social service
professions documenting the conditions of urban poverty. Scientific sampling and statistics were
initially, absent in the surveys. At first surveys were merely overviews of an area based on
questionnaires and other data. The Social Survey grew into both the modern quantitative survey
research and qualitative field research in a community. From the 1890s to the 1930s, it was the
major method of social research practiced by the Social Survey Movement; they used systematic
SEX EDUCATION 7
empirical inquiry to support socio-political reform goals. By mid-1940s, the modern quantitative
survey had largely displaced it. Early social surveys were detailed empirical studies of specific
local areas based on many sources of quantitative and qualitative data. Most were exploratory
and descriptive. Researchers wanted to inform the public of the problems of industrialism and
Survey Research expanded during World War II, especially in the United States. Survey
researchers studied morale, consumer demand, production capacity, enemy propaganda, and the
effectiveness of bombing. After World War II, officials dismantled the extensive government
survey research establishment. This was a cost cutting move. Many researchers returned to
universities and created new social research organizations. Within three years of the end of
World War II, national survey research institutions had been established in France, Norway,
Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Czechoslovakia and Britain. At first, universities were hesitant to
embrace the new survey research centers. They were expensive and employed many people.
Since the 1970s, quantitative survey research has become huge in private industry, government,
and in many academic fields (e.g., communication, education, economics, political science,
public health, social psychology, and sociology). By the mid to late 2000s web surveys were
common and today there has clearly been a shift to what are called mixed-mode surveys, which
rely on a combination of face-to-face, mail, phone, and web-based surveys along with new
technologies that have appeared such as the Inter- active Voice Response survey where
respondents use their touch-tone phone to record their answers and Audio-Computer-Assisted
ADVANTAGES
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Survey is an efficient method for systematically collecting data from a broad spectrum of
individuals and educational settings. Surveys are efficient in that many variables can be
measured without substantially increasing the time or cost. Surveys are capable of obtaining
information from large samples of the population. They are also well suited to gathering
demographic data that describe the composition of the sample (McIntyre, 1999, p. 74). Surveys
are inclusive in the types and number of variables that can be studied, require minimal
investment to develop and administer, and are relatively easy for making generalizations (Bell,
1996, p. 68). Surveys can also elicit information about attitudes that are otherwise difficult to
measure using observational techniques (McIntyre, 1999, p. 75). Survey data can be collected
from many people at relatively low cost and, depending on the survey design, relatively quickly.
DISADVANTAGES
Surveys are more expensive and time-consuming than most laboratory experiments using captive
impracticality of executing elaborate scripted scenarios for social interaction, especially ones
involving deception. Whereas these sorts of events can be created in labs with undergraduate
participants, they are tougher to do in the field (Lavrakas, Krosnick, & Visser, 2013). Surveys
required (Pinsonneault and Kraemer, 2013). Bell (1996) observed that biases may occur, either in
the lack of response from intended participants or in the nature and accuracy of the responses
that are received. Other sources of error include intentional misreporting of behaviors by
respondents may have difficulty assessing their own behavior or have poor recall of the
circumstances surrounding their behavior. It is important to note, however, that surveys only
SEX EDUCATION 9
provide estimates for the true population, not exact measurements (Salant & Dillman, 1994, p.
13).
DESIGN
Surveys offer the opportunity to execute studies with various designs, each of which is suitable
Panel Surveys
In a panel survey, data are collected from the same people at two or more points in time. Perhaps
the most obvious use of panel data is to assess the stability of psychological constructs and to
identify the determinants of stability (Krosnick 6 Alwin, 1989).Although people are often quite
Cross-Sectional Surveys
Cross-sectional surveys involve the collection of data at a single point in time from a sample
drawn from a specified population. This design is most often used to document the prevalence of
conducted to assess the frequency with which people perform certain behaviours or the number
of people who hold particular attitudes or beliefs (Lavrakas, Krosnick, & Visser, 2013) Cross-
sectional data can be used to identify the moderators of relations between variables, thereby also
Longitudinal Design
SEX EDUCATION 10
It surveys the sample of same group of participants two or more times over an interval of time
that may last a number of years. In principles, it allows for the effects of systematic factors
associated with the passage of time, such as learning, maturation or aging, to be assessed, while
controlling for difference between the groups. Two difficulties weaken this design. First,
unpredicted events occurring between data collection may introduce a confounding influence so
that data obtained at later points reflect both the passage of time and the unpredicted events.
