Hydraulic Structure Module FINAL Final

Wolkite university, College of Engineering and Technology, HWRE February 2017
WOLKITE UNIVERSITY
DEPARTIMENT OF HYDRAULIC AND WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

HOLISTIC EXAM MODULE FOR 4TH YEAR
HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
PREPARED BY
1 DAWIT GIRMA (B.sc)
2 GEMACHU SHUNIYE (B.sc)
3 MELKA LEMA (B.sc)
4 BEDASSA DESSALEGN (M.sc)
February, 2017
Wolkite, Ethiopia
Module for Holistic, Hydraulic structures 1

Contents
CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................. 4
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES ........................................... 4
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF DAM TYPES .................................................................... 4
1.3 DAM SITE ASSESSMENT AND INVESTIGATION ............................................ 6
CHAPTER TWO .............................................................................................................. 10
2. GRAVITY DAMS ........................................................................................................ 10
2.1 FORCES ACTING & LOAD COMBINATION ON DAMS ................................ 10
2.2 GRAVITY DAM DESIGN AND ANALYSIS ...................................................... 15
CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................... 26
3. BUTTRESS DAMS ...................................................................................................... 26
3.1 COMPONENT PARTS OF BUTTRESS DAMS .................................................. 26
3.2. TYPES OF BUTTRESS DAMS........................................................................ 28
3.3. DESIGN PROCEDURE OF FLAT-SLAB TYPE BUTTRESS DAMS ............... 30
CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................. 31
4. ARCH DAMS ............................................................................................................... 31
4.1 ARCH GEOMETRY AND PROFILE. .................................................................. 31
4.2 DESIGN & ANALYSIS OF ARCH DAMS .......................................................... 33
4.3 CONCRETE DAMS DESIGN FEATURES & CONSTRUCTION ...................... 36
CHAPTER FIVE .............................................................................................................. 39
5. EMBANKMENT DAM................................................................................................ 39
5.1. EARTH – FILL DAM ........................................................................................... 39
5.2. ROCK FILL DAM ................................................................................................. 41
5.3. CAUSES OF FAILURE OF EARTH DAMS ....................................................... 41
5.4. CRITERIA FOR SAFE DESIGN OF EARTH DAM ........................................... 42
5.5. SELECTION OF AN EARTH DAM .................................................................... 42
5.6. SEEPAGE ANALYSIS ......................................................................................... 44
5.7. LAPLACE EQUATION FOR TWO DIMENSIONAL FLOWS .......................... 45
5.8. COMPUTATION OF RATE OF SEEPAGE FROM FLOW NET ....................... 47
5.9. SEEPAGE DISCHARGE FOR ANISOTROPIC SOIL ........................................ 48
5.10. PHREATIC LINE IN EARTH DAM .................................................................. 50
5.11. CHARACTERISTICS OF PHREATIC LINE (SEEPAGE LINE) ..................... 56
5.12. GRAPHICAL DETERMINATION OF FLOW NET ......................................... 57
5.13. STABILITY ANALYSIS .................................................................................... 58
CHAPTER SIX ................................................................................................................. 62
6. OUT LET WORKS....................................................................................................... 62
6.1 INTRODUCTION TO DAM OUT LETS .............................................................. 62
6.2 DETERMINATION OF REQUIRED DAM OUTLET CAPACITIES ................. 62
6.3 SELECTION CRITERIA ....................................................................................... 63
6.4 OUTLET WORKS POSITION IN RELATION TO RESERVOIR STORAGE
LEVELS ........................................................................................................................ 63
6.5 LOCATION OF OUT LET CONTROLS .............................................................. 63
6.6 HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF OUTLET WORKS ................................................... 64
6.7 HYDRAULIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS...................................................... 66
6.8 STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATION ..................................................... 68
CHAPTER SEVEN .......................................................................................................... 73

7. SPILLWAY .................................................................................................................. 73
7.1TYPES OF SPILLWAY .......................................................................................... 74
7.2 CHUTE SPILLWAY OR TROUGH SPILLWAY................................................. 79
7.3 SIDE CHANNEL SPILLWAY .............................................................................. 82
7.4 SADDLE SIPHON SPILLWAY ............................................................................ 83
7.5 SHAFT SPILL WAY .............................................................................................. 87
CHAPTER EIGHT ........................................................................................................... 89
8. ENERGY DISSIPATERS ............................................................................................ 89
8.1 STILLING BASINS TYPE .................................................................................... 90
8.2 BUCKET TYPE ENERGY DISSIPATERS .......................................................... 93
CHAPTER NINE .............................................................................................................. 97
9. WEIR ............................................................................................................................ 97
9.1 DESIGN OF DIVERSION WEIRS ........................................................................ 97
9.3 UPLIFT PRESSURE UNDER WEIR FOUNDATION ....................................... 112
9.4- STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF DIVERSION WEIRS .................................... 125

CHAPTER ONE
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
Brief list of Hydraulic Structures (including those out of the scope of this module are:
- Dams
- Intakes
- Outlets
- Spillways
- Energy Dissipators: Stilling basins, Plunge pools, Flip Buckets, Ski Jumps,
Aprons,
- Navigation structures- Locks, Ship-lifts and inclined plane, inland ports
- Pumping stations
- Canals, (Navigation and Water Conveyance), (Spawning canals)
- Other conveyance structures like pipelines
- Drop structures, Culverts and siphons
- Steel structures like gates, valves, air vessels, air vents, silt outlets
- Diversion work structures (Diversion dams and Weirs, river intakes, settling
basins,
- Fish ladders and passes
- Check dams
- Hydropower stations
- Earth retaining structures
- other river training structures
- Bridges, aqueducts
- Tunnels
- Irrigation structures
- Levees and canal dikes
- Revetments
- Breakwaters
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF DAM TYPES
The classification of Dams schematically shown in figure below:
Dams
Embankment Dams Concrete Dams
Dams with facing Dams with Core Arch Dam
Concrete facing Silt or clay core Gravity Dam
Asphaltic Asphaltic concrete Buttress Dam

Concrete facing

The various types of dams have been defined by ICOLD (International Commission Of
Large Dams) is given below.
Embankment Dam: Any dam constructed of naturally excavated materials placed without
addition of binding material other than those inherent in the natural material.
Embankment dams are usually referred to be types such as Earth fill, Rock fill,
and Hydraulic fill. The term embankment dam is used to indicate a zoned fill dam
involving selected areas of rock, gravel, earth and impervious zones, or
homogeneous earth fill dam. This is not necessarily zoned.
Earth fill dam: An embankment dam constructed primarily of compacted earth in either
homogeneous or zoned areas containing more than 50% of earth.
Hydraulic Fill dam: An embankment dam constructed of earth, sand, gravel or rock
generally from dredged material conveyed to the site of placement by suspension
in flowing water.
Rock fill dam: An embankment type of dam dependent for its stability primarily on rock.
As rock fill dams must contain an impervious zone, usually of selected earth with
filter zones comprising as substantial volume of the dam, the term rock fill dam
usually represents dams that contain more than 50% compacted or damped
pervious rock fill. The impervious zone may be of cement concrete, bituminous
concrete or other impermeable material.
Gravity dam: A type of dam constructed of mass concrete or stone masonry, or both,
which relies on its weight for stability. The dam is usually roughly triangular in
cross section with its base width so related to its height as to insure stability
against overturning, sliding or crushing.
Arch dam: A dam with upstream curvature which transmits the major portion of the load
or pressure to the abutments rather than to the bottom foundation. In general, an
arch dam has a base thickness less than 60% of its height. Dams of greater
thickness are considered as arch-gravity dams or gravity dams.
Arch-gravity dams: Are dams where the load or pressure is transmitted to both the
abutments and the bottom foundation.
Buttress dam: A dam consisting of a watertight upstream face supported at intervals on

the downstream side by a serious of intermittent supports termed buttress.
Buttress dams take many forms; multiple arch, multiple dome, plank, flat slab,
deck, hollow gravity, cellular gravity, solid head, or bulb head dams.

Selection of different types of Dams

The engineer should proceed on the premise that every dam site is unique. Many factors
may affect the selection of type of dam.
 Geology
i) Foundation requirements:
ii) Seismicity (earthquake risk):
 Topography:
 Availability of Technical skills
 Cost effectiveness
 Availability of materials
 Environment and public opinion
 Time and money
 Hydrology
1.3 DAM SITE ASSESSMENT AND INVESTIGATION
Parties directly involved in engineering of dam activities are:
- Owner - public or private organization
o Provision of financial resources
o Establishment of general objectives
- Consulting Engineer
o Planning and design
o Construction supervision
- Contractor for civil works
o Construction of required infrastructure
o Construction of civil works
o Assembly of equipments
Phases of engineering activities
A) Prior to construction
- Preliminary studies
o Collection and evaluation of existing data
o Field trips- reconnaissance of dam site and reservoir area, downstream
area
o Preliminary dam design including selection of type, main dimensions,
approximate site, costs, etc
- Feasibility studies
o Detailed investigation of site conditions
o Final selection of site
o Final selection of dam type, main dimensions, lay out
- Basic design
o Completion of detailed site investigations
o Detailed design, cost estimates construction schedules,
o Development of:
 Basic report


Tender documents for the construction of civil works (drawings,
specifications, general and special contract conditions)
B) During Construction
- Detailed (construction execution design)
o Stepwise detail of dam design a head of construction
o Site investigations oriented towards construction
- Construction activities
o Preliminary installation of contractor at site
o Construction of required infrastructure (road, camp, plant, water and
energy supply, etc)
o River diversion
o Construction of dam and associated structures
- Construction and assembly supervision
- Commissioning and operation manuals
o Preparation of manuals for testing, monitoring and operation of
equipment. Maintenance
C) After construction
- Monitoring, surveillance, operation
o Reading of instruments, evaluation of results
o Planning of operation
o Execution of operation activities
Collection and Evaluation of Basic Data
A) Topographic survey
- aims to determine and present:
o Configuration of the dam site
o Configuration of the reservoir area
o Accessibility to the site
o Accessibility to construction material sources and deposits
- Reasons
o Importance in dam type selection
o Importance in the selection of appurtenant structures
- Methods
o Arial surveying (used both for preparation of maps and for different
analysis of the data such as geological, geo-morphological, topographical,
etc)
o Ground surveying (scale maps, ground profiles –sections …)
B) Geological and geotechnical investigations
The general objectives of these and allied objectives are:

- To determine engineering parameters which can be safely used to evaluate
stability of the dam foundation and, on compressible foundations, i.e. soils, to
estimate the probable settlement and deformation,

- The determination of seepage patterns and parameters enabling assessment of the

probable seepage regime, including quantities and pressures and
- To confirm the containment integrity of the reservoir basin and the stability of its
margins
- Confirmation of the nature, suitability and availability of natural construction
materials, including the determination of the design parameters for fill materials.
Geological investigation also assess the availability (source, soil classification), quantity
and quality (types – gradation and mineral content, properties and characteristics, shear
strength, permeability, compressibility, penetration resistance) of the construction
material. The quality terms of the construction material are the suitability of the material
for:
- Embankment
- Rip rap and rock fill
- Concrete aggregate
Exploration and investigation methods (both for foundation and construction

material)
- Surface exploration
o Fluvial-lacustrine (flood plain deposits)
o Residual soils
- Geophysical (surface) explorations
o Seismic refraction
o Seismic reflection
o Electrical resistivity profiling
- Subsurface exploration
o Accessible methods: Test pits, large diameter borings, trenches, tunnels
etc.
o Inaccessible methods: Cone penetration methods, standard penetration,
auger drilling, percussion drilling, rotary drilling, core drilling
- Field and laboratory tests
o Field permeability tests
o In-place unit weight test
o Vane shear test
o Laboratory tests on soils (gradation, moisture, specific gravity,
compaction, density), aggregate (specific gravity, absorption, abrasion,
soundness) and rock (mono-axial, tri-axial compression tests, shear
resistance etc.)
C) Hydrogeology
Determines:
- groundwater seepage paths and connections
- mechanical and chemical actions of water on geological formations
- Interr-relation of different hydro geological formations (barriers, conductors,
anticlines, synclines .etc).
Explorations:
- water permeability tests
- peizometric measurements

- marking and tracing groundwater seepage paths

D) Metrology and Climatology
Methods of measurement and analysis:
- Metrological gauging stations
- Triangular interpolation
- Statistical correlations
E) Hydrological aspects and related Hydraulic aspects
i) River discharge serious

Is variation of discharges in time at a given section on a river (preferably at sections
of interest). Its importance is:
- Determination of availability of water
- Study of discharge regulation by use of reservoir
- Determination of production capabilities for different purposes (hydropower,
irrigation, water supply, etc).
Completing discharge series
- Rainfall-runoff models: transformation of precipitation in runoff + routing
(SSAR, HEC)
- Regression models; statistical correlation
- Stochastic models, stochastic hydrology
Safety standards for dams:
- Design dams and spillways large enough to ensure that the dam will not be
overtopped by floods up to probable maximum categories.
- Design the dam and associated structures so that they can be overtopped without
destruction or if possible without serious damage.
- Design the dam and associated structures so to ensure a slow breaching to protect
downstream reaches design in such a way that repairs may be carried out most
economically.
- Keep the dam low enough and impoundment small enough to avoid serious
hazards downstream
Determination of design floods
 Envelope curves for river basins- Myers. Creager. Crippen Qmax= CAn
 Observation of floods- flood hydrographs
 Statistical distribution- Gummbel, Log. Pearson. Other distribution
 Empirical methods based on runoff. Precipitations, basin characteristics.
 Unit hydrographs techniques.
 Storm patterns, PMP/PMF techniques.
Important factors to be taken in to account
 Antecedent conditions- moisture of ground. Pervious precipitations. Base flow

 Sources of runoff; rainfall, snowmelt
 Intensity, duration geographic distribution of rainfall
 Storm patterns, hydro-meteorological condition
 Routing through channel system.
CHAPTER TWO
2. GRAVITY DAMS
2.1 FORCES ACTING & LOAD COMBINATION ON DAMS
Loads can be classified in terms of applicability or relative importance as primary loads,

secondary loads, & Exceptional loads.
i) Primary loads: are identified as those of major importance to all dams

irrespective of type. Example self weight, water & related seepage loads.
ii) Secondary loads: are universally applicable although of lesser magnitude (e.g.
Silt load) or alternatively are of major importance only to certain types of dam
(e.g. thermal effects with in concrete dams).
iii) Exceptional loads: are so designed on the basis of limited general applicability
of occurrence (e.g. tectonic effects, or the inertia loads associated with seismic
activity)
Gravity dam Loads
a) Primary Loads
i. Water Load (Refer fig. 1.8)
Hydrostatic distribution of pressure with horizontal resultant force P1 (Note also a vertical
component exists in the case of an u/s batter, and equivalent tail water may operate in the
d/s face)
Z12 Z1
Pwh   w KN / m acting at
2 3
Where w unit weight of water =9.81 KN/m3

Pwv =w (area A1) KN/ m
Acting through centroid of A1
Pressure of any permanent tail water above the plane considered is :

 Z2
Pwn1  w 2
2
with Pwv1   w (area A2 )
ii. Self weight load: (Refer fig. 1.8, 3.1)
Determined w.r.t an appropriate unit weight of the material

Pm=c Ap KN/m
acts through the centroid of x- sectional area AP.
(c 23.5 KN/m3)

Where crest gates & other ancillary structures of considerable weight exist they must also
be considered in determining Pm & their appropriate position of line of action.
iii. Seepage & uplift load: (Refer fig. 1.8, 3)
Equilibrium seepage patterns will establish within & under a dam eg. with resultant
forces identified as P3 & P4.
Pu =  Ah (Uw ,avg)
 Z  Z2 
 . Ah . w  1  if no drain functioning.
 2 
 is area reduction factor
Ah nominal plane area at a section considered.
If no drains functioning
 
T 2 Z 2 1 Z 1
Pu acts at Y1  m
3 Z 2  Z1
In modern dams internal uplift is controlled by the provision of vertical relief drains close
behind the u/s face. Mean effective head @ the line of drains, Zd can be expressed as
Zd = Z2+Kd (Z1-Z2) m
Kd is function of drain geometry (i.e. diameter, special & relative

location with u/s face.)
Kd= 0.33 (USBR)
Kd = 0.25 Tennessee valley Authority
Kd= 0.25-0.5 appropriate to the site by the U.S crops of Eng‟s
The standard provision of deep grout curtain below the u/s face intended to limit seepage
also serves to inhibit pressure within the foundation. However, less certain than efficient
draw system & its effect is commonly disregarded in uplift reduction.
b. Secondary loads
i. Sediment load: (Refer fig. 1.8, 3.1)
Accumulated silt etc, generates a horizontal thrust, Ps. T the magnitude additional to
Pwh is a function of sediment depth, Z3, submerged unit weight s‟ & active lateral
pressure coefficient. Ka:

 s1.Z32
Ps  K a & acting @ Z3/3 above plane
2
s‟ = s-w where s is sediment saturated unit weight.
1  Sin s
Ka  Where s is angle of shearing resistance
1  Ain s
For representative values of s 18-20KN/m3

s 300
3 Z 32
Ps 
2
ii. Hydrodynamic wave Load (Refer fig. 1.8, 3.1)
Transient load (Pwave,) generated by wave action against the dam. It is not normally
significant & depends on the fetch & wind velocity.
Hs F
Pwave =2w Hs2

Where Hs - significant wave height ( is the mean height of the highest third of
the wave in train)
Hs range from 0.75 Hs for concrete dams to 1.3Hs for earth dams.
H  0.32 UF  0.76  0.24 4 F

U= in km/hr
F= in km
iii) Wind load: when the dam is full, wind acts only on the d/s side thus
contribute to stability. When empty the wind can act on the u/s face but in
significant compared to hydrostatic load. For buttress dams load on the
exposed surface has to be considered.
iv) Ice load: Not a problem in Ethiopia. It can be significant where ice sheets
form to appreciable thickness & persist for lengthy periods.
Pice =145 KN/m2 for ice > 0.6m thick, otherwise neglected

v) Thermal & dam /foundation interaction effect: Cooling of large pours of

mass concrete following the exothermic hydration of cement & the subsequent
variation in ambient & water temperatures combine to produce complex &
time dependent temp. Gradients within the dam equally. Complex interaction
develops as a result of foundation deformation.
C. Exceptional Loads (Refer fig. 1.8, 3.2)
Seismic load: Horizontal & vertical inertia loads, are generated with respect to the dam
& the retained water by seismic disturbance. Horizontal & vertical accelerations are not
equal, the former being of grater in density. For design purposes both should be
considered operative in the sense last favorable to stability of the dam, under reservoir
full conditions the most adverse seismic loading will then occur when the ground shock is
associated with.
1) Horizontal foundation acceleration operating u/s, and

2) Vertical foundation acceleration operating downwards and vice-verse for
reservoir empty condition
Seismic coefficient analysis
Seismic acceleration coefficient: h for horizontal

v =0.5h for vertical
Inertia forces: Mass of dam
Horizontal Pemh =  h Pm
Vertical Pemv =  v Pm operating through centroid of the dam
Hydrodynamic forces: water action
Relative to any elevation @ depth Z1 below the water surface, the pressure pewh
pewh = Ceh.w Z1. KN/m
Z1= Max. Water depth

Z = the depth @ section considered
Ce= dimensionless pressure factor
= f (Z/Z1, u) where u -inclination of u/s face to vertical
Total hydrodynamic load is given by.
Pewh = 0.66 Ce h Z1 w Z1 Z max . & acts @ 0.4 Z above section
pressure factor Ce.

