MASCHINEN UND ANLAGEN
MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENTS
Calendering
Free surface
CFD
The velocity and pressure field forms
within the gap of a calender is numeri-
cally calculated. The numerical calcula-
tions are based on a decoupled calcula-
tion method for the free surface of the
bank. The transport equations for mass
and momentum are solved numerically.
The position of the free surface of the
bank is determined by shifting it until it
matches a stream line. Parameters are
the gap height, the circumferential speed
of the rolls, the speed ratio, the feed mass
flow into the gap and the rheological
behaviour of the polymer. All process
parameters are subject to boundaries
due to the requirements to the quality of
the calendered sheet regarding surface
appearance, air bubble inclusions or
mixing of the polymer. The calendering
process itself requires limited operating
windows for the variation of the process
parameters in order to meet the product
quality requirements. These operating
windows are discussed and graphically
plotted.
Theoretische Diskussion von
Betriebsgrenzen für den Ka-
landrierprozess
Kalandrieren
freie Oberfläche
CFD
Auf numerischem Wege werden die
Geschwindigkeits- und Spannungsfel-
der und die sich im Verarbeitungs-
prozess einstellende Position der frei-
en Knetoberfläche berechnet. Die
Berechnung des Strömungsfeldes und
der sich einstellenden freien Oberflä-
che erfolgt iterativ. Die Transportglei-
chungen für die Massen- und Impuls-
ströme werden mit dem Programm
Polyflow gelöst. Die Lage der freien
Oberfläche wird aus dem Ergebnis für
das Geschwindigkeitsfeld berechnet.
Das Strömungsfeld und die Lage der
freien Oberfläche des Knets werden in
Abhängigkeit der Spalthöhe, der
Umfangsgeschwindigkeit der Walzen,
deren Friktions-Zahl, der Durchmesser,
dem durch den Spalt geförderten
Massenstrom und den Fließeigen-
schaften berechnet. Die Variationsbe-
reiche aller Verfahrensparameter un-
terliegen aufgrund der Anforderun-
gen an die Eigenschaften der kaland-
rierten Bahnen Grenzen. Mit Hilfe der
berechneten Strömungsfelder werden
Betriebsgrenzen bezüglich dispersiver
und distributiver Vermischung, Ober-
flächengüte, Lufteinschlüsse und
temperaturbedingter Defekte erläu-
tert. Die Betriebsgrenzen kennzeich-
nen Verarbeitungsfenster die qualita-
tiv dargestellt und diskutiert werden.
KGK Kautschuk Gummi Kunststoffe 58. Jahrgang, Nr. 4/2005
Theoretical Study of Operating
Limits for the Calendering
Process
Counter rotating rolls are used in calenders
to produce sheets and foils from polymeric
materials. The shaping of the sheets takes
place in the gap between the rotating rolls.
A schematic representation of the three-di-
mensional flow and pressure fields inside
the gap is shown in Fig. 1 as it was obser-
ved by Unkruer [1]. The polymer melt sticks
to the top roll and is conveyed into the di-
rection of the smallest gap. In front of the
smallest gap a pressure maximum deve-
lops. Because of the pressure gradient
the material is conveyed backwards into
the direction of the incoming material.
This pressure induced flow is superposed
to the drag flow along the roll surfaces.
This results in a bank formed by vortices
which are characteristic for the calende-
ring process. Because of another pressure
gradient directed in axial direction of the
rolls, the material is also conveyed into
these directions. The height of the bank
decreases towards the ends of the rolls.
The first mathematical analyses [2 – 6] of
the velocity field within the calender gap
are based on the model of Gaskell [7]. Bra-
zinsky et al. [6] included the calculation of
the thickness of the calendered sheet as a
function of the height between the rolls in
the entry cross section. The first numerical
calculations were made by Kipparissides
and Vlachopoulos [8, 9] based on the lubri-
cation approximation. This limitation was
overcome for the first time by Seeger et
al. [10]. Mitsoulis et al. [11] calculated
the non-isothermal flow field numerically
and the coordinates of the free surface
of the bank. Yao and Manas-Zloczower
[12] studied mixing in the calender gap.
They also include the free surface of the
bank. Three-dimensional calculations
without consideration of the bank were
made by Riest [13] for the first time.
Experimental results indicate, that the ve-
locity and pressure field and the adjusting
form of the bank determine the properties
of the produced sheet [14]. Too low a pres-
sure can cause air bubble inclusions within
the sheet [15], while pressure values which
are too high can lead to mattness on its
surface [16]. Inside the bank, the shearing
of the usually very viscous fluids leads to
the dissipation of mechanical energy. Be-
cause of the dissipated energy flow the
temperature rises and the material of the
produced sheet may decompose [17].
So far the influence of the shape of the
bank and its volume on the sheet proper-
ties has been experimentally analysed. In
this work the influence of the velocity field
inside the bank on the properties of the
produced sheet is analysed theoretically.
For this reason the flow field in the calen-
der gap, including the free surface of the
