Fluids and Solids Handling

Handle Bulk Solids

Safely and Effectively
Greg Mehos Follow these guidelines for proper design of
Eric Maynard
Jenike & Johanson, Inc. bins, hoppers, and feeders
to avoid operational and safety problems.

C
ompared with chemical processes that handle liquids rial to roll toward the periphery. If the bulk solid is used as a
or gases, those involving powders and other bulk reactant or catalyst in a downstream process, an unsafe condi-
solids present unique hazards. Solids are prone to tion may arise if the particle size of the solids stream dis-
arching (the formation of an arch-shaped obstruction above a charged is variable, since reaction kinetics generally depend
vessel outlet) and ratholing (the formation of an empty flow on the specific surface area of the reactive components.
channel in the center of a vessel with stagnant material along • dusting. If a sufficient amount of material becomes
the walls) in improperly designed vessels (Figure 1). Opera- dispersed in air, a series of events resulting in a fire or
tors attempting to clear such obstructions using hammers, air explosion can occur. If an ignition source and an oxidant are
lances, or other devices to reinitiate flow risk injury. Eccen- present and the concentration of fines in the air is above the
tric loads caused by non-uniform flow can lead to buckling bulk material’s minimum explosible concentration (MEC),
and, in extreme cases, the collapse of a silo. Even bulk solids combustion can take place rapidly and produce a dust explo-
that are considered benign and nonreactive (such as sugar) sion or flash fire. Recall the dust explosion at the Imperial
can be dangerous if they become dispersed in air and are Sugar Co. refinery in Port Wentworth, GA, where a benign
vulnerable to dust explosions.
The most prevalent cause of problems in solids-process-
ing plants is the improper design of bulk solids handling
equipment, specifically hoppers, bins, silos, and feeders. An
understanding of the material’s fundamental flow properties
and how they affect solids flow patterns is essential to han-
dling bulk solids safely. This article discusses how properties
of bulk solids affect flow patterns in a silo, and provides
guidelines for vessel design.

Hazardous conditions
Solids handling problems can cause a variety of hazard-
ous process conditions, including:
• segregation. Although fluid mixtures tend to remain
homogenous, mixtures of solids are prone to segregation due
to differences in particle size, shape, or density. For example,
sifting segregation (Figure 2) occurs when smaller particles No Obstructions Arching Ratholing
move through a mixture of larger particles, causing fines to S Figure 1. Obstructions such as arches and ratholes prevent the
accumulate in the center of a storage vessel and coarser mate- flow of material.

38 www.aiche.org/cep September 2009 CEP

powder — ordinary sugar — caused the loss of more than
a dozen lives (1).
• flooding. The discharge rate from a storage vessel is
typically controlled by a feeder, such as a screw feeder or
belt feeder. When entrained in air, a fine powder can some-
times behave like a fluid. Since feeders are usually designed
to handle solids rather than fluids, discharge may become
uncontrollable; in extreme cases, the hopper may empty
completely. This safety problem has occurred in several lime-
slaking operations, where fine lime flooded into the slaker
and caused an uncontrolled exothermic reaction.
• non-uniform flow. An improperly designed hopper or
feeder can have an unpredictable discharge rate. Flow may
become erratic or stop entirely. If solids discharged from a
hopper are reactive or act as a diluent, a disruption of flow can
lead to unsafe operating conditions in downstream processes.
• charge accumulation. When insulating materials such as
plastics are handled in silos, bins, or hoppers, static charges
can develop, causing such problems as blend non-uniformity,
unwanted agglomeration, and material adhesion to the
surfaces of processing equipment. In extreme cases, a fire or
explosion can occur if a static discharge occurs in the pres-
ence of flammable vapors or dust clouds of powders with low
minimum ignition energy (MIE).
The severity of hazards associated with bulk solids
handling depends on the flow patterns inside the hopper, bin,
or silo. For example, when two solids come into contact,
electrons may become separated from atoms on the surface
of one material and transferred to atoms on another, creating
a positive charge on the electron donor and a negative charge
on the electron acceptor. If a material is insulating, it will
remain charged when the materials are separated. Even if the
substance is an electrical conductor, it will remain charged if
it remains isolated from ground. The amount of charge gen-
erated depends on the chemical composition of the material,
how it is introduced into the vessel, its electrical properties
(e.g., resistivity), and its particle size. The magnitude of the
charge also depends on the work done on the material —
S Figure 2. In sifting segregation, smaller particles accumulate in the
center of the vessel, larger particles at the sides.
i.e., the number of contacts, rubbing/contact velocities, con-
tact area, and the frequency of contacts between materials.
Hence, the flow pattern in which a bulk solid travels inside a
vessel, as well as how the vessel was filled (e.g., pneumatic
conveying), can significantly influence the amount of elec-
trostatic charge that can accumulate.
Hopper flow patterns
There are two types of flow patterns in a vessel: funnel
flow and mass flow (Figure 3).
Funnel flow. In funnel flow, only a portion of the bulk
material above the outlet is in motion while some material
remains stagnant at the periphery as the material is dis-
charged. Funnel flow occurs when the sloping hopper walls
are not steep enough and low enough in friction for particles
to move along them. Under these conditions, the particles
slide on each other rather than on the hopper walls, and an
internal flow channel develops.
Funnel flow can cause erratic flow, exacerbate segrega-
tion, reduce the usable (or live) capacity of the vessel, allow
particle degradation (e.g., caking, spoilage) in stagnant
regions, and (depending on the vessel size) induce high
loads on the structure and downstream equipment due to col-
lapsing ratholes and eccentric flow channels. Fine powders
will flood if the rathole collapses or if fresh material is added
to the vessel.
The velocity of the solids in the flow channel of a funnel-
flow vessel can be rapid, especially in conical hoppers with
a flow channel diameter that is only slightly larger than the
outlet diameter. Compared with mass-flow bins, the number
of contacts and the frequency of contacts between indi-
vidual particles are high, so the potential for static charge
accumulation is higher. Furthermore, when the bulk solid is
insulating, the stagnant material along the periphery of the
vessel will limit the effectiveness of bonding the charge to
Stagnant
Material
Funnel Flow Mass Flow
S Figure 3. Material inside a hopper, bin, or silo may move in a
funnel-flow or mass-flow pattern.
CEP September 2009 www.aiche.org/cep 39
Fluids and Solids Handling