Ratio z/z1 u =00 u = 1500

0.2 0.35 0.29
0.4 0.53 0.45
0.6 0.64 0.55
0.8 0.71 0.61
1.0 0.73 0.63
The vertical hydrodynamic load, Pewv, is

Pewv = v Pwv
Uplift load is assumed unaltered.
Resonance: results when period vibrations of the structure & earth quake period are
equal. For a concrete gravity dam of triangular X- section base thickness T
600T Eeff
Fn  HZ or  HZ ( Eeff  14GN / m2 )
hh 0.012h
As an example, the natural frequency of vibration of monolithic gravity profiles with
nominal height of 20m & 50m are 15-25 & 6-9 HZ respectively ( if major seismic
shock frequency of 1-10 HZ). Thus it is only of concern for large dams & vulnerable
portion of the dam.
Load combinations
Different design authorities have differing load combinations. A concrete dam should
be designed with regard to the most rigorous groupings or combination of loads
which have a reasonable probability of simultaneous occurrence.
Three nominated load combinations are sufficient for almost all circumstances. In
ascending order of severity we can have normal, unusual & extreme load combination
(NLC, ULC, ELE respectively) (see table)
With probability of simultaneous occurrence of load combination decreases, factor of
safety should also decrease.

2.2 GRAVITY DAM DESIGN AND ANALYSIS
Criteria & Principles
The conditions essential to structural equilibrium & so to stability can be summarized as
 H  V  o &
M  o
Assessed in relation to all probable conditions of loading, including reservoir empty
conditions the profile must have sufficient safety factor w.r.t:
a) Rotation & overturning.

b) Translation & sliding and
c) Overstress & material failure.
Over turning
Sliding
Stres X
X s
a) Overturning stability
Factor of safety against over farming, Fo, in terms of moment about the d/s toe of the dam
M
Fo   ve
M inclusive of moment generated by uplift )
M
ve
 ve
Fo > 1.25 may be acceptable, but Fo > 1.5 is desirable.
b) sliding stability
Factor of safety against sliding, Fs, estimated using one of the three definitions:
1) Sliding factor, FSS;

2) Shear friction factor, FSF or
3) Limit equilibrium factor, FLE.
The resistance to sliding or shearing which can be mobilized across a plane is

expressed through parameters C & tan.
1) Sliding factor, Fss
FSS 
H
V
If the foundation plane inclined @ small angle o
 H  tan
Fss 
V
 H 
1   tan  .
 V 
 
Fss should not permit to exceed 0.75, but under ELC up to 0.9 is acceptable.
2) Shear friction factor, FSF.
: is the ratio of total resistance to shear & sliding which can be mobilized an a plane to
the total horizontal load.

s
Fsf  
H
CAh
s  V tan(   ) KN / m.
cos  (1  tan  tan  )kN / m
forhoriontalplane (  0)
s  cAh  V tan  .
CS h  V tan 
 Fsf 
 H.
In some cases it may be appropriate to include d/s passive wedge resistance, pp, as a
further component of the resistance to sliding which can be mobilized.
Ww =weight of passive wedge.

Rw = sliding resistance in inclined plane.
=CAAB + (Ww cosα+Hsinα) tan
This is affected by modifying the above equation, hence,
s  pe CAas
Fsf  Where pp   Ww tan(  
H cos  (1  tan  tan  )
In the presence of horizon with low shear resistance it may be advisable to make S=0.

Recommended shear friction factor,FSF (USBR 1987)
Load combination
Location of sliding plane Normal Unusual Extreme
Dam concrete, base interface 3.0 2.0 >1.0
Foundation rock 4.0 2.7 1.3
C. Limit Equilibrium factor ( FLE)
This follows conventional soil mechanics logic in defining FLE, as the ratio of shear
strength to mean applied stress across a plane i.e
f
FLE =

 f is expressed by Mohr coulomb failure criteria, accordingly
c   n tan 
FLE   n . is stress acting normal to plane of sliding
æ
Referring the above figure, for single plane sliding mode:
FLE 
CAh  V cos    H sin  tan 
 H cos   V sin  . Note for  = 0 FLE =FSF.
This equation can be the developed for complicated failure plane
 FLE =2.0 normal operation & FLE =1.3 under transmit condition embracing
seismic activity)
C. Stress analysis in gravity method (Refer Figures 3.7)
Gravity method is useful to analyses stress in straight dams which are not geometrically
complex. It is founded on 2-D elastic dam on uniformly rigid foundation & linear
variation of stress from u/s to d/s .
The stresses evaluated in a comprehensive analysis are:
1) Vertical normal stress, z, on horizontal planes.

2) Horizontal & vertical shear stress,  zy ,&  yz
3) Horizontal normal stress, y ,on vertical planes and
4) Principal stress, 1 & 3 (direction & magnitude).

1. Vertical normal stress z.
Analysis is based on modified beam theory which is by combining axial & bending load.
z 
V   M * 1
y
Ah I
Where, v- resultant vertical load above the plane considered exclusive of uplift.
M* - summation of moments expressed w.r.t the centroid of the plane.
y‟ - distance from the centroid to point of considerations
I - second moment of area of the plane w.r.t centroid
For 2-D plane section of unit width Parallel to the dam axis, & with thickness T normal to
the axis:
V vey1
z   12 3 and at y‟=T/2
T T
v  6e 
 z  1  
T  T 
For reservoir full condition

v  6e 
At the u/s face  zu 1  
T  T
v  6e 
At the d/s face  zd  1
T  T 
Where e is the eccentricity of the resultant load, R, which must intersect the plane d/s of
its centroid for the reserve full condition
(The sign convention is reversed for reservoir empty condition of loading)
M *
e Where v - excludes uplift
V
For e> T/6, at u/s face –ve stress is developed, i.e. tensile stress. In design, tensile stress
has to be prohibited, but difficult to totally eliminate low tensile stress in gravity dam.
Total vertical stresses at either face are obtained by the addition of external hydrostatic
pressure.

2. Horizontal & vertical shear stresses
Numerically equal & complementary horizontal (zy) & vertical (yz) shear stresses are
generated @ any point as a result of variation of vertical normal stress over a horizontal
plane.
or u/s d/s face angle u & d respectively &

Pw hydrostatic pressure @ u/s end
 u  Pw   zu  tan u
&
 d   zd t tan d
The variation b/n u/s & d/s stress is parabolic, & depend on rate of change of variation of
normal stress
3. Horizontal normal stress, y
It can be determine by consideration of the equilibrium of the horizontal shear force

operating above & below a hypothetical horizontal element through the dam. The
difference in shear forces is balanced by the normal stresses on vertical planes.
 yu  Pw   zu  Pw  tan 2u
 yd   zd tan 2 d
4. Principal stresses
,& 3 may be determined from knowledge of z& y & construction of Mohr‟s circle
diagram to represent stress conditions at a point, or by application of the equation given
below.
z y
Major Principal Stress  1    max
2
z y
Minor principal stress  3    max
2

z  y
Where  max   2
2
The boundary values, 1 & 3 are determined by:
For upstream face

1u= zu (1+ tan2u)-Pw tan 2u
3u=Pw
For downstream face assuming no tail water

1d=zd (1+tan 2d)
3d=0
Permissible stresses & cracking
The following table gives permissible compression stresses factor of safety for gravity
dam body & rock foundations. (USBR 1976)
load combination Minimum factor of safety on compressive strength

Fc(concrete) Fr, (rock)
2
Normal 3.0 (max & 10 MN/m ) 4.0
2
Unusual 2.0 (max &15 MN/m ) 2.7
Extreme 1.0 maxm allowable stress 1.3
Horizontal cracking assumed to occur if zu min (without uplift) below limit set by
 z   t1
 zu min  kd w
Ft 1
Fig. Combined base pressure & uplift pressure diagram.

When the uplift is introduced & the uplift pressure @ the U/s face is < A1, the final stress
may be computed by the above formula. If the uplift pressure @ the upstream face is
greater than A1. i.e. less than permissible tension stress. Revise as follows.
1. A horizontal crack is assumed to exist & extend from the u/s face toward the d/s face
to a point where the vertical stress of adjusted diagram is equal to the uplift pressure @

the u/s face.

2. Taking moments about center of gravity & check whether the section is adequate for
over turning, sliding & material failure.
M
e1 
V  A3.T
T 
T1  3  e1 
2 
2V  A3.T 
B5   A3
T1
Kd= 0.4 if drains are effective
= 1.0 if no drains.
t‟ = tensile bond strength of concrete.
Ft‟= Factor of Safety [Ft‟ =3 for NLC,
=2 for ULC,&
= 1.0 for ELC

Design Gravity Dam profile
U/s face flare: the u/s face of a gravity profile is frequently modified by the introduction
of a significant flare.
Design of small dams associated with provision of‟ standard‟ triangular profile of u/s
vertical face & d/s slope of 0.75 horizontal to 1.0 vertical.
In the case of large dams a unique profile should be determined to match the specific
conditions applicable. Two approaches are possible; the multi stage & single stage.
Single stage: is based on definition on a suitable & uniform d/s slope. The apex of the
triangular profile is set @ or just above DFL & initial base thickness T is determined for
each loading combination in terms of F0. The critical value of T is then checked for
sliding stability & modified if necessary before checking heel & toe stress @ base level.
For no tension @ u/s vertical face

1
tan d  Take  =1.0
 c 
   
w 

The multistage approach defines a profile where the slopes are altered at suitable
intervals.
Design commences from crest level, & descends downwards through profile stages
corresponding to pre determined elevations. Each stage is proportioned to as to maintain
stress level within acceptable limits. E.g. no tension under any condition of loading.
The resulting profile allows marginal economics on concrete, but more expensive to
construct than the single –stage. Multi-stage profiles are now seldom employed, even on
large dams.
Advanced Analytical methods
When interaction b/n adjacent monolith result in loads transfer & complex structural
response, and further differential settlement exist, then alternative analytical approaches
called trial loads twist analysis & finite element analysis exist.
Stabilizing and heightening (Refer fig. 3:10 & 3:11)
Remedial action to improve stability can be taken by pre-stressing provides an additional

vertical load with a resultant line of action close to the u/s face.
This improves F0 or Fs by operating adjunct to Pm.
Overturning design pre-stress required; Pps  F0

M   M  KN / m
 ve  ve
y2
Where y2 is moment arms of Pps
FSF H  CAh
Sliding Pps   V
tan 

The pre-stressing tendons are typically located @ 3 to 7m centers to centers along the
crest. The pre-stress load required for each, PT (kN) is the appropriate multiple of Pps .
Pre-stressing also useful for heightening of the dam.
Downstream shoulder (Refer figure 3.11)
 Contribution by weight of fill & rest pressure Pds

WF =f*A
Pds= Ko..f . ZAB.Z KN/m
Where, ZAB & Z as shown in the figure 3.11.

f unit weight of the fill
Ko is at „rest‟ pressure coefficient
Pds acts ZAB/3 above the base plane
Illustrative values of ko.
Shoulder fill Coeff. Ko

Compacted rock fill 0.2 – 0.3
Compacted sand 0.45 – 0.55
Compacted clay 1.0 – 2.0
Heavy compacted clay > 2.0

CHAPTER THREE
3. BUTTRESS DAMS
3.1 COMPONENT PARTS OF BUTTRESS DAMS
A buttress dams consists of the following component

1) Sloping membrane: - The sloping membrane or u/s deck supports the water and
transmits the water load to a series of buttresses at right angle to the dam axis.

2) Buttresses: - are constructed at right angles to the axis of the dam at certain intervals.
They support the slopping membranes & transfer the load to the foundation. They are
thin walls of triangular profile with sloping u/s face.
3) Footings: - Footings are required for the buttresses to transfer the loads to the
foundation. If the foundation is relatively strong, spread, footings are provided but for
relatively weak foundation max footing is required.
4) Lateral Braces (strut):- are provided b/n adjacent buttresses at right angles to them to
reduce unsupported length & thus provide lateral stiffness and resistance to buckling of
buttresses.
5) Haunches or Corbels: - The wide upstream end of buttresses which help in transiting
the load from the u/s deck to the buttresses.
6) Cutoff: - is provided at the upstream end of the dam to reduce the seepage & up lift.
3.2. TYPES OF BUTTRESS DAMS

They may be classified in the following two ways
1. on the basis of the sloping membrane
2. on the basis of joint b/n the sloping membrane & buttresses
Classification Based on the Type of Sloping Membrane
This is further classified in the following categories
i. Deck slab or flat slab or Ambursen type buttress dams
ii. Multiple -arch type buttress dams
iii. Multiple -dome type buttress dams
iv. Massive head type buttress dams or bulk head type buttress dams
i. Deck slab or Flat Slab or Amburesn type Buttress Dam
In this type of buttress dam the deck slab consists of a reinforced concrete slab
supported by as series of buttresses. The inclination of the deck slab is kept b/n 350
and 450 with the horizontal. The corbel or haunch is always reinforced since tensile
stress could develop. The rest of the buttress may or may not be reinforced. Struts are
of R.C.
Deck slab may Further Sub divided into
a) Simple deck slab type buttress dams (Simply Supported Slab)
The deck slab is not rigidly connected to the buttresses but it is in the form of simply
supported slab. In order to provide a wide support for the slab, the upstream end of
the buttress where it joints the slab is made wider by providing haunch or corbel. The
joint b/n the slab & the buttress tongue is filled with bituminous mastic or some
flexible joint compound.
This permits each slab to act independently and allows free expansion of the slab in
the direction parallel to the base line dam. Reinforcement is placed only at the down
stream face. These types of buttress dams are suitable for wide valleys where along
dam is required & the foundation is weak. The main disadvantage of this type is that
it requires a thicker slab as compared to the fixed (continues) slab.

Fixed (or continuous) Deck Slab Type Buttress Dams

The deck slab is cast monolithic with the buttresses and it acts as a continuous slab.
Reinforcement is provided both on upstream & down stream faces of the slab. This
type of deck can be used only when the foundation is strong, where it will be more
economical; than the freely supported slab b/c the deck slab is thinner.
Cantilever Deck slab type Buttress Dams

The deck slab is cast monolithic with the buttresses in such a manner that it over
hangs on either side of the buttress and acts as cantilever.
Multiple Arch Types Buttress Dams

The sloping membrane or deck consists of a series of R.C arches supported by a
number of buttresses. The arches are cast monolithic with the buttresses.
Multiple -Dome Type Buttress Dams:-
Sloping membrane or deck consists of a series of R.C domes supported by a number
of buttresses.
Massive Head Type Buttress Dams:-
These types of buttress dams may be further of the buttress heads and hence the
buttress heads are not reinforced. These types of buttress dams may be further sub-
divided on the basis of the buttress head into:-
A) Round head buttress dams
B) Diamond head buttress dams
C) Tee head buttress dams
Classification Based on the joint b/n the sloping membrane Buttresses

Under this we have following categories
1) Rigid buttress dams: -
2) Flexible (or articulated) Buttress Dams:
3) Semi - rigid buttress Dams: -

4) FORCES ON BUTTRESS DAMS

Buttress dams should full fill stability requirements as that of gravity dams. Further in the
case of a buttress dam the total force acting per buttress unit must be considered instead
of force per unit length of dam as in the case of gravity dam.
3.3. DESIGN PROCEDURE OF FLAT-SLAB TYPE BUTTRESS DAMS
The design involves the following steps:-
i) Determination of economic buttress spacing & upstream slope
ii) Design of deck slab &other details
iii) Preliminary design of buttress & check for overall stability
Economic Buttress Spacing
The most economical spacing depends up on the following factors
i) Height of dam
ii) Type of footing
iii) Foundation conditions
iv) Upstream slope of dam
Height of dam:-Economic buttress spacing increases with the height of the dam. For
buttress dams on sound rock foundations the usual spacing are given below.
Type of Footing: it is not economical to have very large spacing of buttresses b/c the
quantities of material required for spread footing (or mat foundation) & for the apron of
spillways, provided b/n the buttresses increase with an increase in the buttress spacing.
Upstream slope: Varies from 350 to 450 and is governed by the requirements of sliding
factor. i.e. H/v resistance against sliding is achieved from the vertical component of
the water pressure since self weight of the buttress dam is relatively small. Vertical
component of the water pressure varies with the upstream slope.
A master curve is extremely useful for determining the most economical spacing for d/t
upstream slopes.
Advantages of Buttress dams
i) less concrete used compared to a gravity dam of the same height
ii) More safety against overturning and sliding b/c of the larger vertical
component of hydrostatic force exerted on the dam.
iii) More equal distribution of stresses at foundation
iv) Less massive than gravity dam hence may be used on weak foundations that
are not suitable for gravity dam
v) Decreased uplift pressure ( if no spread footing joining the buttresses is used)
Disadvantages
i) Needs reinforcement and expensive shuttering
ii) Additional skilled labor is required to create form work
iii) Threat of deformation of concrete from impounded water is more likely than
from a thick gravity section
iv) More susceptible to damage by sabotage.