bank, is calculated numerically using a Fi-
nite Element Method. The relevant proces-
sing parameters are the gap height be-
tween the rolls, speed, temperature and
diameters of the rolls. An example of the
influence of the gap height on the bank
is shown schematically in Fig. 2. The sheet
with a constant height may be calendered
with different gap heights. According to
the gap height a bank with a certain height
is formed. This marks different processing
alternatives for the sheet properties.
Theory
The velocity and stress fields are numerical-
ly calculated for the volume of the gap be-
tween the calender rolls. The flow is assu-
med to be incompressible, isothermic and
stationary. The continuity equation gives
div ð~
vÞ ¼ 0 ð1Þ
S. Luther and D. Mewes, Hannover
Corresponding author:
Dr. Sabine Luther
Deutsches Institut für
Kautschuktechnologie e.V.
Eupener Str. 33
30519 Hannover
Tel.: 05 11/8 42 01-0
Fax: 05 11/8 38 68 26
149
Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the three-dimensional flow field
and the shape of the bank between two counter rotating rolls as it
was observed by Unkruer [1]
~
v means the velocity vector. The momen-
tum balance gives
q~
v grad ð~
vÞ ¼ div ðsÞ ÿ grad ðpÞ ð2Þ
with the density q, the extra stress tensor s
and the pressure p. For a viscous fluid the
extra stress tensor is calculated by
s ¼ 2gD ð3Þ
g is the viscosity and D the rate of deforma-
tion tensor. The rheological behaviour is
assumed to be described by the Ost-
wald-de-Waele relation. In this relation
the viscosity is a function of the second
invariant I2 of the rate of deformation ten-
sor D
"rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi#nÿ1
1 tension. In axial roll direction at z ¼ 0 the
g¼K I ðDÞ ð4Þ
2 2
with K as the consistency factor and n as
the flow index.
In Fig. 3 a representation of the grid and
the applied boundary conditions are
shown. The grid includes approx. 40 000
elements. At the location of maximum
pressure and behind the smallest cross sec-
tion a grid refinement is necessary. The in-
coming sheet has a constant height. The
fluid velocity is identical to the circumfe-
rential speed of the top roll. The mass
flow rate becomes
_ ¼qv h W
M ð5Þ
1 1 1
2 mum pressure decreases with increasing
h1 is the height of the incoming sheet, v1
the circumferential speed of the top roll
and W the width of the calendered sheet.
At the surface of the rolls there is no slip,
the pressure p is assumed to be constant at
the outlet cross section
150
Fig. 2. Schematic representation of two processing alternatives for the
calendering of a sheet with constant height
pðx ¼ x2 Þ ¼ 0 ð6Þ
and for the boundary in the axial direction
at the ends of the rolls
pðz ¼ ÿW=2Þ ¼ 0: ð7Þ
No flow should occur perpendicular to the
free surface
vn ¼ 0: ð8Þ
The forces acting on the free surface vanish
sij ¼ 0; ð9Þ
r ¼ 0: ð10Þ
Herein vn represents the normal velocity at
the three dimensional free surface, sij the
tangential shear stresses and r the surface
flow field is assumed to be symmetric. The
calculation of the free surface is done in a
numerically decoupled way from the solu-
tion of the transport equations [18].
Results
Several parameters are investigated which
influence the three-dimensional form of
the bank and the processing windows.
Analysed parameters are the rheological
behaviour, the gap height of the smallest
cross section and the circumferential roll
speed [18]. The diameters of both rolls
are assumed to be identical. The following
characteristic numbers are defined based
on a constant sheet thickness and constant
line speed v ¼ v2:
l dimensionless bank height:
H
H* ¼ ; ð11Þ
h2
l dimensionless gap height:
KGK Kautschuk Gummi Kunststoffe 58. Jahrgang, Nr. 4/2005
h0
h*0 ¼ ; ð12Þ
h2
l speed ratio:
v
f¼ 2: ð13Þ
v1
Gap height and speed ratio
In Fig. 4 the bank height is presented as a
function of the gap height for fluids with
non-Newtonian and Newtonian flow be-
haviour. Varied parameters are the roll dia-
meters and the circumferential speeds of
the rolls. Exclusively the rheological beha-
viour represented with the flow index af-
fects the bank height. This result was
also obtained by Brazinsky et al. [6], who
calculated the sheet thickness as a functi-
on of the upstream reservoir thickness and
the flow index with the simplification of
the lubrication theory. The results of Bran-
zinsky et al. are also given in Fig. 4. They
are in agreement with the FEM-calculati-
ons.
With increasing speed ratio at constant
line speeds V2 the circumferential speed
of roll 1 decreases. To achieve realistic
bank heights the gap height has to be in-
creased simultaneously. The increased gap
height leads to a reduced pressure within
the flow field. In Fig. 5 the computed ma-
ximum pressure is presented as a function
of gap height and speed ratio. The maxi-
gap height and speed ratio. The diagram
shows, that the production of a sheet
with a constant height and line speed
can take place with variable speed ratios
and gap heights. The range of alternative
processing possibilities is shown in grey co-
Fig. 3. Three dimensional grid geometry used for the numerical calcula- Fig. 4. Bank heights as a function of the gap height
tions