the vessel walls. If a rathole collapses, the solids can become
entrained in air inside the emptying channel, creating an
atmosphere conducive to a dust explosion.
Mass flow. In mass flow, all the material in the vessel
moves during discharge, with particles sliding along the hop-
per wall. Mass flow eliminates ratholing and maximizes the
usable capacity of the vessel. In order to achieve mass flow,
two conditions must be met:
• the sloping hopper walls must be steep enough and
have low enough friction for the particles to slide along them
• the outlet must be large enough to prevent arching.
A mass-flow hopper has a first-in-first-out flow sequence
that minimizes sifting segregation effects. Because the entire
bed of material is in motion, the velocity of the solids in a
vessel designed for mass flow is much lower than that in a
funnel-flow hopper, thereby typically reducing the amount
of static charge generation.
Thus, vessels designed for mass flow are preferable
when handling materials prone to static charge accumula-
tion. This assumes that the charge is the result of particle-
to-particle contacts and not particle-to-wall contacts. For
instance, plastic liners used in mass-flow hoppers can readily
the wall yield locus. The coefficient of sliding friction is
calculated from the tangent of the wall friction angle.
The hopper angles that allow mass flow can then be
obtained using design charts originally developed by Jenike
(3). Example design charts for conical hoppers and for hop-
pers with planar geometries (e.g., wedge-shaped and transi-
tion hoppers) are shown in Figures 5 and 6, respectively. Val-
ues of the allowable hopper angle θʹ (measured from vertical)
are on the abscissa, and values of the wall friction angle φʹ are
on the ordinate. Any combination of φʹ and θʹ that falls within
the mass-flow region of the chart will provide mass flow.
Conical hoppers should not be designed at the limit of
the mass flow region. Notice that there is an area on the chart
in Figure 5 that lies between the funnel-flow and mass-flow
regions. This represents a margin of safety to account for
slight differences in material flow properties and wall sur-
faces. If the combination of hopper angle and wall friction
angle lies too close to the funnel-flow line, a switch to funnel
40
Wall Friction Angle, deg.

30
generate static charge during filling and discharge of bulk
Funnel Flow
materials, so either static-dissipative or properly bonded/
grounded liners must be installed. Un
20
ce
rta
Design of mass-flow hoppers Mass Flow
in
Re
Hopper angle. The first step in designing vessels for gi
on
10
mass flow is to measure the wall friction between the bulk
material and the wall surface by a method described in
ASTM D-6128 (2). In this test, a sample of bulk material is
0
placed inside a ring on a wall coupon and a load is applied. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Material is then forced to slide on the stationary coupon, Hopper Angle from Vertical, deg.
and the resultant shear force is measured as a function of
the applied normal load. A wall yield locus is constructed S Figure 5. Design charts, such as these examples for conical hoppers …
by plotting shear force against normal force (Figure 4). T Figure 6. … and planar hoppers, reveal the combinations of hopper
The angle of wall friction, φʹ, is the horizontal angle that is angle and wall friction angle that will result in mass flow.
formed between a line drawn from the origin to a point on 40

Funnel Flow
Wall Friction Angle, deg.