Second, the initial sample may reduce in size as time passes because their members die or move
away or not available for other reasons. Consequently, the character of the sample may change
significantly and compromise the comparability of earlier and later result.( Research Design and
MODES OF ADMINISTRATION
Telephonic Survey
primary mode of data collection. And whereas computerized data collection is a relatively recent
development in face-to-face inter- viewing most large-scale telephone survey organizations have
been using such systems for the past decade. In fact, computer-assisted telephone interviewing
(CATI) has become the industry standard, and several software packages are available to simplify
computer programming. Like CAPI, CATI involves interviewers reading from a computer screen,
on which each question appears in turn. Responses are entered immediately into the computer.
Face-to-face interviews
SEX EDUCATION 11
Face-to-face interviews involve the oral presentation of survey questions, sometimes with visual
aids .Collection often requires a large staff of well-trained inter- viewers who visit respondents in
their homes. But this mode of data collection is not limited to in-home interviews; face-to-face
interviews can be conducted in a laboratory or other locations as well. Until recently, interviewers
always recorded responses on paper copies of the questionnaire, which were later returned to the
Often, questionnaires are mailed or dropped off to individuals at their homes, along with
instructions on how to return the completed surveys. Alternatively, people can be intercepted on
the street or in other public places and asked to compete a self-administered questionnaire, or such
questionnaires can be distributed to large groups of individuals gathered specifically for the
purpose of participating in the survey or for entirely unrelated purposes (e.g., during a class period
or at an employee staff meeting). Whatever the method of distribution, this mode of data collection
typically requires respondents to complete a written questionnaire and return it to the researcher.
laptop computers, on which respondents proceed through a self-guided program that presents the
questionnaire. When a response to each question is made, the next question appears on the screen,
permitting respondents to work their way through the instrument at their own pace and with
affords all of the ad- vantages of computerized face-to-face and telephone interviewing, along with
many of the advantages of self-administered questionnaire. (Lavrakas, Krosnick, & Visser, 2013)
Web-based survey
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They are very fast and inexpensive; they allow flexible design and can use visual images and even
audio or video. The two types of Web surveys are static and interactive. A static Web or e-mail
survey is like the presentation of a page of paper but on the computer screen. An interactive Web
or e-mail survey has contingency questions and may present different questions to different
Questions are the centerpiece of survey research. Because the way they are worded can have a
great effect on the way they are answered, selecting good questions is the single most important
Write clear questions- Question writing for a particular survey might begin with a
for inclusion must be reviewed carefully for its clarity and ability to convey the intended
meaning. Questions that were clear and meaningful to one population may not be so to
another. Nor can you simply assume that a question used in a previously published study
was carefully evaluated. Adherence to a few basic principles will go a long way toward
Avoid confusing phrasing- In most cases, a simple direct approach to asking a question
minimizes confusion. Use shorter rather than longer words: brave rather than courageous;
job concerns rather than work-related employment issues (Dillman, 2000). Use shorter
sentences when you can. A lengthy question often forces respondents to “work hard,” that
is, to have to read and reread the entire question. Lengthy questions can go unanswered or
Avoid vagueness- Questions should not be abbreviated in a way that results in confusion.
It is particularly important to avoid vague language; there are words whose meaning may
Provide a frame of reference- Questions often require a frame of reference that provides
Avoid double negatives and negative words- Respondents have a hard time figuring out
which response matches their sentiments because some statements are written as a double
negative. Such errors can easily be avoided with minor wording changes.
results because they actually ask two questions but allow only one answer.
Minimize the risk of bias- Specific words in survey questions should not trigger biases,
unless that is the researcher’s conscious intent. Such questions are referred to as leading
questions because they lead the respondent to a particular answer. Biased or loaded words
RESPONSE FORMAT
Fill-in-the-Blank
Using the fill-in-the-blank format requires you to choose the manner by which the respondent
should answer the question. One of the most common uses of fill-in-the-blanks is to determine the
name, age, gender, age group and other demographic data indicators by putting a mark on the
blank.
SEX EDUCATION 14
Multi-Option Format
As the name suggests, you present a question to the respondent and he will answer it based on
Likert-type responses generally ask respondents to indicate the extent to which they agree or
disagree with statements. The response categories list choices for respondents to select their level
Unstructured response formats simply require the respondent to write his answer in detail.
QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
Survey questions are answered as part of a questionnaire. The context created by the questionnaire
has a major impact on how individual questions are interpreted and answered. As a result, survey
researchers must carefully design the questionnaire as well as individual questions. There is no
precise formula for a well-designed questionnaire. Nonetheless, some key principles should guide
the design of any questionnaire, and some systematic procedures should be considered for refining
it.