Fig. 5. Maximum pressures as a function of the gap height and the Fig. 6. Isobars as function of the gap height and the line speed
speed ratio

lour. These different processing alternati-
ves lead to different properties of the pro-
duced sheet. High pressure leads to sur-
face defects like mattness [16] or nerves
[5]. Low pressures lead to air bubble inclu-
sions in the sheet [15].
Air bubble inclusion and
surface structures
The processing parameters must be selec-
ted in such a way that the maximum pres-
sure adjusting in the calender gap is nei-
ther too high nor too low for the calende-
ring of a defective-free polymer sheet. In
Fig. 6 the isobars are represented as func-
tion of the gap height and the line speed
for a polymer sheet with the height of
h2 ¼ 0.5 mm. The isobars boarder diffe-
rent processing ranges with expected sur-
face defects and air bubble inclusions from
each other. The circumferential speeds of
both rolls are identical. The maximum pres-
sure and thus the tendency to surface de-
fects rise with increasing line speed and
decreasing gap height. The decrease of
the line speed and the simultaneous enlar-
gement of the gap height lead to a decrea-
sing pressure in the gap. The tendency to
the inclusion of air bubbles rises. The pro-
duction of polymer sheets with a defined
amount of surface defects and air inclusi-
ons can take place with different line
speeds and gap heights. The increase of
the line speed at constant maximum pres-
sures takes place when simultaneously the
gap height is increased.
In Fig. 7 the isobars are represented as
function of the speed ratio and the line
speed for the bank height h ¼ 67. The
maximum pressure and thus the probabili-
ty for the occurrence of surface defects rise
with increasing line speed and decreasing
speed ratio. The tendency to air bubble in-
clusions rise with decreasing line speed
and increasing speed ratio. The adjusting
maximum pressure in the gap decreases.
The increase of the line speed for equal
tendency to surface defects and air inclu-
sions can take place with simultaneous in-
crease of the speed ratio. If the speed ratio
is increased from 1.1 to 1.2 at a constant
pressure p ¼ 260  105 Pa, this leads to an
increase of the line speed from 3.6 m/min
to 4.7 m/min. The increase of the line
speed amounts to 31 %. The increase is
dependent on the gradients of the isobars.

KGK Kautschuk Gummi Kunststoffe 58. Jahrgang, Nr. 4/2005 151

Fig. 7. Isobars as function of the speed ratio and the line speed Fig. 8. Mixing index within the flow field between two counter rotating
rolls (Z = 0)

Fig. 9. Volume fraction of the flow field with mixing index of k  0.5 Fig. 10. Shear stress within the smallest gap as function of the gap
und shear stress s  s (d ¼ 0,5 m; f ¼ 1,0) height and speed ratio