Wall Yield Locus 30

Shear Force

Mass Flow
20

φ' 10

Normal Load
0
S Figure 4. A plot of the wall yield locus illustrates the angle of wall 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
friction, yielding the coefficient of sliding friction. Hopper Angle from Vertical, deg.

40 www.aiche.org/cep September 2009 CEP

flow can occur. Hence, a 4–5-deg. margin of safety with
respect to the mass-flow boundary is recommended (3).
No uncertainty region exists for vessels with planar
geometries. A switch to funnel flow will likely not occur
unless the conditions lie substantially past the boundary
line. In addition, the sloping walls required for mass flow
in wedge-shaped hoppers can be 10–12 deg. less steep than
those required to ensure mass flow in conical hoppers, pro-
vided the outlet is at least three times as long as it is wide.
If wall friction testing shows that the walls must be
fabricated or lined with a polymeric material to achieve
mass flow, a polymer grade filled with carbon black or other
conductive filler should be used to eliminate the possibility
of static charge accumulation.
Hopper outlet size. The second requirement for mass
flow is that the outlet must be large enough to prevent arch-
ing. Two types of arches are possible — interlocking arches
and cohesive arches (Figure 7).
Interlocking arches can be overcome by ensuring that the
diameter of a circular outlet is at least six times the largest
particle size. If the outlet is a slotted opening, the width must
be at least three times the largest particle size and the length
at least three times the width.
A cohesive arch can be analyzed by measuring the
cohesive strength of the material. The cohesive strength is
determined by the method described in ASTM D-6128 (2),
in which a direct shear tester is used to measure the strength
of a material under varying consolidation pressures. The
relationship between strength and major consolidation pres-
sure is called the flow function (Figure 8).
Once a material’s flow function has been determined, the
minimum outlet diameter that will prevent cohesive arch-
ing can be calculated using the bin’s flow factor, ff, which is
defined as the ratio of the consolidating pressure, σ1, to the
stress acting on an arch of material that forms at the outlet, σΑ:
ff = σ1/σA
The flow factor is a function of the internal friction of the
bulk solid (also determined by ASTM D-6128), the hopper
Interlocking Arch Cohesive Arch
S Figure 7. Arching may produce interlocking arches or cohesive arches.
angle, and the angle of wall friction. Values of the flow fac-
tor can be found in charts developed by Jenike (3).
Plotting both the flow function and the flow factor on the
same graph (Figure 8) allows comparison of the cohesive
strength and the arch stress. Three situations are possible:
• The flow factor lies above the flow function and the
two curves do not intersect. In this case, the stress imparted
on the arch is always greater than the material’s cohesive
strength, and cohesive arching is not a factor in determin-
ing outlet size. Instead, the outlet size should be selected by
consideration of flowrate, particle interlocking, etc.
• The flow function lies above the flow factor and the
curves do not intersect. The bulk solid will not flow under
gravity conditions alone. Therefore, measures such as vibra-
tion, agitation, or aeration may be necessary to induce flow.
• The flow function and flow factor intersect, as shown in
Figure 8. At the point where the two lines intersect, the arch
stress and the cohesive strength of the bulk solid are equal to
the critical stress, σcritical. The minimum outlet diameter to
prevent a cohesive arch from developing in a hopper, Bmin,
can then be calculated:
Bmin = H(θʹ)σcritical/ρbg (2)
where ρb is the material’s bulk density, g is acceleration
due to gravity, and the function H(θʹ) is approximately 2 for
conical hoppers and 1 for wedge-shaped or transition hop-
pers, as given in Ref. 3.
Flowrate considerations
Although an outlet diameter larger than the minimum
required will prevent cohesive arching, it may not necessar-
ily be large enough to accommodate the desired discharge
rate when fine powders are processed. When the bulk mate-
rial expands in the converging section of a mass flow vessel,
(1)
Yield Strength or Arch Stress
Slope = 1/ff
Flow Function
σcritical
Consolidation Pressure
S Figure 8. A material’s flow function and flow factor are used to deter-
mine the minimum outlet diameter required to prevent cohesive arching.
CEP September 2009 www.aiche.org/cep 41
Fluids and Solids Handling
S Figure 9. A constant-pitch, constant-diameter screw feeder (above left) can produce a
narrow flow channel in the vessel, leading to non-uniform discharge. A mass-flow screw
feeder (above right) can maintain uniform hopper discharge.
a slight vacuum forms, resulting in gas counterflow upward