CHAPTER FOUR
4. ARCH DAMS
The single –curvature arch dam & the double curvature arch or capola were introduced
with concrete dams previously and the rock & valley conditions which various arch dam
were outlined in the first chapter.
Valley suited for arch dams

 Narrow gorges
 Crest length to dam height ratio should be less than / equal to 5
b  H ( Sec1  Sec 2 ) B
Sr   For Sr ≤ 5, arch dam may be feasible
H H
B
F1
F2 H
Arch dam transfers its loads to the valley sides than to the floor. Overturning & sliding
stability have little relevance here. If the integrity & competence of the abutment is
assured, failure can occur only as a result of overstress. Arch dam design is therefore
centered largely up on stress analysis and the definition of an arch geometry which avoids
local tension stress concentration and /or excessive compressive stress. The area of
cupola dam offer great economics in volume of concrete.
Associated with saving may also be realized in foundation excavation & preparation, but
the sophisticated form of arch dam leads to very much increased unit costs. In case of
complex geology of abutment saving can also be negated by requirement of ensuring
abutment integrity under all conditions.
4.1 ARCH GEOMETRY AND PROFILE.
The horizontal component of arch thrust must be transferred in to the abutment at a safe
angle β as shown in the figure below. In general abutment entry angle of 450 to 700 is
acceptable.

average rock cont our
a
Foundat ion rock cont ours
t
en
ng
ί
ta
F
Fig. Angle between arch thrust and rock contour
Arch & cupola profiles are passed on a member of geometrical forms.
i) Constant radius profile: is the simplest geometry, U/s face of the dam is of
constant radii with a uniform radial d/s slope. It is apparent that central angle, 2θ,
reaches a max. @ Crest level.
In symmetrical valley minimum concrete volume when 2θ =1330, but entry angle
preclude this & 2θ ≤ 110. The profile is suited to relatively symmetrical U-shaped valley.
ii) Constant angle profile: Central angle of different arch have the same magnitude
from top to bottom & uses up to 70% of concrete as compared to constant radius
arch dam. But it is more complex as demonstrated in the figure. It is best suited to
narrow & steep-sided V-shaped valleys.

iii) Cupola profile. Has a particularly complex geometry & profile, with constantly
varying horizontal & vertical radii to either face.
4.2 DESIGN & ANALYSIS OF ARCH DAMS
Loads on arch dams:

- Loads on arch dams are essentially the same as loads on gravity dams.
- Uplift forces are less important, if no cracking occurs it can be neglected.
- Internal stresses caused by temperature change, ice pressure, and yielding of
abutment are very important.
- An arch dam transfers loads to the abutments and foundations both by cantilever
action and through horizontal arches.
The design /analysis can be based on.

-The thin cylinder theory
-The thick cylinder theory.
-The elastic theory.
Thick & thin Ring (cylinder) theory.
- The theory envisages that the weight of concrete & that of water on the dam is
carried directly to the foundation not to the abutment
- The horizontal water load is borne entirely by arch action.
- The discrete horizontal arch elements are assumed to form part of a complete ring
subjected to uniform radial pressure, Pw, from the water load & hence it is
assumed to have uniform radial deformation.
Thin Cylinder Theory

The theory assumes the arch to be simply supported @ the abutments & that the
stresses are approximately the same as in a thin cylinder of equal outside radius.
Consider thin ring 1-2 of unit height h = @ a depth of h below water surface.
Hydrostatic pressure acting radially against the arch is wh.
Ri t
dh
Ru
F
F
B/2 B/2

Le Ru = extrados radius Ri = intrados radius

Forces parallel to stream axis
2F sin  = 2Ru sin. wh.
F = wh Ru
F  h.R
The transverse unit stress    w u
T *1 T
 hR
For given stress the required thickness is T  w u

 w hRc  hR
Since Ru = Rc+0.5T = Ri + T ; T  w i
  0.5 w h    w h
Condition for least volume of concrete
V= A.R2θ = T*1*R2θ
 hR  h
T w  KR ; K w
 
2
 B 
V  KR   K 
2 2 
 sin  / 2 
 
dV
 0 , gives  = 1330341. (Most economical angle of arch with minimum volume)
d
For 2 =1330341; R= 0.544B
Thick cylinder theory
At Radius R, the compressive ring stress is given by
Ru
Ri
T
Ru
R
Ri
T
Pu
pi

 Ru2  Ru2 Rd 2 / R 2

  p w  

 Ru2  Rd2

 ring stress is max @ d / s face
T  Ru  Rd is uniform at any elevation .
2 w Z 1 Ru
2
  h max  ( for R  Rd ) For design

Tr ( Ru  Rd )
2 w Z 1 Ru
2
Tr  For analysis
 ( Ru  Rd )
Note in theory, T should diminish towards crown & increase towards abutments. In
practice, T usually is constant at any elevation on a simple arch profile, and correction for
maximum stress at abutment made by factor, Kr, determined as a function of θ & Ru /T
from curves.
For thin rings theory, therefore,
K r  w Z1 Ru
h  at abutment .
Tr
Elastic Arch theory

This theory also assumes complete transfer of load by arch action only. Horizontal arch
rings are assumed fixed to the abutments, but acting independently of neighboring rings.
Effects of temperature variation on arch stress is considered. This method can be used for
preliminary design to determine adequacy of the section designed by the (cylinder theory)
The following formulae (modified by Cans equation) are used for calculating thrusts &
moments at the crown & abutments.
crown
h
*
w Ho
?
p=
Mo
Ru
R
Rd
?
Ma abu
tm ent
Ha

Thrust @ crown
PR T2
H o  PR  2 sin   is in radians.
D R
1 T 2   sin 2 
where D     
2     2 sin 
2
if shear is neglected .
 12 R   2 
 T2   sin 2  T2 sin 2
D  1        2 sin   3
2
 (  ) if shear is included .
  2 
2 2
 12 R 12 R 2
 sin  
M 0   PR  H o R1  
Moment @ crown:   
Thrust @ abutments: H a  PR  PR  H o  cos  .
 sin  
Moment @ abutments: M a  R PR  H o   cos  
  
After calculating thrusts & moments, stresses at intrados & extrados are calculated from
 H 6M 
   2 .
T T 
4.3 CONCRETE DAMS DESIGN FEATURES & CONSTRUCTION

Design features divide in to three major categories
 Those related to seepage
 Those which accommodate deformation or relative movement
 Features related to structural continuity i.e. load transfer devices & possibly-
Those which facilitate construction
Cut-off & foundation grouting
 Cut-offs are formed by grouting

 Shallow trenches constructed under heel of dam contribute to seepage control
Uplift relief drains

 Drainage holes d/s of grout curtain
 Holes are 75-100min.  & spacing of 3-5 centers & are drilled from inspection
gallery
 Uplift within the dam relived by holes running full height & of at least 150
mm  to inhibit blocking by leached out material & located near to u/s face &
spaced at about 3m.


Relief drain efficiency is a function of drain geometry i.e. spacing ,  distance
form u/s face
Internal design features
 Inspection gallery
 Collects inflow from seepage & inspection gallery.
 Also gives access to appurtenance structures
 Should not be less than 2x1.2m
 Adequate ventilation & lighting is required
o Transverse contraction joints ( inter- month invites)
 Vertical contraction joints are formed @ regular intervals of 12-15m.
 They permit minor differential moment
 They are made necessary by shrinkage & thermal characteristics conc.
Construction joints (inter-lift joints)

 This is provided to prevent post construction shrinkage & cracking
 Lift height is generally 1.5- 2.0m
 Lift surface is generally constructed with a fall of about 4% towards the u/s face
Load transfer & continuity

Although gravity dams designed on the basis of free standing vertical cantilevers,
load transfer is affected by interlocking vertical shear keys on the construction joint
face. In the case of arch & cupola dams it is essential to provide horizontal continuity
to develop arch action. The construction joint are grouted after the structure is load
Pulvino
Pulvino or pad, which is heavy perimentral concrete, is constructed between the shell
of a cupola dam & the supporting rock to assist in distributing load in to the
abutments and foundation.
Concrete zoning
Different concrete mix can be need in facing & hearting of concrete dam.
14A
13A
3rd year 12A
11A
10A
9A 12-15m
8B
8A
2nd year 7B
7A
6B
6A 5C
5B
5A 4C
4B
4A 3C
3B
1st year 3A A,B,C= variable concrete quality
2A 2B 2C
1A 1B 1C
Fig:Concrete zoning

Construction planning & execution

Initial phase - site preparation
Second phase -river diversion
Third phase - foundation excavation & preparation
Fourth phase – construction operation
Final phase- completion of ancillary work
Concrete for dams
The desirable characteristics comparable to concrete strength in concrete dams are
a) satisfactory density n& strength
b) durability
c) low thermal volume change
d) resistance to cracking
e) low permeability &
f) economy
The primary constituents of concrete are cement, mineral aggregate & water. Secondary
constituents employed for dams include pozzolans & selected other admixtures.
 Cement:
 Aggregates:
 Water:
 Pozzolana:
 Admixtures:

CHAPTER FIVE
5. EMBANKMENT DAM
Embankment Dams are of two types:

(i) Earth-fill or Earth Dams
(ii) Rock fill or earth- rock Dams
5.1. EARTH – FILL DAM

The bulk of mass in an earth fill dam consists of soils while in the rock fill dam it consists
of rock materials. Depending upon the method of construction, earth dam can be divided
in two categories:
(i) Rolled fill Dam
(ii) Hydraulic fill Dam
In the Rolled fill Dam, the embankment is constructed in successive, mechanically

compacted layers. The suitable materials are transported from borrow pits to the
construction site by suitable earth moving machineries. It is then spread by Bulldozers,
and sprinkled to form layers of limited thickness having proper water content. They are
then thoroughly compacted and bonded with the preceding layer by means of power
operated rollers of proper design and weight.
In the case of Hydraulic fill dam the materials are excavated, transported and placed by
Hydraulic fill method. In this method the flumes are laid at a suitable falling gradient
along the outer edge of the embankment. The material mixed with water at borrow pits, is
pumped into these flumes. The slush is discharged through the outlets in the flume, at
suitable interval along their length. The slush thus flows towards the center of the bank.
The course material of the slush settles at the outer edge while finer material settles at the
center. No compaction is done. At present the method is not in general use.
Rolled fill earth dams can further use subdivided into the following types
(i) Homogeneous embankment type
(ii) Zoned embankment type
(iii) Diaphragm embankment type
Embankment Dam
Earth Dam Rockfill Dam Composite

Type
Accordint to design
According to method of
Constructuion
Homogenous Zoned Diaphriagm Rolled Hydraulic Semi Hydraulic

fill type fill type fill type

(1) Homogeneous Earth Dams: are constructed entirely or almost entirely of

one type of earth material (exclusive of slope protection). A homogeneous
earth dam is usually built when only one type of material is economically
available and/or the height of dam is not very large.
a) Homogeneous (figure 5.1)
b) Modified homogeneous
a) With horizontal blanket b) With rock toe

Figure 5.2
(2) Zoned Earth Dam, however, contains materials of different kinds in different
parts of the embankment. The most common type of an earth dam usually adopted
in the zoned earth dam as it leads to an economic & more stable design of the
dam. In a zoned earth dam, there is a central impervious core which is flanked by
zones of more pervious material. The pervious zones, also known as shells,
enclose, support and protect the impervious core. The U/s shell provides stability
against rapid draw downs of reservoirs while the downstream shell acts as a drain
to control the line of seepage and provides stability to the dam during its
construction and operation. The central impervious core checks the seepage.
Figure 5.3
(3) Diaphragm embankment type: In this the bulk of the embankment is
constructed of pervious material and a thin diaphragm of impermeable material is
provided to check the seepage. The diaphragm may be of impervious soils,
cement concrete, bituminous concrete or other material and may be placed either
at the centre of the section as a central vertical core or at the u/s face as a blanket.

Figure 5.4: Diaphragm embankment
5.2. ROCK FILL DAM
The designation „rock fill embankment‟ is appropriate where over 50% of the fill material may
be classified as rock pieces. It is an embankment which uses large size rock pieces to provide
stability and impervious membrane to provide water tightness.
Modern practice is to specify a graded rock fill heavily compacted in relatively thin layers by
heavy plants. The constructions method is essentially similar to that of Earth fill Dams. Materials
used for membrane are earth, Concrete steel, asphalt and wood. The impervious membrane can
be placed ether on the upstream face of the dam or as a core inside the embankment. Such a
construction therefore becomes similar to diaphragm type. Rock fill embankments employing a
thin u/s membrane are referred to as decked rock fill dams.
5.3. CAUSES OF FAILURE OF EARTH DAMS
On the basis of investigation reports on most of the past into three main classes:
1. Hydraulic failures : 40%
2. Seepage failures : 30%
3. Structural failures: 30%
Hydraulic Failures: Hydraulic failures include the following:

(i) Overtopping
(ii) Erosion of U/S face
(iii)Erosion of D/S face
(iv) Erosion of D/S toe
Seepage failures: Seepage failures may be due to

(a) Piping through the body of the dam
(b) Piping through the foundation of the dam
(c) Conduit leakage
(d) Sloughing of downstream toe.
Structural Failures: Structural failures may be due to the following reasons:

(i) Upstream and Downstream slope failures due to pore pressures
(ii) Upstream slope failure due to sudden draw down
(iii) Downstream slope failure during full reservoir condition.
(iv) Foundation slide: Spontaneous liquefaction

(v) Failure by spreading

(vi) Failure due to Earth quake
(vii) Slope protection failures
(viii) Failure due to damage caused by burrowing animals
(ix) Damage caused by Water soluble materials
Figure 5.5
5.4. CRITERIA FOR SAFE DESIGN OF EARTH DAM

An earth dam must be safe and stable during phases of construction and operation of the
reservoir. The practical criteria for the design of earth dams may be stated briefly as follows.
1. No overtopping during occurrence of the inflow design flood.
a. appropriate design flood
b.Adequate spillway
c. Sufficient outlet works
d. Sufficient free board
2. No seepage failure
a. Phreatic (seepage) line should exit the dam body safely without sloughing
downstream face.
b. Seepage through the body of the dam, foundation and abutments should be
controlled by adapting suitable measures.
c. The dam and foundation should be safe against piping failure.
d.There should be no opportunity for free passage of water from U/S to D/S both
through the dam and foundation.
3. No Structural failure
a) Safe U/S & D/S slope during construction
b) Safe U/S slope during sudden draw down condition.
c) Safe D/S slope during steady seepage condition
d) Foundation shear stress within the safe limits.
e) Earth quake resistant dam
4. Proper slope protection against wind & rain drop erosion.
5. Proper drainage
6. Economic section
5.5. SELECTION OF AN EARTH DAM
The preliminary design of an earth dam is done on the basis of past experience and on the basis
of the performance of the dams built in the past. We shall discuss here the preliminary selection
of the following terms:
1) Top width
2) Free board
3) Casing or outer shells
4) Central impervious core
5) Cut-off trench
6) Downstream drainage system.
1) Top width. The crest width of an earth dam depends on the following considerations:
Nature of the embankment materials and minimum allowable percolation
distance through the embankment at the normal reservoir level.
Height of the structure
Importance of the structure
Width of highway on the top of the dam
Practicability of construction
Protection against earthquake forces.
Following are some of the empirical expressions for the top width b of the earth dam, in terms of
the height H of the dam:
H
b  3 For very low dam (H<10m)
5
b=0.55H1/2 + 0.2H For medium dam (10m<H<30m)
1/3
b=1.65(H+1.5) For large dam (H>10m)
2) Free board. Free board is the vertical distance between the horizontal crest of the
embankment and the reservoir level. Normal free board is the difference in the level
between the crest or top of the embankment and normal reservoir level. Minimum free
board is the difference in the elevation between the crest of the dam and the maximum
reservoir water surface that would result and spillway function as planned. Sufficient free
board must be provided so that there is no possibility whatsoever of the embankment
being overtopped.
The U.S.B.R suggests the following free boards:

Table 5.1: U.S.B.R practice for free board
Nature of spillway Height of dam Free Board

Free Any Minimum 2m and maximum 3m over
the maximum flood level
Controlled Less than 2.5 above the top of gates
Controlled Over 60m 3m above the top gates
3) Casing or outer shells. The function of casing or outer shells is to impart stability and
protect the core. The relatively pervious materials, which are not subjected to cracking on
direct exposure to atmosphere, are suitable for casing. Table 5.2 (a) gives
recommendations for suitability of soils used for earth dams as per IS: 1826-1978.
Table 5.2 (a) Suitability of Soils for Construction of Earth Dams
Relative Suitability Homogenous Zoned earth dam

section Previous casing Impervious core

1. very suitable GC SW,GW GC
2. Suitable CL,CI GM CL,CI
3. Fairly suitable SP, SM,CH SP,GP CM,GC,SM SC,CH
4. Poor - - ML,MI,MH
3. Not suitable - - OL, NI, OH ,Pt
Table 5.2(b): Side slopes for earth dams according to Terzaghi

Type of material Upstream Downstream slope
slope
Homogeneous well graded 2:1 2:1
material
Homogeneous coarse silt 3:1 1
2 :1
2
Homogeneous silty clay or clay
H less than 15 m 1 2:1
2 :1 1
2 2 :1
H more than 15 m 3:1 2
Sand or sand and gravel with 3:1 1
clay core 2 :1
2
Sand or sand and gravel with 1 2:1
R.C core wall 2 :1
2
Table 5.2 (c): Preliminary dimensions of earth dams (According to strange)
Height of dam Height of dam Top U/S D/S

above foundation above H.F.L width slope slope
level (m) (m) (m)
Up to 4.5 1.2 to 1.5 1.8 1:1 1
1 :1
2
4.5 to 7.5 1.5 to 1.8 1.85 1 3
2 :1 2 :1
2 4
7.5 to 1.5 1.85 2.5 3:1 2:1
15 to 22.5 2.1 3.0 3:1 2:1
5.6. SEEPAGE ANALYSIS
Seepage analysis: is used

 To determine the quantity of water passing through the body of the dam and
foundation.
 To obtain the distribution of pore water pressure.
Assumptions to be made in seepage analysis

 The rolled embankment and the natural soil foundation of the earth dam are
incompressible porous media. The size of the pore spaces do not change with
time, regardless of water pressure (Isotropic).
 The seeping water flows under a hydraulic gradient which is due only to gravity
head loss, or Darcy‟s law for flow through porous medium is valid.
 There is no change in the degree of saturation in the zone of soil through which
the water seeps and the quantity flowing in to any element of volume is equal to
quantity which flows out in the same length of time.
(Steady flow)
 The hydraulic boundary conditions at entry and exit are known.
5.7. LAPLACE EQUATION FOR TWO DIMENSIONAL FLOWS