Dispersive mixing
During dispersive mixing agglomerates are
broken and divided into small units. Disper-
sive mixing takes place at high shear and
extensional stresses. Breaking the
agglomerates takes place, if the shear
and normal stresses in the flow field are lar-
ger than the cohesion forces. The shear
and normal stresses are larger in exten-
sional flows than in shear flows. Therefore
Yang and Manas Zloczower [19] describe
the dispersive mixing efficiency with the
mixing index:
are compared. The mixing index is 1, if it is
a pure extensional flow and 0.5 for a pure
shear flow. For a pure rotational flow the
mixing index becomes zero. In Fig. 8 the
computed mixing index is shown within
the flow field between two counter rota-
ting rolls for a viscous fluid. In the range
of the symmetry plane between the rolls
and within the smallest gap a high mixing
index is computed. Along the roller surfa-
ces exist almost pure shear flow with va-
lues for the mixing index of k ¼ 0.5. Wi-
thin the bank predominantly a rotational
with high shear stress and also large mi-
xing indexes lead to a fast creation of a
good mixture.
The fraction of volume with high mixing
efficiency is given by
Vmixing
V*mixing ¼ ð15Þ
V
Here the volume of the material Vmixing
where high mixing indexes of k  0,5
and simultaneously high shear stresses
s  s(d ¼ 0.5 m; f ¼ 1.0) [20] are calcula-
ted and normalized with the whole volume
  flow with a very low mixing index is pre- of the material within the calender gap. As
  sent. The rotational flow does not contri- base factor for the shear stress the avera-
D
k ¼     ð14Þ bute to dispersive mixing. ged calculated shear stress s for the roll
D þ W Besides the type of flow to characterize the diameter d ¼ 0.5 m with a speed ratio of
mixing efficiency the height of the shear f ¼ 1 is selected. High volume fractions
Here the values of the rate of deformation stresses arising in the flow field have to correspond to high mixing efficiencies. In
tensor D and the rotating speed tensor W be regarded. Volumes of the flow field Fig. 9 the volume fraction of effectively mi-

152 KGK Kautschuk Gummi Kunststoffe 58. Jahrgang, Nr. 4/2005

Fig. 11. Streamlines within the gap to calculate the material fraction mi- Fig. 12. Volume of the polymer flow mixed within the bank as function
xed inside the bank of the speed ratio and bank height

Fig. 13. Operation points of the same maximum dissipated energy flow Fig. 14. Processing window as function of the gap height and the line
as function of the speed ratio and the line speed speed for viscous polymers

xed material is shown as function of the
speed ratio for different roll diameters
and a bank height H* ¼ 67. The results
show that with increasing speed ratio
and decreasing roll diameter the volume
fraction with high mixing efficiencies
slightly decreases.
Dispersive mixing improves with increasing
shear stress. The maximum shear stress in a
flow field is therefore another parameter
for the evaluation of dispersive mixing effi-
ciency in different flow fields [21]. The ma-
ximum shear stress arises in the smallest
gap at the surface of roll 1. At the location
of the pressure maximum the shear stress
almost drops to zero due to the small de-
formation speed. In Fig. 10 the shear stress
within the smallest gap is shown as a func-
tion of the gap height and the speed ratio
at the surface of roll 1 and roll 2. The ma-
ximum shear stress in the flow field increa-
ses with increasing gap height.
Distributive mixing efficiency
The distribution of the components in the
flow field occurs during the distributive mi-
xing process. In the flow field between the
two counter rotating rolls distributive mi-
xing takes place within the bank volume.
Only one part of the supplied mass flow
is transported into the bank volume. For
example if the polymer supply is done
via the surface of the top-roll, the upper
layer of the incoming polymer is transpor-
ted directly through the gap, while the po-
lymer at the lower surface is transported
into the bank volume. Therefore the calen-
dered sheet consists out of two layers. The
upper layer of the sheet contains the poly-
mer portion, which is not mixed within the
bank. The lower layer is mixed inside the
bank volume. In Fig. 11 the computed
flow field with the two layers represented
in different colours is shown.
The volume fraction of the polymer flow
mixed within the bank is given by
h2;B
h2;B *¼ ð16Þ
h2
with the height of the lower layer h2,B. In
Fig. 12 this volume fraction is shown as
function of the speed ratio for different
bank heights. The volume fraction is inde-
pendent of the bank height with constant
speed ratio. The computed volume fracti-
on is 50 % for a speed ratio of 1. Unkruer
[1] observes portions between 50 and