Maintain consistent focus- A survey should be guided by a clear conception of the research
problem under investigation and the population to be sampled. Throughout the process of
SEX EDUCATION 15
questionnaire design, the research objective should be the primary basis for making
decisions about what to include and exclude and what to emphasize or treat in a cursory
fashion. The questionnaire should be viewed as an integrated whole, in which each section
and every question serve a clear purpose related to the study’s objective and each section
Build on existing instruments- Surveys often include irrelevant questions and fail to include
questions that, the researchers realize later, are crucial. One way to ensure that possibly
relevant questions are asked is to use questions suggested by prior research, theory,
experience, or experts (including participants) who are knowledgeable about the setting
under investigation.
Refine and test questions- The only good question is a pretested question. Before you rely
on a question in your research, you need evidence that your respondents will understand
what it means. So try it out on a few people. One important form of pretesting is discussing
the questionnaire with colleagues. You can also review prior research in which your key
questions have been used. Professional survey researchers also use a technique for
improving questions called the cognitive interview (Dillman, 2007). Conducting a pilot
study is the final stage of questionnaire preparation. Complete the questionnaire yourself
Order the questions- The sequence of questions on a survey matters. As a first step, the
individual questions should be sorted into broad thematic categories, which then become
separate sections in the questionnaire. The first question deserves special attention,
respondent what the survey is about, whether it will be interesting, and how easy it will be
SEX EDUCATION 16
to complete. The first question should be connected to the primary purpose of the survey;
it should be interesting, it should be easy, and it should apply to everyone in the sample
(Dillman, 2007). Question order can lead to context effects when one or more questions
influence how subsequent questions are interpreted (Schober, 1999). Prior questions can
influence how questions are comprehended, what beliefs shape responses, and whether
comparative judgments are made (Tourangeau, 1999). Some questions may be presented
in a “matrix” format. Matrix questions are a series of questions that concern a common
theme and that have the same response choices. The questions are written so that a common
initial phrase applies to each one. It is very important to provide an explicit instruction to
“Check one response on each line” in a matrix question because some respondents will
think that they have completed the entire matrix after they have responded to just a few of
spacious—is more likely to be completed and less likely to confuse either the respondent
or, in an interview, the interviewer. An attractive questionnaire does not look cramped;
makes the questionnaire appear easy to complete. Response choices are listed vertically
and are distinguished clearly and consistently, perhaps by formatting them in all capital
letters and keeping them in the middle of the page. Skip patterns are indicated with arrows
or other graphics. Some distinctive type of formatting should also be used to identify
instructions. Printing a multipage questionnaire in booklet form usually results in the most
An open-ended question permits the respondent to answer in his or her own words (see, e.g., C.
Smith, this volume, Ch. 12; Bartholomew, Henderson, 6 Marcia, this volume, Ch. 11) t, a closed-
ended question requires that the respondent select an answer from a set of choices offered
Practical considerations enter into the choice between ranking and rating questions as well.
Respondents could be asked this question directly (a ranking question), or they could be asked to
rate their attitudes separately, and the researcher could infer which is preferred. With this
research goal, asking the single ranking question seems preferable and more direct than asking
the two rating questions. But rank-ordering a large set of objects takes much longer and is less
enjoyed by respondents than a rating task (Elig 6 Frieze, 1979; Taylor 6 Kinnear, 1971).But
rankings are more effective than ratings, because ratings suffer from a significant problem: non
differentiation. When rating a large set of objects on a single scale, a significantly number of
respondents rate multiple objects identically as a result of survey satisficing (Krosnick, 1991b).
The answers people give to closed-ended questions are sometimes influenced by the order in
which the alternatives are offered. When categorical response choices are presented visually, as
in self-administered questionnaires, people are inclined toward primacy effects, whereby they
tend to select answer choices offered early in a list (e.g., Krosnick 6 Alwin, 1987; Sudmaa
Bradburn, 6 Schwan, 1996). But when categorical answer choices are read aloud to people,
SEX EDUCATION 18
recency effects tend to appear, whereby people are inclined to select the options offered last
Concerned about the possibility that respondents may feel pressure to offer opinions on issues
when they truly have no attitudes (e.g., P. E. Converse, 1964), questionnaire designers have often
Question Wording
The logic of questionnaire-based research requires that all respondents be confronted with the
same stimulus (i.e., question), so any differences between people in their responses are due to
real differences between the people. But if the meaning of a question is ambiguous, different
survey researchers advise that questions always avoid ambiguity. (Lavrakas, Krosnick, & Visser,
2013)
It is critical to the success of a mailed survey. This statement to respondents sets the tone for the
questionnaire. A carefully prepared cover letter should increase the response rate and result in
Setting
Mailed surveys, electronic questionnaires, and phone interviews are intended for completion by
only one respondent. The same is usually true of in-person interviews, although sometimes
SEX EDUCATION 19
researchers interview several family members at once. On the other hand, a variant of the
Cost
As mentioned earlier, in-person interviews are the most expensive type of survey. Phone
interviews are much less expensive, but surveying by mail is cheaper yet. Electronic surveys are
now the least expensive method because there are no interviewer costs, no mailing costs, and, for
many designs, almost no costs for data entry. Of course, extra staff time and expertise are
The population
A number of characteristics of the population are relevant to selecting a mode of data collection.