In earth dams, the flow is essentially two dimensional. Hence we shall consider only two
dimensional flows.
Vy+(∂Vy/∂y)∆y
∆y
Vx Vx+(∂Vx/∂x)∆x
∆x
Consider an element of soil is size x, y and of unit thickness perpendicular to the plane of the
Vy
paper. Let Vx and Vy be the entry velocity components in x and y direction. Then
 v 
 v x  x x  and
 x 
 v 
 v y  y y 
 y 
will be the corresponding velocity components at the exit of the element. According to
assumption 3 stated above, the quantity of water entering the element is equal to the quantity of
water leaving it. Hence, we get
 v   v y 
vx y.1  v y x.1   vx  x x y.1   v y  x.1
 x   y 
From which
v x v y
 0 … (i)
x y
This is the continuity equation.
According to assumption 2:
h
vx  K xix  K x * … (ii)
x
h
And VY  kY IY  Ky … (iii)
y
Where h = hydraulic head under which water flows.
Kx and Ky are coefficient of permeability in x and y direction.
Substituting (ii) and (iii) in (i), we get
 2 K x h   ( K y .h)
2
 0 … (5.1)
x 2 y 2
For an isotropic soil,
Ky = Kx = K
Hence we get from eq. (5.1)
 2h  2h
 0
x 2 y 2
Substituting velocity potential =  = K*h , we get
 2  2
 0 … (5.2)
x 2 y 2
This is the Laplace equation of flow in two dimensions. The velocity potential  may be defined
as a scalar function of space and time such that its derivative with respect to any direction gives
the fluid velocity in that direction.
This is evident, since we have
=Kh
 h
K  K .i x  v x
x x
 h
Similarly , K  K .i y  v y
y y
The solution of Eq. 5.2 can be obtained by

i) analytical methods
ii) graphical method
iii) experimental methods
The solution gives two sets of curves, known as equipotential lines and stream lines (or flow
lines), mutually orthogonal to each other, as shown in Fig. below. The equipotential lines
represent contours of equal head (potential). The direction of seepage is always perpendicular the
equipotential lines. The paths along which the individual particles of water seep through the soil
are called stream lines or flow lines.
Figure 5.6: Flow net
5.8. COMPUTATION OF RATE OF SEEPAGE FROM FLOW NET
A network of equipotential lines and flow lines is known as a flow net. Fig.5.6 shows a portion
of such a flow net. The portion between any two successive flow lines is known as flow channel.
The portion enclosed between two successive equipotential lines and successive flow lines is
known as field such as that shown hatched in Fig. 5.6.
Let: b and l be the width and length of the field.

h = head drop through the field.
q = discharge passing through the flow channel.
H = total head causing flow
= difference between upstream and downstream heads
Then, from Darcy‟s law of flow through soils:

h
q  K . (bx1) … (i) (Considering unit thickness)
l
If Nd = total number of potential drops in the complete flow net,
h
Then h 
Nd
h b
 q  K   … (ii)
Nd  l 
Hence the total discharge through the complete flow net is given by
h b Nf b
q  q  k .  .N f  kh .
Nd  l  Nd l
Where Nf = total number of flow channels in the net. The field is square and hence b=l
Nf
Thus, q  kh
Nd

This is the required expression for the discharge passing through a flow net, and is valid only for
isotropic soils in which
k x  k y  k.
5.9. SEEPAGE DISCHARGE FOR ANISOTROPIC SOIL

Let us now consider the case of an anisotropic flow medium in which kx  ky
 2h  2h
For such a case, the flow equation (5.1) becomes kx 2  k y 2  0
x y
This is not a Laplace equation. Hence flow net cannot be drawn directly. Rewriting, it we get
k x 2h  2h
 0
k y x 2 y 2
ky
Let us put xn  x
kx
Where xn is the new co-ordinate variable in the x - direction.
Then the above equation becomes,
 2h  2h
 0 … (5.3)
xn2 y 2
This is in Laplace form.
Figure 5.7:

To plot the flow for such a case, the cross-section through anisotropic soils is plotted to a
natural scale in the y-direction, but to a transformed scale in the x-direction, all
ky
dimensions parallel to x- axis being reduced by multiplying by the factor . The flow
kx
net obtained for this transformed section will now be constructed in the normal manner as
if the soil were isotropic. The actual flow net is then obtained by re- transforming the
cross- section including the flow net, back to the natural scale by multiplying the x-
k
coordinates by factor x . The actual flow net thus will not have orthogonal set of
ky
curves. As shown in figure 10.17, field of transformed section will be a square one, while
the field of actual section (retransformed) will be a rectangular one having its length in x
Kx
direction equal to times the width in y direction.
Ky
Let kx = permeability coefficient in x- direction, of the actual anisotropic soil field.

K‟ = equivalent permeability of the transformed field.
Then, for the transformed section

h
q  k '' (lx1) … (a)
l
For the actual field,
h
q  k x (lx1) … (b)
kx
(l )
ky
Since the quantity of flow is the same,
h h
k' (l )  k x (l )
l kx
l
ky … (3.4)
ky
Hence k '  kx  kxk y
kx
Hence the discharge is given by
Nf Nf
q  k 'h  Kxky h … (3.5)
Nd Nd
Module for holistic exam, hydraulic structures 49

5.10. PHREATIC LINE IN EARTH DAM
Phreatic line / seepage line / Saturation line is the line at the upper surface of the seepage
flow at which the pressure is atmospheric.
Figure 5.8: Phreatic line in Earth dam
Phreatic line for a homogeneous Earth dam with horizontal

Drainage blanket
Figure below shows a homogeneous earth dam with horizontal drainage blanket FK at its
toe. The phreatic line in this case coincides with the base parabola ADC except at the
entrance. The basic property of the parabola which is utilized for drawing the base
parabola is that the distance of any point p from the focus is equal to the distance of the
same point from the directrix. Thus
Distance PF = Distance PR where, PR is the horizontal distance of P from the
Directrix EG
Figure 5.9
Graphical method

Steps:
 Starting point of base parabola is @ A AB = 0.3L
 F is the focal point
 Draw a curve passing through F center @ A
 Draw a vertical line EG which is tangent to the curve
 EG is the directrix of the base parabola
 Plot the various points P on the parabola in such a way that PF = PR
Analytical method
PF = PR
x 2  y 2  x  yo
From point A (known), x = b and y = h
 yo  b 2  h 2  b
x2  y 2  x  b2  h2  b Equation of parabola … (5.6)
Discharge through the body of Earth dam

v  k *i
q  v * A  k *i * A
dy
qk y *1
dx
From parabola equation, y  2 xy o  y 0

2
d ( y 0  2 xy o )
2
qk ( y o  2 xy o )
2
dx
yo
q  k( )( y o  2 xy o )
2
y o  2 xy o …………. (5.7)
2
q  kyo
Phreatic line for a dam with no filter
General solution by Casagrande

Figure below shows a homogeneous dam with no horizontal drainage filter at the d/s
side. The focus in this case will be the lowest point F of the d/s slope.

Fig 5.10: Dam with no drainage filter.

And the base parabola BKC will evidently cut the d/s slope at K and extend beyond
the limits of the dam, as shown by dotted line. However, according to exit conditions,
the phreatic line must emerge out at some point M, meeting the d/s face tangentially
at J. The portion JF is then known as discharge face and always remains wet. The
correction a, by which the parabola is to be shifted downwards, is found by the
a
value of given by Casagrande for various values of the slope  of the
a  a
discharge face. The slope angle  can even exceed the value of 900. Thus we observe
that
a
= value found from table … (i)
a  a
a+ a=KF from Fig 5.10 … (ii)
Solving (i) and (ii), the value a and a can be found.
a
Table for the value of with slope angle 
a  a
 a
a  a
300 0.36
600 0.32
900 0.26
1200 0.18
1350 0.14
1500 0.10
1800 0.0

Discharge through the body of Earth dam
Figure 5.11
a. Analytical Solution of Schaffernak and Van Iterson for < 300 (Fig.5.9)
In order to find the value of a analytically, Schaffernak and Van Iterson assumed that the
energy gradient
dy
i  tan   . This means that the gradient is equal to the slope of the line of seepage,
dx
which is approximately true so long as the slope is gentle (i.e. <300).
For the vertical section JJ1

dy
qK y
dx
dy
but  i  tan 
dx
and y= JJ1= a sin 
Substituting in (i), we get
q = k (a sin) (tan) … (5.8)
This is the expression for discharge.

Again
dy
qk y  k (a sin  )(tan  )
dx
a( sin  ) (tan  )dx  ydy
Integrating between the limits:

x= a (Cos ) to x = b
y= a (sin  ) to y = h , we get

b h
a sin  tan   dx
a cos
 
a sin 
ydy
and
h 2  a 2 sin 2 a
 a sin  tan  (b  a cos  ) 
2
From which, we obtain, after simplification,

b b2 h2
a   … (5.9)
cos  cos 2  sin 2 
b. Analytical solution of Casagrande for 300< <600

It will be observed that the previous solution gives satisfactory results for slope < 300.
For steeper slopes, the deviation from correct values increases rapidly beyond tolerable
limits. Casagrande suggested the use of sin  instead of tan. In other words, it should be
taken as (dy/ds) instead of (dy/dx), where s is the distance measured along the phreatic
line.
Figure 5.12
dy
Thus q  kiA  k A (5.10)
ds
dy
At J, s= a and y = a sin   sin 
then,
ds
Where s = distance measured along the curve.
Substituting in (5.10), we get
q = k. (sin) (a sin ) = k(a sin2) …(5.11)
This is the expression for the discharge.

dy
Again q  k y  kasin 2 
ds
 a (sin ) ds = ydy
2

Integrating between the following limits (s = a to s =S)

Where S = total length of the parabola
And (y = a sin to y=h), we get
S h
a sin 2   ds   ydy
a a sin 
h 2  a 2 sin 2 
a sin  .( S  a) 
2
2
2
h
or a 2  2aS  0
sin 2 
h2
From which aS S  2
…. (5.12)
Sin 2
Taking S (h2+b2)1/2 we get

h2
a  h2  b2  h2  b2 
sin 2 
a  b 2  h 2  b 2  h 2 cot 2  … [5.13]
Phreatic line for homogenous Earth dam with rock toe
Figure 5.13

Phreatic line for zoned Earth dam with central core
0
Figure 5.14
5.11. CHARACTERISTICS OF PHREATIC LINE (SEEPAGE LINE)
Based on the above discussions, the characteristics of the phreatic line may be
summarized below:
1. At the entry point, the phreatic line must be normal to the upstream face
since the upstream face is a 100% equipotential line. For other entry
condition (Fig.5.15), the phreatic line starts ta11ngentially with the water
surface.
Fig 5.15: Entry conditions of phreatic line
2. The pressure along the phreatic line is atmospheric. Hence the only change
in the head along it is due to drop in the elevation of various points on it.
Due to this, the successive equipotential lines will meet it at equal vertical
intervals.
3. The focus of the base parabola lies at the break out point of the bottom
flow line, where the flow emerges out from relatively impervious medium
to a highly pervious medium.

4. When horizontal filter or drainage toe is provided, the phreatic line would
tend to emerge vertically.
5. In the absence of any filter, the seepage line will cut the downstream slope
at some point above the base. The location of this point, and the phreatic
line itself, is not dependent on the permeability or any other property, so
long as the dam is homogeneous. The geometry of the dam alone decides
these.
6. The presence of pervious foundation below the dam does not influence the
position of phreatic line.
7. In the case of a zoned dam with central impervious core, the effect of
outer shells can be neglected altogether. The focus of the base parabola
will be located at the downstream. Toe of the core (Fig. 5.14)
5.12. GRAPHICAL DETERMINATION OF FLOW NET
After having located phreatic line in an earth dam the flow net can be plotted by trial and
error by observing the following properties of flow net (Fig 5.16), and by following the
practical suggestions given by A Casagrande.
Fig 5.16: Flow net by graphical method

Properties of flow net

1. The flow lines and equipotential lines meet at right angles to each other.
2. The fields are approximately squares, so that a circle can be drawn touching all
the four sides of square.
3. The quantity flowing through each flow channel is the same similarly, the same
potential drop occurs between two successive equipotential lines.
4. Smaller the dimensions of the field, greater will be the hydraulic gradient and
velocity of flow through it.
5. In a homogeneous soil, every transition in the shape of curves is smooth, being
either elliptical or parabolic in shape.
5.13. STABILITY ANALYSIS
Stability analyses under the following four heads are generally needed:
1. Stability analysis of downstream slope during steady seepage.
2. Stability of upstream slope during sudden Draw down.
3. Stability of upstream & downstream slope during and immediately after
construction.
4. Stability of foundation against shear.
1. Swedish Circle Method of Slope Stability
It is one of the most generally accepted methods of checking slope stability. In this
method the potential surface is assumed to be cylindrical, and the factor of safety against
sliding is defined as the ratio of average shear strength, as determined by Coulomb‟s
equation
S = C +  tan to the average shearing stress determined by static‟s on the potential
sliding surface. In order to test the stability of the slope, a trial slip circle is drawn, and
the soil material above assumed slip surface is divided in to a convenient number of
vertical strips or slices. The trail sliding mass (i.e. the soil mass contained with in the
assumed failure surface) - is divided in to a number (usually 5 to8) of slices which are
usually, but not necessarily, of equal width. The width is so chosen that the chord and arc
subtended at the bottom of the slice are slice passes through material of one type of soil.
The forces between the slices are neglected and each slice is assumed to act
independently as a column of soil of unit thickness and width b. The weight W of each
slice is assumed to act at its centre. If this weight of each slice is resolved in normal (N)
and tangential (T) components, then the normal component will pass through the center
of rotation (O), and hence does not cause any driving moment on the slice. However, the
tangential component T cause a driving moment
= T (T*r), Where r is the radius of the slip circle. The tangential components of the few
slices at the base may cause resisting moment; in that case T is considered negative.
If c is the unit cohesion and  L is the curved length of each slice, then resisting force
from Column‟s equation is = c  L + N tan 
For the entire slip surface AB, we have
Driving moment Md = rT
Resisting moment Mr = cL  tan N  Where T = sum of all tangential

components
N = sum of all normal
components
2r
L= L= length AB of slip circle
3600
Hence factor of safety against sliding is
M r cL  tan  N  Shear Strength available

Fs   = ….(5.14)
Md T shear Strength required for Stability
Figure 5.17: A portion of slip surface for slices
Method of locating center of critical slip circle
Fellenius gave the method of locating the locus on which probable centers of critical slip
circle may lie. He gives direction angles  to be plotted at heel measured from the outer
slope and  to be plotted from horizontal line above the top surface of the dam. These two
lines plotted with given direction angle intersect at point P. Point P is one of the centers.
To obtain the locus we obtain point Q by taking a line H m below the base of the dam and
4.5 H m away from toe. When the line PQ is obtained, trial centers are selected around P
on the line PQ and factor of safety corresponding to each centre calculated from Equation
given above as ordinates on the corresponding centers, and a smooth curve is obtained.
The centre corresponding to the lowest factor of safety is then the critical centre.

Figure 5.18: Location of center of critical slip circle
Stability of downstream slope during steady seepage
Critical condition for d/s slope occurs when the reservoir is full and percolation is at its
maximum rate. The directions of seepage forces tend to decrease stability. In other words,
the saturated line reduces the effective stress responsible for mobilizing shearing
resistance.
cL  tan  ( N  U )
F .S .  ….. (5.15)
T
When U is the total pore pressure on the slope surface
Fig 5.19: Stability of downstream slope during steady seepage
The pore-water pressure at any point is represented by the piezometric head (hw) at that
point. Thus the variations of pore water pressure along a likely slip surface is obtained by

measuring at each of its intersections with an equipotential line, the vertical height from
that intersection to the level at which the equipotential line cuts the phreatic line. The
pore pressure represented by vertical height so obtained are plotted to scale in a direction
normal to the sliding surface at the respective point of intersection. The distribution of
pore water pressure on the critical slope surface during steady seepage is shown hatched
in fig.5.19.The area of U- diagram can be measured with help of a planimeter.
In the absence of a flow net, the F.S of the d/s slope can approximately be from the
equation
cL  tan  N '
F .S .  … (5.16)
T
The following unit weights may be used for the calculation of  N ' and  T when pore
pressure are otherwise not included in the stability analysis, however the Phreatic line
needs to be drawn.
Location Driving force Resisting force

Below phreatic surface Saturated weight Submerged weight
Above phreatic surface Moist weight Moist weight

CHAPTER SIX
6. OUT LET WORKS
6.1 INTRODUCTION TO DAM OUT LETS
Most of the water, which is stored in a reservoir for irrigation water supply or power
penetration purposes, is stored below the spillway crest level. The spillway is provided at
normal pool level, such that the floods are discharged safety above the spillway. But, in
order to draw water from the reservoir as and when needed, for irrigation, water supply,
power generation etc it is absolutely necessary that outlet works are provided either
through the body of the dam or adjacent to it through some hillside at one end of the dam,
or adjacent to it through some hillside at one end of the dam, this water may be
discharged to the dome stream channel below the dam or may be transported at distances
where required (to some power house, etc) through pipes or canals. The opening a pipe or
tunnel provided for this withdrawal of water is known as a dam out let.
An outlet works may also act as a flood control regulator, to release waters temporarily
stored in flood control storage space or to evacuate storage in anticipation of flood
inflows. Further, the outlets may serve to empty the reservoir to permit inspection, to
make needed repairs, or to maintain the upstream face of the dam or other structures
normally inundated.
6.2 DETERMINATION OF REQUIRED DAM OUTLET CAPACITIES
Outlet works controls are designed to release water as specific rates, as indicated by
downstream needs, flood control regulation, storage canted regulation, storage
considerations, or legal requirements. Delivery of irrigation water is usually determined
from project or form needs and is related to the consumptive use and to any special water
requirements of the irrigation system. Delivery for domestic are can be similarly
established. Release of flows to satisfy prior rights must generally be included with other
needed releases. Minimum d/s flows for pollution abatement, fish preservation, and other
companion needs may often be accommodated through other required releases.
Flood control releases generally can be combined with the irrigation outlet release if the
out let empties in to the river instead of into a canal. The capacity of the flood control
outlet is determined by the required time of evacuation of a given storage space
considering the inflow into the reservoir during this emptying period.
If an outlet is to serve as a service spillway in releasing surplus inflows from the

reservoir, the required discharge for this purpose may fix the outlet capacity. Here again,
the inflow into the reservoir during the emptying period must be considered.

6.3 SELECTION CRITERIA

Outlets must be designed to safely and effectively satisfy all of their functional
requirements. Because of their high cost, outlets should be included in economic studies
used to optimize dam design concepts. The costs of operation, maintenances,
modification, and possible replacement should be included in these economic studies.
Project requirements are a primary consideration. Project requirements will include;

properly positioning intakes gating, and terminal structures; sizing components; selecting
appropriate components including operation controls; providing adequate means for
maintenance and replacement of components.
Site conditions involve topography, climate, geology and seismcity. Each of these
conditions influences the selection of outlet type and components.
The type of dam (concrete or embankment) greatly affects the design and the cost of an
outlet. The lengths of waterways and the requirements for energy dissipation have
important effects on costs.
6.4 OUTLET WORKS POSITION IN RELATION TO RESERVOIR STORAGE

LEVELS
In order to attain the required discharge capacity, the outlet must be placed sufficiently
below minimum reservoir operating level to provide head for effecting outlet works
flows.
Outlet works for small detention dams are generally constructed near river bed level since
permanent storage space, except for silt retention, is ordinarily not provided. For dams
which impound water for irrigation, domestic are, or other conservation purposes, the
outlet works must be placed low enough to draw the reservoir down to the bottom of the
allocated storage space; however it might be placed at some level above the river bed,
depending on the elevation of the established minimum reservoir storage level.
It is usual practice to make an allowance in a storage reservoir for inactive storage for
sediment deposition, fish and wildlife conservation, and recreation. The positioning if the
intake sill then becomes and important consideration, since it must be high enough to
prevent interference from the sediment deposits, but at the same time low enough to
permit either a partial or a complete drawdown below the top of the inactive storage.
6.5 LOCATION OF OUT LET CONTROLS

Where an outlet work is ungated, as will be the care with many detention dams, flow in
the conduit will be similar to that in a culvert spillway. Where water must be stored and
the release regulated at specific rates, control gates or values will need to be installed at
some point along the conduit.
Operating gates and regulating valves are used to control and regulate the outlet works
flow and are designed to operate in any position from closed to fully open. Emergency
gates are designed to be utilized only to effect closure in the event of failure of the
operating gates, or when on watering is required either to inspect the conduit below the
emergency gates or to inspect & repair the operating gates.