through the outlet. At a critical discharge rate, the gas flow
will be high enough to retard the discharge rate, and efforts
to exceed this rate will result in erratic flow (4). For fine
powders, permeability testing is recommended to determine
the outlet size required to achieve the desired discharge rate.
In addition to ensuring that reliable flow takes place in
the vessel, it is also necessary for the entire cross-sectional
area of the outlet to be active. A restricted outlet, such as one
due to a partially open slide gate, will result in funnel flow
with a small active flow channel regardless of the hopper
design. It is therefore imperative that the feeder be capable
of continuously withdrawing material from the entire outlet
of the hopper. This allows mass flow to take place in the
vessel (if it is so designed). It also reduces the potential for
ratholing in funnel flow by keeping the active flow channel
as large as possible.
Feeder considerations
A hopper with an elongated outlet is often a preferred
geometry, because it is more effective at preventing arching
than a circular outlet and it allows mass flow to be achieved
more easily than with a conical hopper. When using a slotted
outlet, it is essential that the feeder capacity increases in the
direction of flow. Constant-pitch, constant-diameter screws
cause a flow channel to form preferentially at the back of the
Literature Cited
1. Shelley, S., “Preventing Dust Explosions: Are You Doing
Enough?,” Chem. Eng. Progress, 104 (3), pp. 8–14 (Mar. 2008).
2. ASTM International, “Standard Test Method for Shear Testing
of Bulk Solids Using the Jenike Shear Cell,” ASTM D-6128,
ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA (2006).
3. Jenike, A. W., “Storage and Flow of Solids,” Bulletin 123, Utah
Engineering Experiment Station, Univ. of Utah, Salt Lake City,
UT (1964, rev. 1976).
4. Royal, T. A., and J. W. Carson, “Fine Powder Flow Phenomena
in Bins, Hoppers, and Processing Vessels,” presented at Bulk
2000, Bulk Material Handling Towards the Year 2000, sponsored
by the Bulk Materials Handling Committee of the Process Indus-
tries Div. of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, London
(Oct. 1991).
42 www.aiche.org/cep September 2009 CEP
S Figure 10. A tapered interface (shown in blue), whose feed
capacity increases in the direction of discharge, will maintain
mass flow with a belt feeder.
hopper (Figure 9, left). A mass-flow screw feeder, comprised
of a tapered section followed by an increasing-pitch section,
ensures that the capacity of the feeder increases in the direc-
tion of flow (Figure 9, right). When using a belt feeder, the
required increase in capacity is achieved by using a tapered
interface (Figure 10).
Concluding remarks
Although chemical engineers possess the education and
experience to safely handle liquids and gases, their training
on the fundamental principles that describe the flow of bulk
solids is sometimes lacking by comparison. By understand-
ing the flow properties of a bulk material and how equip-
ment design affects flow patterns and the development of
obstructions, vessels and feeders for all types of solids can
be designed to handle bulk materials safely and reliably. Ves-
sels designed for mass flow are inherently safer to operate,
as the consequences of funnel flow often include high solids
velocities, degradation of stagnant material, dust formation
due to air entrainment, and sifting segregation. CEP
GREG MEHOS is a project engineer for Jenike & Johanson, Inc. (400 Business
Park Dr., Tyngsboro, MA 01879; Phone: (978) 649-3300; Fax: (978) 649-
3399; E-mail: gmehos@jenike.com). He has been involved in a wide
range of bulk solids handling projects, including hopper and feeder
design, design of gravity reclaim systems, and analysis of purge col-
umns. He received BS and PhD degrees in chemical engineering from
the Univ. of Colorado and a master’s degree in chemical engineering
from the Univ. of Delaware. He is a registered professional engineer in
Colorado and Massachusetts. A member of AIChE, he currently serves
on the executive committee of AIChE’s Particle Technology Forum.
ERIC P. MAYNARD is a senior consultant and the education coordinator for
Jenike & Johanson (E-mail: epmaynard@jenike.com). He has designed
handling systems for bulk solids, including cement, coal, limestone,
plastic powder, food products, and pharmaceuticals, and is the com-
pany’s cement industry specialist. He frequently lectures on the storage
and flow of bulk solids for the American Society of Mechanical Engi-
neers (ASME) and American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE),
individual companies, in-house courses, and numerous conferences.
He received a BS in mechanical engineering from Villanova Univ. and an
MS in mechanical engineering from Worcester Polytechnic Institute.