Sampling strategy. The sampling strategy to be used may sometimes suggest a particular mode
of data collection. For example, some pre-election polling organizations draw their samples from
lists of currently registered voters. Such lists often provide only names and mailing addresses,
which limits the mode of data col- lection to face-to-face interviews or self-administered surveys.
Self-administered mail surveys typically achieve very low response rates, often less than 50% of
the original sample when a single mailing is used. Techniques have been developed to yield
SEX EDUCATION 20
strikingly high response rates for these surveys, but they are complex and more costly (see Dill-
man, 1978). Face-to-face and telephone interviews of- ten achieve much higher response rates,
Question form
Question content
If the issues under investigation are sensitive, self-administered questionnaires may provide
respondents with a greater sense of privacy and may therefore elicit more candid responses than
telephone interviews and face-to-face interviews (e.g., Bishop 6. Fisher, 1995; Cheng, 1988;
Wiseman, 1972).
Questionnaire Length
Face-to-face data collection permits the longest interviews, an hour or more. Telephone
interviews are typically quite a bit shorter, usually lasting no more than 30 min, because
respondents are often uncomfortable staying on the phone for longer. With self-administered
questionnaires, response rates typically decline as questionnaire length increases, so they are
Distributing questionnaires by mail requires significant amounts of time, and follow-up mailings
to increase response rates further increase the overall turnaround time. Similarly, face-to-face
interview surveys typically re- quire a substantial length of time in the field. In contrast,
telephone interviews can be completed in very little time, within a matter of days.
Self- administered mail surveys require the fewest facilities and can be completed by a small
staff. Face-to-face or telephone interview surveys are most easily conducted with a large staff of
interviewers and supervisors. And ideally, telephone surveys are conducted from a central
location with sufficient office space and telephone lines to accommodate a staff of interviewers,
The present study focuses on understanding various perspectives on sex education of two
different generations. One sample ranges from 19-25 years and the other from 35-45 years.
SAMPLING
In the sex education survey, Quota Non Probability Sampling is used. The aim of Quota
gender, age, ethnicity). Non-probability sample – does not involve random selection and
methods are not based on the rationale of probability theory. When we want to study some
special groups non probability sampling is used or when we want to see some trends in the
market which acts as a pioneer study. It is also used because of the practical contingency of time,
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
SEX EDUCATION 22
Like all social research people can conduct surveys in ethical or unethical ways.
1. Invasion of privacy: A major ethical issue in survey research is the invasion of privacy.
Survey researchers can intrude into a respondent’s privacy by asking about intimate
actions and personal beliefs. Respondents have a right to privacy and can decide when
and to whole they want to reveal personal information to. Respondents are likely to share
personal information in a comfortable context with mutual trust, when they believe
serious answers are required for legitimate research purposes and when they believe
answers will remain confidential. Researchers should treat all respondents with dignity
and reduce discomfort. They are also responsible for protecting the confidentiality of the
data.
Respondents agree to answer questions and can refuse to participate at any time. They
3. Pseudo surveys: The third ethical issue is the exploitation of surveys and pseudo surveys.
Because of its popularity, some people use surveys to mislead others. A pseudo survey is
particular task and is not interested in gathering any information from the respondent.
4. Poorly designed surveys: Fourth ethical issue occurs when people misuse survey results
or use poorly designed or purposely rigged surveys. Those who design surveys may lack
careless or poorly designed surveys may result in waste and human hardship. Such
SEX EDUCATION 23
survey research.
5. A very important ethical issue arises when mass media reporting of survey results and the
quality of surveys being reported permits abuse. Researchers need to include details
about the survey to reduce the misuse of survey research and increase the questions about
surveys that lack such information. Over 88 percent of reports on surveys in mass media
fail to reveal the researcher who conducted the survey and only 18 percent provide details
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