Control at upstream and of the conduit
For an out let works with an upstream control discharging in to a free- flowing conduit,
part full flow will occur throughout the length of the structure. Ordinarily, the operating
head and the conduit slope will result in flow at super critical stage.
With controls placed at the u/s end of a conduit, fish screens, stop log, slots, trash racks,
emergency gates, and regulating gates or valves can all be combined in a single intake
structure. In this case, the entire conduit may be readily un watered for inspection or
repair. The intake will consist of a towel rising from the base of an outlet conduit to an
operating deck placed above maximum reservoir water level, with the towel located n the
reservoir area near the upstream toe of the dam.
Control at intermediate point along the conduit
Where a control gate is placed at an intermediate point along a conduit and discharges
freely in to the d/s section, the internal pressure u/s from the control will be
approximately equal to full reservoir head. The structural design and safety aspects of the
u/s portion will then be concerned with the effects of both the external loadings and the
internal hydrostatic pressure acting on the conduit shell.
The control gates or valves for a conduit through a concrete dam can be positioned at any
point, either u/s to afford full flow or at the d/s end to provide pressure pipe flow. Where
the sluices are provided in the overflow section of the dam (spillway), u/s gates
controlling the entrance or valves operated from an interior gallery in the dam are
ordinary employed. Where the outlets are place in the non-overflow section, either u/s
gates or d/s valves are utilized.
6.6 HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF OUTLET WORKS
The hydraulics of out let works usually involve either one or both of two conditions of
flow-open channel (or free) flow and full conduit (or pressure) flow. Analysis of open
channel flow in outlet works, either in open water way or in a part full conduit, is based
on the principle of steady non uniform flow confirming to the low of conservation of
energy. Full pipe flow in closed conduits is based on pressure flow, which involves a
study of hydraulic losses to determine the total heads needed to produce the required
discharges.
Hydraulic jump basin, baffle or impact block dissipaters or other stilling devices
normally are employed to dissipate the energy of flow at the downstream end of the
outlet works. Many of these devices are designed on the basis of the low of conservation
of momentum.
A) Open channel flow in outlet works
Flow in an open channel outlet works will be similar to that in open channel spillways.
Where un submerged radial or slide gates are used, discharge through the control with the
gates completely opened will be computed by:
Q= CLH3/2
When open channel outlet flow is controlled by partly opened surface gates, sluice flow
will result. Discharges for such flow are given by the equation:

2 g CL  H1 2  H 2 2 
2 3 3
Q
3  
where c is the discharge coefficient, L is the crest length & H is differential head causing
flow.
In instances where there is high tail water due to canal water surfaces or to d/s influences
in the streambed, the control openings may be partly or entirely submerged. For such
conditions the discharge through the control will be in accordance with submerged orifice
or tube flow as computed by the equation:
Q  CA 2 gH
Where A = area of the opening
H= d.ce d/n the u/s & d/s openings
C= coefficient of discharge
B) Pressure flow in outlet conduits
If a control gate is placed at some point downstream from the conduit entrance, that
portion above the control gate will flow under pressure an un gated conduit may also
flow full depending on the inlet geometry for a flow in a closed pipe system, Bernoulli‟s
equation can be written as follows:
V2
H T  h2 
2g
Where HT is the total head needed to overcome the various head losses to produce
discharge and, h2= the cumulative losses of the system.
V2
is velocity head at exit.
2g
The above equation can be expanded to list each loss, as follows,
V2
HT=ht+he+hb+hf+hex+hc+hg+ 1
2g
Where ht= trash pack loss
he=entrance loss
hb= bend loss
hc =constraction loss
hex =expansion loss
hg =gate or valve loss
hf= friction loss, and
V12
= velocity head exit loss at the out let.
2g
For a free discharging out let, HT is measured from the reservoir water surface to the
center of the outlet gate (opening). If the out flowing jet is supported on a d/s floor the
head is measured to the top of the emerging jet at the point of greatest contraction; if the

outlet portal is submerged the head is measured to the tail water level. When various
losses are related to the individual component, hi is written as
V12
H I  Ki
2g
Where Ki is the summation of loss coefficients with continuity combined. Therefore the
above equation can be written as
v12 2 gH T
HT  K L Then Q  a1
2g kL
6.7 HYDRAULIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Inlet and outlet channels
Inlet channels are primarily associated with bottom-level intakes. In some geological and
topographical settings they are extremely vulnerable to clogging with sediment and
material from unstable excavated and natural slopes. Where the accumulation of such
material occurs at or near an intake structure. The intake may become plugged. And its
capacity may be greatly reduced.
Where inlet channel velocities are sufficient to move material into an outlet, the adverse
result may be the erosion by abrasion of conduit linings gate and valve waterways, and
steel pipes.
Intakes
Outlet intake structures have numerous configurations and features needed to satisfy
project equipments and optimize site conditions. Intakes are positioned with respect to
various reservoir levels. Such as the lowest level required for reservoir evacuation, the
bottom of active storage, the minimum level for power generation. The bottom of flood
control storage, the temperature and dissolved oxygen level, the sediment deposition
level, or some other specified operating level. Intakes are also positioned laterally as
required by the delivery point downstream from the dam, or to make best use of
topography and geology.
Intake gating may be required in intake towers to satisfy selective withdrawal

requirements, and in any type of in take for upstream control, emergency closure, and
inspection of upstream conduits or other waterways. For such inspection, bulkheads may
suffice. Where upstream control is used depends primarily on economic and operating
considerations. Guard or emergency gates may be installed at or near the intake, as is
commonly done for power outlets or penstocks.
Trashracks are required for most outlets. The size of trashracks is governed by limiting
velocities and the size of the downstream water ways and gates. Where as the limiting
velocities are governed by head loss and blockage considerations. In general, these
velocities are limited to 3 to 4 ft/ sec, or even higher for large outlets used for flood
releases.

The shape of intake flow surfaces varies from sharp-edged entrances where slide gates
are mounted on the face of a concrete structure to carefully designed streamlined shapes
where head losses must be minimized, as for power outlets.
Conveyance Structures
Conveyance structures include conduits, tunnels, chutes, pipes, and other water ways.
These structures must be compatible with the upstream and down stream structures.
Conduits and tunnels may be designed for free flow or pressure flow. Many outlets
include a combination of two or more of the types of conveyance structures mentioned. A
common type of outlets is composed of a pressure conduit or tunnel from an intake
structure an emergency gate chamber near the axis of the dam, from which the flow is
carried in a free- standing steel pipe with in a concrete access and maintenance conduit to
a control structure. Downstream from the control structure, a concrete chute may be used
to convey the flow to a stilling basin or flip bucket. Another common type has the
emergency and the control gates located in the gate chamber and a free-flow conduit or
tunnel downstream.
Gate Chambers ands Shafts
The hydraulic designs of gate chambers include the waterways connecting the upstream
and downstream conveyance structures. Gate chambers are normally located near the axis
of a dam and under or within the dam section or in on both of the abutments. When the
conveyance system pressurized throughout, the gate chamber houses an emergency or
guard gate. A properly sized air vent is required at the gate to prevent collapse of the
downstream portion when a downstream portion of the conveyance system vides for free
flow, the gate chamber houses both gate and regulating (control) gates.
The waterways are normally transitioned from the stream conduit or tunnel configuration
in the gate frames downstream to the configuration of the downstream tunnel or conduit.
The downstream transition may increase where the flow changes from pressure flow to
free flow.
Control Structures
Control structures for outlets may be located in the intake in a terminal structure, or at an
intermediate point conveyance system. The location selected depends on economies,
function, type of dam, and safety considerations.
It is good practice to provide guard or emergency gates upstream from control gates and
valves to satisfy maintenance and inspection requirements. For control use when the
control gate or valve is not available for use, and for replacement of certain types of
control gates or valves.

Conveyance Structures
Conduits for concrete dams are typically located along the centerline of a spillway
monolith. Alignments close to monolith joints are avoided. Air vent intakes for the
conduits can be e located in crest piers. The air vents should never be interconnected.
Dividing outlet release requirements among two or more conduits is preferable to
concentrating the releases in one conduit, so that inspection and maintenance can be
performed in one conduit.
Gate Chambers and shafts
Gate chambers and shafts located under and within embankment dams and in abutments
are suitable alternatives to intake towers in many cases. These chambers and shafts
should be located at or upstream from the dam axis at the location of the grout curtain, if
one is provided Gate shafts constructed in an embankment dam should be located at a
sufficient distance from an abutment to ensure that lateral tilting will not result from
settlement of the embankment toward the center of the mass.
6.8 STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATION
General
The structural design of outlet works should be developed concurrently with the
hydraulic design. By using a combined process. Starting with the conceptualization stage,
extremely difficult structural design problems, and possibly redesign. Can be avoided
with considerable savings of time and effort. The design engineer should be constantly a
ware of the need for economical, safe and reliable designs.
The operating life outlet works must be considered to be indefinite as replacement of

most components is difficult and expensive. Hence, outlet works should be
conservatively designed, and maintenance provisions should be carefully developed.
Design loads, temperature loads static live loads, dynamic live loads, temperature
loadings, and unexpected and unusual loads caused by improper operation of gates and
valves.
Static live loads include water pressures on interior and exterior surfaces. Embankment
and backfill loads. Ice loads on intake structures and other structures exposed to ice
loadings. Frost heave, temperature loadings, expansive soil loadings and construction
loadings.
Dynamic loads include seismic loadings, impact loads from flowing water, hydraulic
transient loadings, vibration loads from equipment and from fluctuating water pressures,
wind loadings, and in some cases, loadings from reservoir wave action.

Inlet and Outlet channels
The structural design of inlet and outlet channels is similar to that for approach and exit
channels for spillways. Channel protection for the inlet channels for outlet works in
usually less important than protection for the approach channels for spillways because of
the lower operating velocities of the inlet channels, except during the initial filling period
or when the inlet channels are used for diversion flows during construction.
Outlet channels for outlet works should be more conservatively designed than exit
channels for spillways, because of the greater frequency and longer duration of operation
of the outlet channels.
Intakes
Intakes for outlet works frequently are subjected to differential water loads caused by
partial blockage of trashracks. Intakes located near the water surface are more subject to
trash accumulations than are deeply submerged intakes. However, waterlogged material
tends to accumulate over time and should be considered a potential cause of area
reduction of the trashracks. Many designers use arbitrary amounts of differential head,
depending on the amount of submergence. A minimum of 5 ft (1.5 meters) and a
maximum of 40ft (12.2 meters) differential head are some times used. Another approach
is to compute the actual amount of head loss across the trashracks. Based on an assumed
percentage of net trashracks area.
In locations of high seismcity, tower-type intake must be designed for earthquake is in

the range of 0.2 to 0.3g or above, alternatives to towers should be considered to reduce
intake costs.
Location of Control Gates
Control gates can be place in an intake structure, a downstream control structure, or a

centrally located gate chamber or shaft. The choice location depends on the outlet‟s
function and economic of these factors. Where the release of water is to be through a
pressure system, such as a pipeline or a penstock, the control should be at a downstream
location. For deliveries to a canal, an outlet channel, or the river, the control gate may be
located at the intake, at a downstream control structure, or at an intermediate location.
The choice between an intake tower equipped with control gates and a central control
shaft or chamber should depend on an evaluation of the several factors involved.
The downstream control-structure location for free-flow outlet releases is selected when
an evaluation of he various applicable factors favors this location. Usually economic
factors control the selection. But indirectly the alignment of the waterway with respect to
the river and use of the most suitable type of energy dissipater are important
considerations.

Submerged Intakes
Intakes for embankment dam out-let works frequently are submerged shafts and
ho9rizontal intake types. These are simple and economical structures. They usually have
trash racks or trash beams and stream lined entrances to a conduit or a tunnel. Where
used primarily for flood control, they would not be deeply submerged, except during
periods of flood control operations: so unwatering the conduit or tunnel for routine
examination and maintenance would be relatively simple. However, if the intake must be
located below a deep conservation pool, the problems associated with unwatering are
more difficult. In either case, bulkheads are required.
Combined Intake and Gate Structure

The use of gated intake is appropriate where an upstream control is required for the outlet
concept hat has been selected. Up-stream gating is common for sluices in concrete dams
and for selective-level withdrawal intakes. The advantages and disadvantages of locating
control gates in outlet intakes are discussed in the preceding subsection on „‟Location of
Control Gates.‟‟
Selective Withdrawal Intakes

These intakes are designed to draw water from various levels in a reservoir for the
purpose of satisfying water quality requirements. In some cases, upstream control is
provided. Whereas in other cases a means of opening or closing of intake ports is
provided with flow regulation performed at a downstream gate. The difference in these
concepts is due to the system required for conveying the water to a point of final use, a
pressurized conveyance system usually will require down stream regulating gates. The
type of intake selected will depend on the type of dam, foundation conditions and
economic considerations. An intake tower makes installation of gates at several
elevations a simple matter and provides a convenient location for an operating deck for
the servicing of gates and cleaning of trash racks.
Gates and valves
Wide variety of gates and valves is used in outlet woks. Their use depends on their
purposes, operating characteristics, servicing requirements, life expectancy, and cost.
Large gates and valves for high-head installation may require special designs. Gates
intended for temporary use for the purpose of unwatering the outlet conduit or tunnel are
usually of the bulkhead type, which frequently are designed for removal and on-land
storage. These gates are constructed of reinforced concrete or steel, and require gate slots
equipped with embedded metal sealing and bearing surfaces and slot covers for deeply
submerged installations.

Gates
Cates may be classified according to the following:
1. Position in the dam crest gates and high head (submerged gates & valves
2. Function service, maintenance and emergency gates,
3. Pressure transmission-to piers & abutments, to gate sill etc
4. Mode of operation: Regulating and non-regulating gates or valves
5. Type of motion: - Translatory, rotary, rolling, floating gates, moving along or
across the flow
6. Moving mechanisms: gates powered electrically, mechanically, hydraulically,
outemotically by water pressure or by hand.
The main operating mechanisms of gates are failure-free performance water lightness,
rapidity of operation, minimum hoist capacity and convenience installation and
maintenance.
Crest gates
If a temporary barrier can be installed over the permanent raised crest of a spillway,
additional water can be stored between the spillway crest and the top of the barrier during
the fog-end of the rainy season. The small flows in excess of the barrier top level, may be
permitted to pass over the barrier. If , however, large floods occur, the barrier may be
removed and full spillway capacity made available for the outflow. The basic structural
design of crest gates is the method used for transferring the pressure acting on them.
A) Pressure transmission to piers and abutments used by plain vertical lift gates and
step- lays, radial gates and roller gates; the gates may be designed for flow over
or under the them for a combined flow condition.
B) Pressure transmission to the gate sill is used, for example by sector (drum gates)
(with upstream or downstream hinge, roof (bear-trap) gates etc.
Plain gates
Plain (vertical lift) gates, designed as a lattice, box girder, a grid of horizontal and vertical
becomes and stiffness, or a single slab steel plate, may consist of single or double section
(or even more parts can be involved in the closure of very high openings) in the case of
flow over the top the gate it may be provided with an additional flap gate. The gates can
have slide or wheeled support.
The pill face downstream of the gate slots may be protected against the effect of flow
separation and possible cavitations either by recessing it against the upstream pier face or
by a bevel of a slap up to 20:1
Radial gates
Radial gates (Tainter) gates are constructed as portals with cross bars and arms (straight,
radial, or inclined) but could also be cantilevered over the arms. Their supports hinges are
usually down stream but ( for low heads) could also be upstream, resulting in shorter
piers.

The usual range of heads and spans for radial gates is 2<H(m)<14 and 3< B(m) 55, with
(BH)max  550m2. Radial gates may be designed for more than 20MN per bearing.
The advantages of radial over plain gates are smaller hoist, increased speed of raising,
higher stiffness, lower piers, absence of gate slots, easier automation and better winter
performance; on other hand, radial gates require longer and thicker piers, and there may
be difficulties with the bulk-head installation.
The gate is usually hoisted by cables fixed to each end to prevent it from twisting and
jamming. As the cables are connected to the bottom of the gate its top can be raised
above the level of the hoist itself.
Sector Gates
Sector (dram) gates may be hinged upstream (figure below) or downstream; in the later
case the hinge is usually below the spillway crest by about 0.1H to 0.2H. Sector gates an
dam crests are usually of the upstream hinge type, with the hinge about 0.25H above the
d/s pate sill and a radius of curvature of r=H. The heads can be as high as 10m and the
spans 65m.
Sector gates are difficult to install, and require careful maintenance and heating in winter
conditions; their main advantages are care of automation and absence of lifting gear, fart
movement, accuracy of regulation, are of passing of ice and debris, and low piers.
High head gates and valves
High head (submerged) gates and valves transit the load to the surrounding structure
either directly through their support e.g. Plain (Vertical lift). Radial, or ring follower
gates, or through the shell encasing the valve. The most common values of the latter type
are non-regulating disc values (turning about a horizontal or vertical axis), cylindrical or
ball valves etc.
High pressure gates

Plain (vertical lift) gates are sliding wheeled or moving on rollers or caterpillars. For
optimum conditions it is best to contract the pressure conduit upstream of the gate and to
provide deflectors d/s to aid aeration as an anti cavitations measure. The conduit face d/s
of the gate slots should be protected against capitation in the same way as for crest gates.
Radical gates are normally hinged d/s, but sometimes used in reversed position with alms
inside or, more frequently, out side the conduit at the end of which the regulating gate is
installed.
A special feature of some high- head fainter gates is the use of eccentric trunnions which
permit a gap to be formed between the seals and the seal seats before opening the gate so
that only moments causes by the gate weight and hinge friction have to be overcome.

CHAPTER SEVEN
7. SPILLWAY
It is a structure constructed to pass surplus flood water on the D/S of reservoir and Dam.
Essential requirements of a spillway
 The spillway must have sufficient capacity.