154 KGK Kautschuk Gummi Kunststoffe 58. Jahrgang, Nr. 4/2005


60 %. The computed values are in agree-
ment with this values from unkruer.
The volume fraction of polymer mixed wi-
thin the bank rises with increasing speed
ratio. This corresponds to observations
from Hatzmann, Herner and Mueller
[14]. They observed a qualitatively higher
mixing efficiency of the polymer with in-
creasing speed ratio.
Thermal decomposition
Due to local high temperatures within the
gap the polymer might be damaged by
thermal decomposition [17]. The decom-
position products form scorched spots at
the surface of the calendered sheet. The
heat build up develops in the gap due to
the dissipation of mechanical energy.
The heat flow resulting from dissipation is
Z a critical gap height should be exceeded.
Q_ diss ¼ Udiss dV: ð17Þ
V Processing windows
With the assumption that the conductive
and convective heat flow is negligible,
the local rise in temperature is proportional
to the dissipated energy flow
Q_ diss
DT ¼ ð18Þ
V_ q c p
with the volume flow V_ , the density q and
the specific heat capacity cp.
The maximum of the dissipated energy
flow is calculated within the smallest
gap, at x ¼ 0, close to the surface of roll
1, where the maximum shear stress arises.
The maximum of the dissipated energy
flow increases with increasing line speed
and speed ratio and decreases with increa-
sing gap height, i.e. decreasing bank
height. A maximum of the dissipated ener-
KGK Kautschuk Gummi Kunststoffe 58. Jahrgang, Nr. 4/2005
Fig. 15. Processing
window as function
of the speed ratio
and the line speed for
viscous polymers
gy flow represents an operation limit, since
this is associated with a local rise in tempe-
rature and the decomposition of the poly-
mer. In Fig. 13 operating points of equal
maximum dissipated energy flow are re-
presented as function of the speed ratio
and the line speed. With increasing line
speed and speed ratio the maximum of dis-
sipated energy flow rises and thus the dan-
ger of local decomposition of the polymer
increases.
The volumetric expansion of the bank re-
presents a further operation limit. During
the calandering with a very large bank
height the material at the edge of the
bank cools down. The cold material is
transported through the smallest gap
and form surface defects in the calendered
sheet [14, 22]. The bank volume is a
function of the gap height. For this reason
The processing parameters gap height, line
speed and speed ratio are subject to boun-
daries due to the quality requirements of
the calendered sheet. Exemplarily in
Fig. 14 a processing window is represented
as function of gap height and line speed.
The borders are characterized by the iso-
bars, which determine the quality of the
calendered sheet regarding surface defects
and air inclusions. Further the calendering
with very large bank volumes, i.e. small
gap heights, is not favourable since the
material at the edge of the bank cools
down and is transported through the smal-
lest gap. At last a maximum gap determi-
nes a minimum bank volume and therefore
a minimum shear stress in the smallest
gap. This should be avoided to obtain an
erfficient dispersive mixing. From the pro-
cessing window it can be taken that for ob-
taining a maximum line speed a large gap
height, i.e. a small bank height should be
selected.
In Fig. 15 is shown the processing window
as function of the speed ratio and the line
speed. The processing borders regarding
surface defects and cavities are given
with two isobars. Additionally a minimum
speed ratio should be exceeded. This ensu-
res a minimum volume fraction of mixed
material within the bank volume. With in-
creasing line speed and speed ratio the dis-
sipated mechanical energy rises. The dissi-
pated energy leads to the rise in tempera-
ture in the polymer. This can lead to
thermal damage of the calendered material
[17]. The decomposition becomes appa-
rent in the calendered sheet in form of scor-
ched spots. The processing parameters,
which lead to a constant, maximum energy
dissipation and a local rise in temperature,
represent therefore a further operation li-
mit. A middle ranged speed ratio should
be selected to obtain a maximum line
speed.
With help of measurements of the opera-
tion limits a processing window for the ca-
lendering process may be calculated and
the process parameters to obtain a maxi-
mum line speed can be selected.
Summary
The three dimensional velocity and pressu-
re fields are numerically calculated in a ca-
lender gap for viscous fluids by using the
method of finite elements. The analysis in-
cludes the determination of the free sur-
face of the calender bank. The shape of
the bank and the streamlines inside the
bank are a function of the flow index.
Sheets of constant thickness can be calen-
dered with the use of variable gap heights
and speed ratios. Increasing the gap
heights result in decreasing pressures
and diminished bank volumes. With larger
speed ratios pressures will decrease at con-
stant sheet thickness, line speed and gap
height. Different processing alternatives
are graphically defined as processing wind-
ows. The limits of the processing windows
are given by quality demanded properties
of the produced sheet. We conclude, that
for an optimised production with high ca-
lender speeds, medium ranged speed rati-
os and large gap heights which results in
small bank volumes are recommended.
155
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The authors
S. Luther is head of the processing department of
the german institute of rubber technology and Prof.
D. Mewes is head of the institute of process eng-
ineering at the university of Hannover.