 It must be hydraulically and structurally adequate.
 It must be so located that it provides safe disposal of water i.e., spillway discharge
will not erode or undermine the D/S toe of the dam.
 The bounding surface of spillway must be erosion resistant to withstand high
scouring velocity created by the drop from reservoir surface to tail water.
 Usually some devices are needed for energy dissipation on the D/S side of
spillway.
Spillway Capacity
The required capacity of spillway i.e., maximum outflow rate through spillway must
be determined by flood routing knowing:
(i) Inflow rate v/s time
(ii) Reservoir capacity curve (reservoir surface elevation v/s reservoir storage)
(iii) Discharge curve (out flow v/s reservoir water surface elevation).
However the required capacity of a spillway depends on the following factors:

(i) Inflow flood, I
(ii) Available storage capacity, S
(iii) Discharge capacity of outlet works, O
(iv) Whether gated or un-gated spillway
(v) Possible damage if a spillway of adequate capacity is not provided.
Note that large dam with inhabited area on the D/S side needs large protection. Whereas,
Small dams with uninhabited area on its D/S side needs limited protection.
Indians experience for fixing the spillway capacity is shown in the table below.
Class of Dam Gross storage (Mm3) Hydraulic head (m) Inflow flood for safety of dam
Small 0.5 to 10.0 7.5 to 12.0 100 years of flood
Intermediate 10.0 to 60.0 12.0 to 30.0 Standard Project flood (SPF)
Large > 60.0 > 30.0 Probable maximum flood (PMF)
However, floods of large or smaller magnitude may be used if the hazard involved in the
eventuality of a failure of a particular dam is high or low. A reservoir with larger storage
capacity will normally require a smaller out flow rate through the spillway. If the out
flows through the spillway are supplemented by release through the outlets then the
required capacity of spillway may be reduced. For gated spillway more water is stored.
By proper operation of gate higher heads may be developed so that greater out flow
through the spillway is possible to pass the flood.

7.1TYPES OF SPILLWAY
Classification based on the time when the spillways come into operation
(a) Main or service spillway
(b) Auxiliary spillway
(c) Emergency spillway
Main or service spillway

Main spillway is the one which comes into operation and is designed to pass the entire
spillway design flood.
Auxiliary spillway
It is provided as a supplement to the main spillway and its crest is so located that it comes
into operation only after the floods for which the main spillway is designed is exceeded.
Thus it is provided in conjunction with the main spillway. Conditions favorable for the
provision of auxiliary spillway are the existence of a saddle or depression along the rim
of the reservoir which leads into a natural water way. On the crest of auxiliary spillway
instead of a control gate a fuse plug (earth dam or dyke) may be provided, which allows
the water surface in the reservoir to rise above the crest of spillway and is so designed
That when overtopped it automatically washes out thus releasing excess flood water.
Emergency spillway
It is also provided in addition to main spillway but it comes into operation only during
emergency which may arise at any time which may not have been considered in the
normal design of main spillway. Some of the situations which may lead to emergency
are:
(i) an enforced shut down of the outlet works
(ii) A malfunctioning of spillway gates.
(iii)The necessity of bye passing the regular spillway because of damage or failure of
some part of the structure
(iv) Further an emergency may also arise if a recurring flood occurs before a previous
flood is evacuated by the main spillway and outlet works.
Emergency spillways are also provided in the saddles or depressions if available. It is

often provided as breaching section which is a portion of the dam with its crest lower
than the main dam and is so designed that it is washed out when the water in the reservoir
reaches a predetermined elevation. The breaching section is also called fuse plug spillway
Classification according to flow through the spillway

(i) controlled or gated spillway
(ii) un controlled or un-gated spillway

Classification based on the prominent features pertaining to the various component

of the spillway:
The various components of a spillway are
 Control structure,
 Discharge channel
 Terminal structures – energy dissipaters
 Entrance & outlet channels.
With respect to control structures discharge channel etc, the spillway is classified
into following types.
(i) Free over-fall or straight drop spillway
(ii) Over flow or Ogee spillway
(iii) Chute or open channel or trough spillway
(iv) Side channel spillway
(v) Shaft or morning glory spillway
(vi) Conduit or tunnel spillway
(vii) Siphon spillway
I. Free over fall or straight drop spillway

A free over fall spillway is the one for which the control structure is low height narrow
crested weir having its down face vertical or nearly vertical. The over flowing water may
be discharged as in the case of a sharp crested weir. Water, flowing over the crest, drops
as a free jet clearly away from the downstream face of the spillway. Occasionally the
crest of this spillway is extended in the form of an overhanging lip to direct small
discharges away from the D/S face.
II. Over flow or Ogee spillway

Overflowing water in this case is guided smoothly over the crest of the spillway and is
made to glide over the downstream face of the spillway.
The profile of the ogee weir is generally confined to the lower nappe that would be
obtained for maximum head over spillway. The control structure is a weir which is ogee
or S shaped.
The shape of such a profile depends upon the
Head
The inclination of U/S face of the overflow section and
The height of the overflow section above the floor of the entrance channel.
The ogee profile should provide maximum possible hydraulic efficiency, structural
stability and economy and also avoid the formation of objectionable sub-atmospheric
pressure at the crest. The ogee profile may be categorized into three groups:
(i) Overflow dams with vertical U/S face
The following equation as given by U.S. corps of engineers may be used for finding
coordinates (X , Y) for the D/S profile
x1.85 = 2 (Hd) 0.85 y

Where X & Y are coordinates as shown in the figure and Hd is the design head.
For U/S profile following coordinates with origin at crest are recommended
(ii) Over flow dams with sloping U/S face
The D/S profile may conform to the following equation:
xn = K (Hd)n-1 y
Where: n., K are variable parameters which depends on the inclination of U/S face of the
dam. Hd is the design head. These are called standard “WES standard spillway shapes”
Values of constant K,n , R1,R2, a and b
Shape of K N R1/Hd R2/Hd a/Hd B/Hd
U/S face
Vertical 2.000 1.850 0.5 0.20 0.175 0.282
3V: 1H 1.936 1.836 0.68 0.21 0.139 0.237
3V: 2 H 1.939 1.810 0.48 0.22 0.115 0.240
3V: 3H 1.873 1.776 0.45 0.00 0.119 0.000
The curved profile of the crest section is continued till it meets tangentially the straight
sloping portion of the overflow dam section (spillway).The slope of the d/s face of the
overflow dam usually varies in the range of 0.7(H):1(V) to 0.8:1 and is basically decided
on the basis of stability requirements. The location of the point of tangent depends upon
the slope of the d/s face, where the value of dy/dx for the curved profile and the straight
segment must be equal at the end of the sloping surface of the spillway. At the end of the
sloping surface a curved circular surface called BUCKET is provided to create a smooth
transition of flow from spillway surface to river.
The BUCKET is also useful for dissipation of energy and prevention of scour.

Radius R of the bucket may be obtained approximately by the following empirical

formula.
(V+6.4H+4.88)/(3.6H+19.52)
R = 0.305x10
Alternatively, R = P/4
Velocity of flow may be approximated from the relationship (Neglecting the friction
losses on the spillway surface.
V= [2g(Z+Ha-y)]1/2
Where, Z= P+Hd is the total fall from u/s water level to the floor level at the d/s toe
Ha = Head due to velocity of approach.
y = tail water depth
Alternatively USBR formula, V= [2g(Z- 0.5 Hd)]1/2 can be used.
U/S profile of the Weir Crest
(a) Vertical U/S face: The u/s profile should be tangential to the vertical face and
should have zero slope at the crest axis to ensure that there is no discontinuity
along the surface of the flow. The u/s profile should conform to the following
equation:
y = {0.724 (x+ 0.270 Hd)1.85/(Hd )0.85 }+ 0.126 Hd - 0.4315(Hd)0.375(x + 0.270 Hd)0.625
Alternatively the u/s slope may be considered to consist of compound circular curve with
values of R1= 0.50 Hd and R2 = 0.20 Hd
The chord length up to R1 , and R2 is given as a = 0.175 Hd and b = 0.282 Hd
Discharge Computation of over ogee crest
The discharge over ogee spillway is computed from the basic equation of weir given
below:
Q = Cd L H1.5
Where, Q = Discharge in cumec
Cd = coefficient of discharge
L = effective length of overflow crest in meters
H = Head of over flow in meters including velocity of approach head.
H = Hd + Ha
The discharge coefficient is influenced by a number of factors:
(i) Height of spillway above stream bed or depth of approach
(ii) relation of the actual crest shape to the ideal nappe shape
(iii) upstream face slope
(iv) downstream apron interference, and
(v) downstream submergence
(vi) Ratio of actual total head to the design head
(vii) effect of head due to velocity of approach
The effect of these factors is discussed below:

Height of spillway or Effect depth of approach
The height of spillway above stream bed or approach channel affects the velocity of
approach which in turn affects the coefficient of discharge. With increase in height of
spillway the velocity of approach decreases and the coefficient of discharge increases.

Model tests indicate that the coefficient of discharge becomes fairly constant when height
of spillway > 3.0 Hd, where Hd is the design head including the head due to velocity of
approach.
Various text books give a plot of Cd versus Hd which is reproduced here in the form of a
table
P/Hd Cd P/Hd Cd P/Hd Cd
0.0 1.7 0.1 1.875 0.2 1.97
0.3 2.025 0.4 2.06 0.5 2.09
0.6 2.12 0.7 2.135 0.8 2.15
0.9 2.16 1.0 2.17 1.5 2.185
2.0 2.195 2.5 2.2 3.0 2.205
4.0 2.210
In the table P is the height of spillway.
When u/s face is inclined the above Cd values gets multiplied by a factor from 0.995 (for
P/ Hd = 1.5) to 1.04 (for P/ Hd = 0.2)

Negative Pressure over spillway surface

(i) H> Hd the pressure on the crest will be negative (sub atmospheric) may lead to
cavitation. Model tests show that till H < 1.25 Hd there is no harmful cavitation effect.
(ii)H< Hd the pressure on the crest is positive. Lower nappe of the jet attaches itself to the
boundary. Also when H > Hd lower nappe may leave the boundary for some distance on
d/s face and may attach again as the air mass in between the boundary and the lower
nappe gets sucked out. This may lead to the vibration of the structure.
Avoid negative pressure as:
(i) It increases overturning moment at the crest
(ii) It increases the force required for lifting of the gates
(iii) It causes decrease in the capability for automatic control
(iv) It causes vibration which extends all over the structure. The vibration also
causes cracks in the mortar of stone lining of the crest.
Height of Side Wall
Coordinates of Upper Nappe profile over a sharp crested weir are given in any book on
fluid mechanics which can be plotted over the spillway profile. Side walls should be
higher than the Upper Nappe by a margin of Free Board .
7.2 CHUTE SPILLWAY OR TROUGH SPILLWAY

An ogee spillway is mostly suitable for concrete Gravity dam when the spillway is
located within the body of dam. For Earth & Rock-fill dam, a separate spillway is
generally constructed in a flank or saddle, away from main valley. Sometimes even for
gravity dams a separate spillway is required because of the narrowness of the valley. In
such circumstances a separate spillway may have to be provided. The trough spillway or
chute spillway is the simplest type of spillway which can be easily provided
independently and at low costs. It is lighter & adoptable to any type of foundation and

hence provided easily on Earth & Rock-Fill dam. It is also called at times Waste Weir. If
it is constructed in continuation of the dam at one end, it may be called a Flank weir. If it
is constructed in a natural saddle in the bank of the river separated from the main dam by
a high ridge it is called a Saddle Weir.
A chute spillway essentially consists of a steeply sloping open channel placed along a
dam abutment or through a flank or saddle. It leads the water from the reservoir to the
downstream channel below.the base of the channel is usually made of reinforced concrete
slabs 25 to 50 cm thick. Light reinforcement of about 0.25% of concrete area is provided
in the top of the slab.in both directions. The chute is some times of constant width but is
usually narrowed for economy and then widened near the end to reduce the discharging
velocity. Expansion joints are usually provided in the chutes at intervals of about 9to 12m
in either direction. The expansion joint s should be made water tight so as to avoid any
under seepage and its troublesome effects. Under drains are also provided, so as to drain
the water which may seep through the trough bottom and side walls. These drains may be
in the form of a perforated steel pipes., clay tiles or rock filled trenches.
Slope of chute can conform to available topography leading to minimum excavation, but
the slope should be steep enough to maintain supercritical flow to avoid unstable flow
conditions.
When a vertical curve is provided at a point where chute slope changes it must be gradual
& designed to avoid any separation of flow.
Control Structure or a Low ogee weir

As the trough spillway is provided in aflank or saddle the height of soillway depends
upon the natural level of bottom of flank.
If NPL > Natural level of bottom of flank,
construct low ogee weir height h = NPL- natural level of bottom of flank.
If NPL < Natural level of bottom of flank, then excavate and provide a flat crest at NPL
Chute slope
Water spilling over the control structure (i.e., Ogee weir) flows through the chute channel
Minimum slope of the chute channel should correspond to a supercritical flow for as
long a distance as possible. After that slope is made as steep as possible without
endangering the stability or without getting into heavy excavations.
Side walls (called Training Walls)

Height not to allow any spilling over it. Height = Free Nappe + Free Board
Free Board = 0.61 + 0.4 Vm (Dm)1/3
Where Vm =mean velocity in the chute
Dm =mean depth of water in the chute
Walls in the vicinity of ogee weir should be made vertical in the later portion it can be
vertical or sloping.
Design of small ogee weir required as control structure for chute spillway
Equation for D/S profile with crest of ogee taken as origin is given as
XN = a (He)N-1Y
Design of Vertical curve of Chute

Avoid sharp convex and concave vertical curves, Provide flat curves where ever required.
Concave Curve Provided when the chute floor changes from Steeper slope to less
steep. Concave curves should be of large radius to minimize the dynamic force on the
floor.Force created due to centrifugal action R >(2γ d V2/pg)
where V is the velocity , d is the depth of flow; p is the permissible intensity of dynamic
pressure exerted on the floor. R> 10d except at the toe of crest where R could be 5d.
Curve is made tangential to the u/s and d/s slope.
Convex Curve : Provided when the chute floor changes from Steep slope to steeper.
Convex Curve starts tangentially from the end of u/s sloping floor. It should be flat
enough to maintain positive pressure on the floor and thus avoid tendency of separation
of flow from floor. The convex curve is usually parabolic as given by equation
Y = {x tanθ }+ {x2/ 4K(d + hV) cos2 θ}

θ is the angle of u/s floor just at the beginning of the curve
K is a factor of safety > 1.5
Horizontal curves
Horizontal curves may also be required if the alignment is not straight but takes a curve
as it may not be possible to have a straight trough. Curves should be quite gentle and in
order to account for super elevation in the curved portion of the trough bed should be
provided with a cross slope.
4. Approach channel of chute spillway
An entrance channel called approach channel trapezoidal shaped with side slope 1:1 to
lead the reservoir water up to control structure (low ogee weir). Friction head loss in
discharge channel = n2V2L/( R)4/3
one can calculate velocity and depth at different sections by applying that specific energy
above a certain datum remains constant and only losses are fricyion, turbulence,
transition and impact.

Entire chute spillway:

(i) Entrance channel
(ii) Control structure
(iii) Chute channel or discharge carrier
(iv) Energy dissipation arrangement at the bottom in the form of stilling basin.
Cutoff
Cutoff at upper end of spillway to reduce uplift pressure on paving. Cutoff at D/S end of
paving to prevent under cutting of paving. Further at U/S end of each panel a cutoff is
provided to prevent creeping of panels resulting from expansion & contraction due to
changes in temperature as well as to prevent flow of water from one panel to other along
the underside of the paving. A typical cutoff of this type is shown.
Drainage
Drainage is necessary to prevent uplift from ground water or the water that finds its way
through the paving through the operation of spillway. If paving is on rock foundation,
drainage system consists of gravel filled trenches under the paving, with some times an
open tile drain imbedded in the gravel. The drains are either relieved at intervals through
the paving or collected into one or more trunk drain which carry the entire flow to an
outlet at lower end of the trough.
7.3 SIDE CHANNEL SPILLWAY
In a side channel spillway, the crest of the control weir is placed along the side of the
discharge channel. the crest is approximately parallel to the side channel at the entrance.
Thus the flow after passing over the crest is carried in a discharge channel running
parallel to the crest. Water flows over the crest into the narrow trough of the discharge
channel opposite the weir, it turns approximately at right angle and then continues in the
discharge channel.
The side channel spillway is usually constructed in a narrow canyon where sufficient
space is not available for an overflow spillway, and where there is neither a suitable
saddle, nor there is a availability of a wide flanks to accommodate a chute spillway. In
such cases, if a crest of length required for the flow to occur perpendicular to the crest is
provided, heavy cutting would be required making the cost of constructing a chute
spillway or an overflow spillway prohibitive.
The crest of a side channel spillway is usually an ogee- shaped section made of concrete.
sometimes it consists of a flat concrete pavement laid on an earthen embankment or the
natural ground surface.

7.4 SADDLE SIPHON SPILLWAY

At full reservoir level water stands up to the crest of the spillway and hence there is no
flow. When the water level rises above the full reservoir level i.e., above the crest of
spillway, water starts flowing over the crest and the inlet of the de-primer hood gets
submerged with the result that entry for air into the de-primer hood and the main hood
gets sealed. Thus air cannot enter from both the inlet and outlet of the siphon duct and the
air remaining entrapped in the top portion of the siphon duct above the sheet of the water
flowing over the crest is gradually sucked by the flowing water. As the air is sucked the
pressure drops to less than atmospheric in the top portion the siphon duct which was
having atmospheric pressure at the starting of the flow. Thus a difference of pressure
develops between the outside atmosphere and the air inside the siphon duct which creates
a suction pull and draws in more water over the crest. This in turn takes in more air along
with it which further increases the suction pull and draws in more and more water over
the crest. This sucking action which increases progressively and gradually creates the
necessary pull for the commencement of the syphonic action and the siphon duct start to
run full. The action of the siphon spillway from the moment the water just starts to flow
over the crest to the instant when the siphon duct starts flowing full is known as
„PRIMING‟,(or it is said to have „primed‟). It may however difficult to expel the
entrapped air from the siphon since it has to be forced through the water in the sealing
basin and hence it may not get primed quickly. Moreover relatively large rise in water
level above the crest of spillway may be needed before it gets primed. To assist quick
priming many priming devices can easily be fitted along with the siphon.

The siphoning action once initiated will continue as long as water level in the reservoir is
above the full reservoir level. The operating head for the spillway is then equal to the
difference between water levels on the U/S and the D/S of the spillway. When the water
level in the reservoir drops to such a level that the inlet of the de-primer hood gets
exposed then the air enters the siphon duct and breaks the siphoning action thus stopping
the flow. This action is called de-priming of the siphon spillway.
Another form of saddle siphon spillway provided in the body of Dam is called „Tilted
Outlet type‟. It has a vertical lower limb and hence the draught of falling water is enough
to cause priming and no other device is needed for its priming. However the outlet is
tilted upwards in order to develop water seal at the bend and thus facilitate early priming.
For De-priming air inlet pipe is provided.

Priming devices
The priming devices are used to expedite the priming of siphon spillway with relatively
small depths. Thus these devices are used to reduce the priming depths for spillway. The
priming devices create effective water seals which cause early priming of siphon
spillways. As such priming devices are also termed as water seals.
Name of some of these devices are:
(i)Baby siphon or Auxiliary siphon : (ii) Joggle or Tudel or Step
(iii) Hinged or Steel plate (iv) Clear over fall (v) Priming weir or over fall weir.
(vi) Provision of a cup type basin (vii) Provision of a tilted outlet
De-priming: De-priming is the reverse process of priming. It is the action of siphon from
the time air starts entering the siphon through the vents until the siphoning action
completely stopped. De-priming is carried out by providing de-primers. A deprimer is an
air vent and is provided to break the siphoning action when the reservoir surface is drawn
below it. If an air vent is not provided, siphoning action once initiated would continue till
the reservoir level is brought down to the level at the inlet which is provided much below
the normal reservoir level.
Discharge through Saddle Syphon
The usual siphon discharge formula is Q= CA (2gH) 0.5

Where A= Area of cross section at crown = L*b
Where L is the length of the throat and b is the height of the throat
H= Operating Head
= Reservoir Level - Center of outlet, if outlet is discharging freely.
= Reservoir Level -Down stream tail-water level, if outlet is submerged
C= Coefficient of discharge, the average value may be taken as 0.65
The discharge equation can be expressed in terms of radii of crest and crown
Let R1 = Radius of crest
R2 = Radius of crown
Consider any point P on the vertical section at the throat, and let its radius be r.
The L- section of the throat is shown.
Let V1, V2, and V be the velocities of flow at the crest, crown and point P respectively.
The flow through the throat is governed by free vortex flow for which we have:
V*r = constant
Hence, V1*R1 = V2 *R2 = V*r
Let h0 be the net operative head at the crest. This head is calculated after making due
allowances of all losses occurring in the siphon, h0 = H - Losses through the siphon.
Hence, V1 = (2gh0)0.5
V = V1. (R1/r) = (R1/r)*( (2gh0)0.5)
Consider a thin rectangular strip of thickness dr at P and let dq be the discharge through
this strip of unit length.
dq = V.dr.1 = (R1/r)*( (2gh0)0.5). dr
Hence, discharge q through the throat per unit length is given as
q =  dq = R1 (2gh0)0.5 dr/r between limits R1 and R2

or, q = R1 (2gh0)0.5 ln(R2/R1)

The total discharge through the siphon unit having throat length L is therefore:
Q = qL = R1.L. (2gh0)0.5 ln(R2/R1)
Applying Bernoulli's equation between throat and the outlet one can easily infer that the
pressure at the throat is always going to be negative. Besides the pressure distribution is
non uniform due to the curvature of stream lines and the pressure is lower at the crest
than at the crown. Keeping these in mind, the total drop of siphon structure should be
limited to about 6 m so that negative pressures do not reach the cavitations pressure.
Advantage The main advantage of the siphon spillway are

(i) Its automatic operation without any mechanical device ,and
(ii) Its ability to pass higher discharge at relatively low surcharge head resulting in
lower height of dam as well as less surrounding area to be acquired for
submergence.
Disadvantage
(i) It is an expensive structure and has limited capacity.
(ii) It has a serious disadvantage due to occurrence of sudden surges and
stoppages of out flow as a result of erratic siphonic action, thus causing severe
fluctuations in the downstream river stage.
(iii) A minor crack in the cover of the siphon would interfere with the siphon
Therefore the siphon spillway is always constructed in batteries so that entire
spillway is not affected even if cracks have developed either in one or few
units.
(iv) The structure and foundation have to be strong enough to resist the vibration.
(v) There exists a possibility of clogging of the siphon due to debris and floating
material.
(vi) Like other type of closed conduit spillways, a siphon spillway too is
incapable of handling flows appreciably greater than the designed capacity.
Hence, siphon spillways must be provided in conjunction with an auxiliary or
emergency spillway.
Volute siphon Spillway
It is a special type of siphon spillway. It consists of a vertical barrel or shaft bent at
the discharge end and opened out in the form of a funnel at the top. The top of the lip
of the funnel is kept at the reservoir level and a number of volutes (like the blades of a
centrifugal pump or turbine) are fixed in the funnel to induce a spiral motion to the
water passing along them. A dome supported on number of pillars, is placed over the
funnel. Over the main dome is attached a de-primer dome. The entrance end of the
deprimer dome is kept just at the reservoir level.
When the water level in the reservoir rises, it seals the air entry and sheet of water
enters the funnel from all sides. The spiral flow of water through the volute causes
suction which sucks all the remaining air and priming is thus achieved very quickly.
The siphon then runs full. When the reservoir level falls, air enters through the de-
primer dome, thus breaking the siphoning action.

7.5 SHAFT SPILL WAY

In shaft spillway water enters a horizontal crest, drops through a vertical or a sloping
shaft and then flows to the downstream river channel through a horizontal or nearly
horizontal conduit or tunnel. A rock out crop projecting into the reservoir slightly
upstream of the dam would be an ideal site for a shaft spillway. Depending on the level of
out crop and the required crest level, a spillway may have to be either constructed or
excavated. The diversion tunnels if available can be utilized for discharge tunnels of
spillway. Radial piers provided on the spillway crest ensures radial flow towards spillway
and also provides support to the bridge connecting spillway and the dam or the adjoining
hill.
A shaft spillway with a funnel shaped inlet is called 'Morning Glory' or Glory Hole
spillway. One of the distinguishing characteristics is that near maximum capacity of the
spillway is attained at relatively low heads. Therefore a shaft spillway is ideal when
maximum spillway discharge is not likely to be exceeded. Because of this feature,
however, the spillway becomes unsuitable when a flow larger than the selected inflow
design flood occurs. This disadvantage can be got rid of by providing an auxiliary or
emergency spillway and using the shaft spillway as service spillway.
Depending upon the type of crest, the shaft spillway can either be standard crested or
flat crested. In a standard crested spillway, the water begins its free fall immediately
upon leaving the crest where as in flat crested spillway water approaches upon the crest
on a flat slope before beginning its free fall. The standard crested spillway would have a
smaller diameter crest since its coefficient of discharge is greater than a flat crest.
Therefore if the shaft spillway is to be constructed in the form of a tower, it would be
economical to have a standard crested spillway. However a flat crested shaft spillway has
a smaller funnel diameter and is therefore more advantageous when the spillway is to be

excavated in rock.

CHAPTER EIGHT
8. ENERGY DISSIPATERS
In hydraulic engineering numerous devices like stilling basins, baffled aprons, and vortex
shaft etc., are known under the collective term ENERGY DISSIPATERS. Their purpose
is to dissipate hydraulic energy (convert to heat). This are also called downstream
protection works and occupies a vital place in design of spillways, weirs and barrages.
Hydraulic Jump type Stilling Basin
(i) Horizontal apron type
(ii) Sloping apron type
Jet Diffusion & free jet stilling basin
(i) Jet diffusion basin
(ii) Interacting jet diffusion basin
(iii) Free jet stilling basin
(iv) Hump stilling basin
(v) Impact stilling basin
Bucket type energy dissipaters
(i) Solid roller bucket type
(ii) Slotted roller bucket type
(iii) Sky jump Bucket type (trajectory or shooting or flip)
Energy dissipation process can be achieved in five separate stages some of which
may be combined or may be absent
(i) On the spillway surface
(ii) In a free falling jet
(iii) At impact into a Downstream pool
(iv) In the stilling basin
(v) At he out flow into a river
Factors affecting the design of energy dissipaters

(i) Nature of foundation
(ii) Magnitude of flood & their occurrence
(iii) Velocity of flow
(iv) Orientation of flow
(v) Depth discharge and its relationship at the site of structure
Last factor is most important
For the dissipation of the excessive kinetic energy posed by the water the two common
methods adopted are:-
i) By converting the supercritical flow in to sub critical flow by hydraulic jump
ii) By using different types of bucket i.e by directing the flow of water in to air
and then making it fall away from the toe of the structure.

8.1 STILLING BASINS TYPE
(1) stilling basins for Froude's number between 1.7 and 2.5.
For this case only a horizontal apron needs to be provided. As the flow in this case does
not have much turbulence usually no accessories are required to be provided. However,
the apron should be sufficiently long to contain the entire jump over it.
Length of apron = Length of jump = 5 Y2, where Y2 is the sequent depth.
(2) Stilling basins for Froudes number between 2.5 and 4.5
For this range of Froude number Type I stilling basin has been found to be effective for
dissipating the energy of flow. The basin is provided with chute blocks. The length L of
the stilling basin may be obtained for different values of F1 from the following table:
F1 2 3 4 5
L/Y2 4.3 5.3 5.8 6
In this case due to oscillating jump being developed, wave action is produced which
cnnot be entirely dampened. However in order to suppress the wave action the floor of
the basin should be so set that the tail water depth in the basin is 10 % greater than the
sequent depth Y2. this will also check the tendency of the jump to sweep out of the basin.


(3) Stilling basins for Froudes number higher than 4.5

For this case depending upon the velocity of incoming flow, two types of of stilling basin
have been developed as indicated below.
(a) when the velocity of incoming flow is less than 15m/s, Type II stilling basin have
been adopted. This basin utilizes CHUTE BLOCKS, BAFFLE BLOCK and an
ENDSILL. The size, spacing and location of the chute and baffles blocks are shown in
figure. The length L of the stilling basin and the heights h3 and h4 of the baffle blocks and
end sill respectively may be obtained for different values of F1 from the following table:
F1 5 6 8 10 12 14 16
L/Y2 2.3 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.8
h3 /y 1 1.5 1.7 2.0 2.3 2.7 3.0 3.3
h4 /Y 1 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9
Where Y1 and Y3 are initial and sequent depths

By providing the baffle blocks the length of the stilling basin is considerably reduced
because the dissipation of energy is accomplished by the hydraulic jump as well as by the
impinging action of the incoming flow against these blocks. However, the baffle blocks
will be subjected to large impact forces due to impingement of incoming flow. Moreover
on the downstream face of the baffle blocks usually suction or negative pressure will be
developed which will further increase the forces acting on these blocks. Hence, baffle
blocks should be properly anchored at the base. Further the floor of the basin will also be
subjected to additional load due to the dynamic forces created against the upstream face
of the baffle blocks, which should be considered in the design of the floor of the basin.
(b) When the velocity of the incoming velocity exceeds 15 m/s, TYPE III STILLING
BASIN may be adopted. In this basin only chute blocks are provided and instead of a
solid end sill a dentate sill is provide. In this basin baffle blocks are not provided because
(i) Due to high velocity of incoming flows these blocks will be subjected to
excessive large impact forces and
(ii) There is a possibility of cavitation along the downstream face of theses blocks
and adjacent floor of the basin due to large negative pressure developed in the
region.
However, due to baffle blocks being eliminated in this case the dissipation of the energy
is primarily accomplished by hydraulic jump and hence the length of the basin will be
greater than that indicated for the TYPE II BASIN. The length of TYPE III stilling basin
may be obtained for different values of F1 from the following table:
F1 5 6 8 10 12 14
L/Y2 3.85 4.0 4.2 4.3 4.3 4.3
Again in this case also in order to check the tendency of the jump to sweep out of the
basin the floor of the basin is so set that the tail water depth in the basin is 5% greater
than the sequent depth.

8.2 BUCKET TYPE ENERGY DISSIPATERS

Abucket type energy dissipaters consists of an upturned bucket provided at the toe of the
spillway. The bucket type energy dissipaters may be used only for overflow type
spillways. This type of energy dissipation becomes more economical than the method of
stilling basins when the Froude number F1 of the incoming flow exceeds 10, because in
such cases the difference between initial and sequent depths being large a long and
stilling basin would be required. Moreover the bucket type energy dissipaters may be
used with any tail water condition. However, this type of energy dissipater may be used
only when the river bed is composed of stiff rock. The bucket type energy dissipaters are
of the following three types:
(i) Solid roller Bucket
(ii) Slotted roller Bucket
(iii) Ski jump ( or flip or trajectory bucket)
The solid or slotted roller bucket may be used where the tail water depths are too large as
compared to the sequent depths required for the formation of the hydraulic jump. Both
these buckets remain submerged in tail water and hence these are also termed as
submerged bucket type energy dissipaters. The solid and slotted roller buckets are
discussed as under:
(i) Solid roller Bucket
A solid roller bucket consists of a bucket like apron with a concave circular profile of
large radius and a deflector lip as shown. When the water flows over the bucket the entire
sheet of water leaving the bucket is deflected upward by the bucket lip and two elliptical
rollers are developed as shown in the figure. One of the roller which moves in the counter
clock wise direction is developed on the surface of the bucket and is contained within the
region above the bucket. This is known as bucket roller ( or surface roller). The other
roller moving in the clock wise direction is developed on the ground surface immediately
downstream of the bucket, which is known as ground roller, the movement of the rollers,
along with the intermingling of the incoming flows causes the dissipation of the energy.
The upward deflection of water by the bucket lip creates a high boil on the water surface
and a violent ground roller. This ground roller continuously pulls the loose bed material
backwards and deposits the same against the lip of the bucket. Some of the materials may
move into the bucket, which may get trapped there and damage the surface of the bucket
by abrasion. Moreover due to severe surface boil the turbulent flow persists for a
considerable distance on downstream side thus resulting in the erosion of the river banks.
These drawbacks of the solid roller bucket are removed in slotted roller bucket.
__________
Radius of the Bucket: R= 0.6 H/ *Hd
/
Where H = fall from crest of spillway to bucket invert in meter.
And Hd =Head over crest in meters
Vente Chow‟s Formula R = 0.306 *10k
Where k = (v1+6.4 Hd +4.88)/(3.6 Hd + 19.5)
V1 = velocity of flow at the toe of spillway in m/s

Slotted Roller Bucket

A slotted roller bucket also consists of a bucket like apron with a concave circular profile
of large radius but it has a slotted (or dentated) deflector lip. In general the hydraulic
action of the slotted bucket has the same characteristics as that of a solid bucket. Thus in
the case of the slotted bucket also the same two rollers are developed. However in this
case the water leaves the lip of the bucket at a flatter angle and only a part of it is
deflected upwards. Thus surface boil is considerably reduced, and less violent ground
rollers occurs which results in a smoother flow on the downstream side. Moreover in this
case the bed material is neither deposited nor carried away from the bucket lip, also any
debris which might get into the bucket is immediately washed out through the slots.
However the performance of the slotted bucket is considerably affected by tail water
depth. At low tail water depths the bucket roller will be swept out of bucket and will
produce high velocity flow on the downstream side which will scour the river bed. On the
other hand when the tail water depths becomes excessively large the jet water leaving the
bucket will get depressed and drive to the river bed which will scour the river bed at the
point of impingement. Thus the slotted roller buckets are suitable only for alimited range
of tail water depths

SKI JUMP BUCKET

A ski jump bucket may be used where the tail water depth, is less than sequent depth
required for the formation of hydraulic jump and the river bed is composed of stiff rock.
The lip of the bucket is so shaped that the entire sheet of the water flowing over the
bucket is deflected as a free jet which falls back into the river channel at a safe distance
away from the spillway. Thus in this case energy is dissipated by air resistance, breaking
of the jet into bubbles and the impact of the falling jet against the river bed and tail water.
BUCKET INVERT level is decided mainly from the structural point of view. If the
power house is situated below the ski jump bucket, then the invert should be fixed higher
than the roof top of power house. In some cases bucket is lower than the tail water the
bucket invert then is so decided so as to provide a concrete cover of 1.5m to 3.0m over
the bed of rock. The pure ski jump or flip as it is often called is provided such that bucket
lip is always higher than the maximum tail water depth.
Bucket Radius has the same formula as the solid roller bucket.
Entrance and exit slope:
For the entrance slope, the steepest spillway slope that should be used is 4 vertical to 1
horizontal. The exit angle  is an important factor in determining the length of the
trajectory. Theoretically if friction, air retardation etc., are neglected, the formula to be
used to evaluate the horizontal component of the jet trajectory
X= (Vo2/g) sin 2
Jet trajectory height is given by Y = h sin2 = (Vo2/2g) sin2
A judicious selection of exit angle is necessary, an exit angle of 30 o to 35o is a good
choice. When the maximum tail water is lower than the bucket lip shape of the lip is kept
flatter for ease of construction. High sub atmospheric pressure at downstream lip has to
be avoided by aeration or provide a curved or sloping lip.


CHAPTER NINE
9. WEIR
9.1 DESIGN OF DIVERSION WEIRS
Site Investigation, Topographic Survey, Soil Survey and Hydrologic Analysis

Many of the rivers are seasonal but with adequate discharges to develop small scale
irrigation schemes. The diversion weir, although apparently a simple structure across a
river, is a piece of engineering work which needs careful design and thorough
hydrological, hydraulic and structural analysis. The view of collapsed hydraulic
structures, including diversions weirs, in not uncommon.
Site Investigation
I- Social and Economic Aspects
The project planner and the designer, during the first investigations, seek answers to a
few questions which are crucial for deciding the scheme‟s feasibility. These questions
are:
1. Coherence of the farming society.
2. Will the proposed structure create any conflict?
3. The need for miscellaneous structure.
II- Technical Considerations
A design engineer who visits the site, for the first time is seeking answers to the
following vital questions, which directly affect the design.
1. Location of the weir.

2. Stability of river bank and dimensions of the structure
3. Type of Structure
On the first site visit, the design engineer usually investigates the following.
1. What construction materials are available in the locality and their process?
2. What other materials are used for construction, which are not available in
the local market and what would be their costs, if imported?
3. Is there a shortage of any construction material in the market? If yes, what
are they and what is the average waiting time to obtain n order?
4. Is it possible to hire construction machinery in the locality? Where the
nearest machinery rental station and what is are the rates?
5. What is the availability of skilled labour in the area? For the kind of job in
mind can skilled labourers be recruited in the area and what are the
average wages?
6. What will be the construction period? Diversion structures are usually
constructed in dry seasons, when the river is dry of at its lowest level. In
developing countries, where construction technology is not usually
sophisticated, the construction period should be limited, as much as
possible, to the dry season. This factor in many cases surpasses all other
factors in selecting the structure type.
The answers to the above questions usually give the design engineer sufficient
information to decide what materials should be used and what construction technology

followed. However, in constructing large structures, the result of geotechnical

investigation may be a very important factor in selecting the shape and construction
materials of the structure, although in the case of small diversion weirs, this is very
unlikely.
Another important factor in choosing the structure type is the implementation method. If
the project is implemented by farmers themselves one naturally opts materials and low
technology. On the other hand, if it is constructed by constrictors, the economy of the
structure may be only decisive factor.
3. Topography survey
At the proposed location of the structure the survey required is as follows:
 Layout of the river. About one kilometer up and downstream of the structure‟s
location is sufficient.
 The topographic survey should extend 250 m to both sides of the river.
 Cross section of the river at each 50 m in straight reaches of the river and at 25 m
in bends.
 A contour map of an interval not larger than 1 m for the land, 0.50 m for the river
bed and of 0.25 m near the structure.
 Layout of the river stretch surveyed should be drawn to a scale not larger than
1:2000. The weir location for a distance 50 m up and downstream of the structure
to be drawn to a scale not less than 1:200.
 The horizontal and vertical scale of the river cross section must be the same and
must not exceed 1:50 or 1:100 depending on the size of the river.
4. Soil Investigation
Table 1 Required soil data for the design of hydraulic structures
Data Purpose
1 Soil profile to detect impermeable and soft layers under the foundation
under
the foundation
2 Soil to estimate engineering properties of the soil
classification estimate safe exit hydraulic gradient at the d/s toe of the foundation
design filter under riprap
3 Permeability to estimate seepage rate under the foundation
4 Unit weight, to calculate lateral pressure on retaining walls,
angle of internal estimate the soil bearing capacity
friction, and
cohesion of the
soil.
5 Compressibility to estimate settlement of the structure
and coefficient
of consolidation
of soil layers
Soil profile under the foundation

Soil profile under the foundation of structures is required to reveal the depth of
impermeable and soft layers. In designing the foundation of heavy structures, e.g. a large
weir with a bridge for heavy vehicles on the top, investigating the soil profile is necessary
to assess settlement of the construction and the allowable pressure on the soil layers. For
such a case, soil and geotechnical specialists should be consulted. The depth to which the
investigation to be carried out depends on the load and dimensions of the foundation. In
small diversion weirs, it is hardly necessary to investigate the soil below 3 m, even if it
carries a small foot-bridge. The designer would like to discover a hard rock base near the
river bed to make the cost of the investigation worthwhile by eliminating construction of
an expensive stilling basin for the structure. When construction of small weirs are
concerned, the investigation usually does not require more than a set of hand operated
augers. Sophisticated drilling equipment is expensive and in remote, underdeveloped
areas is not usually available in the locality.
Soil classification
Soil classification and grain size distribution of the foundation soil are needed of (i) safe
hydraulic gradient at the downstream edge of the structure‟s foundation; (ii) design of
filter for under riprap wherever it is used; (iii) estimating roughly the engineering
property of the soil such as coefficient of permeability.
5. Hydrological data
Hydrological data is required at the project area to obtain, after their analysis, the design
discharges. The design discharges, maximum and minimum values, are important figures
which are used by the designer to size the structure. To design the canal network, the
mean discharge of the river is also needed.
The maximum design discharge is the peak river discharge that corresponds to a certain
return period which is usually decided by the designer on economic and engineering
ground. The maximum design discharge is used in the design, to determine the backwater
curve results from constructing the weir in order to predict the highest water level that
occurs, on average once every (T) years, where T is the selected return period of the
discharge.
General Design Considerations of the Weir
The behavior of the surface flow is greatly affected by the geometry of the weir and the
geometry of the weir directly affects the design and economy of the structure. Some
important features of the weir and their effects on the design are given in the following
sections.
1. Crest Elevation
The crest elevation of the weir affects the water profile in two ways:
1. The height of the crest affects the discharge coefficient and consequently the
waterhead above the weir and the back water curve.
2. The height of the weir affects the shape and location of the jump and the design of
the basin.

Height of the weir is usually decided with the requirement of the canal intake in mind. To
fulfill the objective of the intake structure the following points should be considered in
deciding the crest elevation:
- The crest level should be so set that the waterhead required to deliver the main
canal‟s discharge design is obtained
- If the entire flow of the river at low flows is diverted, the crest elevation must be
set at a level so that the ponded water gives the required head to apply the canal
with the design flow.
- If the minimum flow in the river exceeds the discharge of the offtake canals, the
crest level of the water can be set lower than the river water level which is
required to deliver the design flow in the canal, to allow for the downstream water
rights.
- The maximum (allowable) upstream water surface elevation must also be
considered in selecting the crest elevation. The maximum allowable water level
depends on the upstream river bank elevation and the infrastructure such as
bridges, roads, buildings, etc. The minimum freeboard at the maximum design
discharge must not be less than 0.50 m, although this cannot be achieved in many
seasonal rivers which overflow annually.
2. Length of the Weir
Length of the weir depends on the physical features of the given site. The effect of the
weir length on the upstream waterhead and sedimentation behind the weir must be
understood.
- A weir with a long crest gives a small discharge per unit length and hence the
required energy dissipation per metre of the crest is smaller than what is needed
for a shorter crest length.
- Constructing a weir longer than the river width causes formation of islands at the
upstream side of the weir. As a result the canals‟ inlets can become cutoff from
the river flow. The formation of the islands upstream of the weir reduces the
effective length of the crest.
As a general rule the crest length should be taken as the average wetted width during the
flood. In taking the average, the upstream and downstream of the proposed location
should be examined and the width at a stable location measured.
3. Shape of the Weir
In deciding the shape of the weir two important factors need to be considered: the
practicality and the economy of the structure. When a weir is designed, the designer
should consider the skill of the people who are expected to implement the structure.
There are weirs of different types and shapes and most of them are constructed to serve
the same purpose. The designer should not impose a weir with a shape which cannot be
constructed easily by the local builders. It is unwise, for example, to impose an Ogee-
shaped weir on farmers in a remote village, just because the discharge coefficient is
slightly better than other alternatives. It is not suggested here that the designer should
sacrifice the efficiency and economy of the structure, altogether, for the sake of
simplicity. However, compromise must not be made on the stability of the structure.

Two types of weirs are very common in small irrigation schemes. These are:
1. concrete weir with vertical upstream and slopes downstream faces,
2. Stepped weir, which is usually constructed from gabion boxes.
A commonly constructed, but slightly complicated, weir is the one developed by the US
Army of Engineers known as the WES weirs (developed at its Waterways Experiment
Station).
Discharge over Weirs
Discharge over weirs is generally expressed as follows (Fig. 9.1):
Q  CLH e
3/ 2
where Q = discharge
L = length of the weir
He = height of energy line above the crest
= V2/2g + Hd
C = discharge coefficient
Fig. 9.1 Hydraulics of flow over weirs
When piers are placed on the crest to support a slab for the river crossing or to operate the
controlled gates:
Q  C Lo  KNH e H e
3/ 2
(9.1)
Lo = Clear length of the weir

N = Number of pier contraction = 2 x number of piers
K = Pier contraction coefficient. In practice K is assumed equal to 0.05.
Discharge coefficient is related to He/Hd and it varies according to the type of weirs.
Determination of the coefficient C for two common weirs is given in the following
section.

1. WES – standard weir
The shape of the Waterways Experiment Stations (WES) weirs, which are presented in
Fig. 5.3 is expressed by:
X n  K o H dn1Y (9.2)
Where X and Y are coordinates of the crest profile with the origin at the highest point of
the crest. Hd is the design head excluding the velocity head of the approach flow and K o
and n are parameters depending on the slope of the upstream face. The values of Ko and n
are given in Table 9.1.
Fig. 9.3 The WES-standard spillway shapes
Table 9.1 Parameters for the WES weir shape formula (Eq. 9.2)

Slope of U/S face Ko N

Vertical 2.000 1.850
3 on 1 1.936 1.836
3 on 2 1.939 1.810
3 on 3 1.873 1.776
Determination of the coefficient C
There are two conditions for which the value of C is determined:
(i) h/Hd > 1.33, h = height of the weir,

Hd = design head excluding the approaching velocity head.
For this case the velocity head is negligible and C = 2.225.
(ii) h/Hd < 1.33
The velocity head should not be neglected. The value of C calculated from the
experimental curve is presented in Fig. 9.4.
The calculation procedures:
1. determine He/Hd and h/Hd
2. from a relevant curve determine C/Cd
3. the discharge coefficient for a vertical upstream face is:
C = C/Cd (from the graph) x 2.225

4. if the upstream face is not vertical, correct the value of C calculated in step 3,
multiplying it by the correction factor for the given h/Hd value.
Fig. 9.4 Head-discharge relation for WES – standard spillway shapes.

Fig. 9.5 Geometry of the WES weir
2. Horizontal Broad Crested Weir

The weir comprises a horizontal crest between vertical abutments and two vertical or
inclined faces. The upstream corner should be rounded in such a manner that flow
separation does not occur. Flow separation can also be avoided by using an upstream ram
which slopes between 2/1 and 3/1 (H/V). The downstream of the horizontal crest may be
a vertical or downward slope face. The dimensions of the weir and it abutments should
comply with the requirement in Fig. 9.6 if the flow over the weir is required to be
measured accurately.

Fig. 9.6 A typical broad crested weir.
Evaluation of the Discharge Coefficient

The hydraulics of the broad crested weir is complicated by the fact that the value of the
discharge coefficient is a function of many parameters. These parameters are the
upstream and downstream height of the energy line, width of crest (b), and height of the
crest above the river bed. It can be shown theoretically that the discharge over a broad
weir is expressed by the following equation:
Q(theoretical) = 1.706LHe3/2
Experiments have shown that for a well rounded upstream edge the discharge is:
Q = 1.673LHe3/2
Bos (1989) concluded that for He/b > 1.5, the weir acts as a suppressed sharp weir and the
discharge formula would be:
Q = 1.84LHe3/2
If, for example the crest width is 0.50 m and the head of water over the crest is 0.75 m,
this last equation applies.
In practice a discharge coefficient C = 1.70 is usually used. Here also the last figure is
recommended. When a weir is designed, engineers deal with the probability and
discharge records that are liable to have many errors. Changing the coefficient C from 1.7
to 1.75, for example, affects the discharge by only 2.9%. While errors in the hydrological
data and the method of estimating the design discharge are undoubtedly much greater.
The equation applied here is:
Q = 1.70LHe3/2
When the crest supports piers, the weir length must be modified according to Eq. (9.1).
9.2 Water Profile at the Weir Site
The engineer who designs a weir is interested in the water profile upstream and
downstream of the weir for the following reasons.
Water surface at downstream of the weir:

1. Carry out the stability analysis of the weir.

2. Design the weir structurally.
3. Design the downstream wing wall, and protection works downstream of the
apron.
Water surface at upstream of the weir:
The level of the back water curve is required to be determined for the following reasons:
1. to determine the safe level of the embankment and superstructures,
2. to find out whether the canal intakes for which the weir is built, receive water at
all stages of the river and what type of headwork is needed.
In the following, determination of the water profile upstream and downstream of the weir
is discussed.
1. Water Profile Upstream of the Weir
In the previous sections, it was explained how the level of the weir crest is fixed to give
the required water level upstream of the weir. The required water level may be a level
which guarantees a certain discharge for the offtake canal when the river is at its lowest
discharge. Once the crest level is decided, it is required to draw the water profile for few
possible discharges. Usually the analysis is carried out for Qmax which corresponds to 50
and 100 years return period, 2/3 and 1/3 of Qmax and also for a flow which corresponds to
a certain drought level, for example the minimum discharge which has a return period of
ten years.
Construction of weirs elevates the total energy line upstream of the structure. The
difference between the upstream and downstream energy grade line become very high.
Therefore, the energy must be dissipated before it reaches the natural river course,
otherwise it causes damage to the banks and downstream of the apron. The flow over the
weir is in a supercritical state. Therefore, the energy tends to dissipate through a
hydraulic jump downstream of the weir. To control location of the jump, the apron and
stilling basin are designed to suit a range of river discharges.
Water Profile Upstream of the Weir

Water profile upstream of the weir needs to be known for two purposes:
(i) to determine the height of the river banks upstream of the weir and,
(ii) to find out whether the water surface is high enough to deliver the
required discharge to the off take canals.
There are several methods to determine the water profile upstream of weirs, but here only
two methods are explained.
The profile by the approximate method

This method gives results accurate enough for the preliminary design in channels of
uniform cross-section and constant hydraulic properties. It assumes that the following
equation fits the profile.
 XS  2 o 2
Y
4 0
Y = Water rise, at distance X upstream of the weir, above the normal water depth.
X = Distance from the crest to the point where Y is required to be determined.
S = Slope of the river.
o = Rise of water above the normal depth at the weir site (X = 0).
This method does not take into account the geometry and the hydraulic properties of the
channel.
Standard step method
This method is a trial and error procedure by which the water profile upstream or
downstream of a structure can be determined. The trial can start at any location, but it is
advisable to carry the computation upstream if the flow is subcritical and downstream if it
is supercritical. The computations stepwise are as follows:
1. Field works
The river cross section must be surveyed, whenever its geometry and hydraulic properties
significantly change. The sections and river profile must be drawn to appropriate scales.
The distance upstream of the weir which should be covered by the survey, depends on: (i)
the maximum afflux over the weir, and (ii) how significant the installations and
infrastructures on both sides of the river banks are. For example, if it is required only to
find out whether the back water curve hits a bridge at some distance upstream of the weir,
then only the distance between the weir and the bridge needs to be surveyed. It is helpful
to realize that in a channel of uniform cross-sections and constant hydraulic properties,
the effect of the back water curve disappears at a distance X from the weir, where:
2 o
X 
S
S = gradient of the channel

o = afflux over the normal water depth at the weir site.
If for example, o = 1.50 m and S = 0.001, the effect of constructing a weir on the water
profile diminishes at 3000 m away from the structure.
2. Foe each cross section surveyed, determine its area (A) wetted perimeter (P) and the
hydraulic radius (R) at different water depths. Plot the water depth D against A and D
against R. (Table 9.2).

3. Prepare a table with 21 columns as it is shown in Table 9.3. Number of the rows
initially is not known, it depends on the number of river cross sections and initial value of
the water surface assumed in the trial.
The heading of the columns is self explanatory, with the possible exception of column 13
which contains the energy coefficient:
  K / ai2 
i N
3
i i
 i 1
 iN

  K i  / A2
 i 1 
K = hydraulic conveyance of the section K = AR2/3/n which is calculated in column 12.

Wherever the river cross section is a composite one, i.e. consists of main and minor
channels such as in river plains, the section is divided into subsections separately. The
index (i) refers to the subsections number.
a = area of subsection (i)

A = total cross section area of the river
i = the subsection‟s energy coefficient.

In the computation, i is not known: it is assumed to be equal to one. Therefore the above
equation becomes
  K 
i N
3
i i / ai2
 i 1
3
 iN 
  K i  / A2
 i 1 
Where K = hydraulic conveyance of the section K = AR2/3/n which is calculated in

column 12. Wherever the river cross section is a composite one, i.e. consists of main and
minor channels such as in river plains, the section is divided into subsections and the
conveyance is calculated for each subsection separately. The index (i) refers to the
subsection‟s number.
a = area of subsection (i)
A = total cross section area of the river
i = the subsection‟s energy coefficient.
In the computation, I is not known: it is assumed to be equal to one. Therefore the above
equation becomes
 K 
iN
3
i / ai2
 i 1
3
 iN 
  K i  / A2
 i 1 

4. Start of the computation: The computation starts by assuming a water level at the first
section if the actual value is not known. Insert this Figure in column 5 of Table 9.3. From
the given water and bed levels, the water depth is calculated. The figure in columns 7 and
8 are obtained from the graphical relationships of D, A, and R, explained in step 2 above.
5. The figures in columns (14-21) are then calculated systematically by applying the
formulae given in the column headings. The average slope of the energy line S is the
arithmetic mean of the value calculated for the present station (X) and its previous one
(X-X). The total head in column 21 is equal to the total head at the previous station ((X-
X) and the friction loss hf at the current station X. If the value of H calculated in column
21 does not agree with the H value in column 16, a new water level is assumed and
entered in column 5. The procedure must be repeated until the two figures in column 16
and 21 agree closely.
Determination of the tail water depth
Throughout this chapter the tail water depth and its effects on the jump location and the
profile are mentioned several times. How the depth is calculated is now explained.
To determine the tail water depth, the rating curve at the location of the water needs to be
known. The curve is usually constructed from the river stage and discharge measurement
records. Usually, this data is not available at the location of the weir; therefore, a
theoretical rating curve should be constructed. If the stream flow record is not available at
the weir site, the following steps can be taken to draw a rating curve accurate enough for
the design purpose.
1. Surveys should be carried out at the location of the weir to draw the cross section
of the river.
2. The cross section needs to be drawn to a suitable scale. Assume different water
depths in the river, and determine the water area and wetted perimeter
corresponding to each depth.
3. For each depth, determine the flow velocity and discharge by using the Manning
equation (Fig. 5.22).
4. Plot the assumed depths and their corresponding discharges to present the rating
curve.
The rating curve is used to determine the water depth for known values of the river
discharge. Fig. 5.22 is an example on constructing the rating curve.


Canal Head Regulator
The purpose of the weir is to create sufficient head to supply the main irrigation canal
with the design discharge. The canal head regulator is usually gated to control the amount
of flow into the canal. The most common types of head regulators are:
1. open intake and
2. Closed or culvert intake.
Each of these cases is explained separately.
Open intake
This consists of the intake mouth, which acts as an orifice or weir, a transition and the
main canal. Fig. 5.25 presents a typical open intake. The intake is usually designed as an
orifice. Discharge through the intake is calculated by using the orifice formula as follows
Q  CA 2 gh
where A = area of the gate opening

h = difference between the upstream and downstream water level
C = discharge coefficient
The outflow of the gate may be either free or submerged, depending on the tail water
depth in the main canal (Fig. 5.23). The coefficient C is therefore variable and depends
on the flow condition. The following two equations may be used for evaluation of C
C  0.615  0.007 x25h
for h < 5 ft and
C  0.7201  0.0074W
Where h < 5 ft and w < 10 ft, where w is the width of the gate. For h < 1 ft both give
nearly the same answer. In practice C = 0.6 and 0.7 are used for rectangular and circular
orifices respectively.
The hydraulics of the downstream floor of the intake should be treated in the same way as
for the main weir downstream. The floor must be long enough to accommodate the jump
and their weights balance the uplift pressure.
9.3 UPLIFT PRESSURE UNDER WEIR FOUNDATION
Determination of the water uplift pressure and its distribution under hydraulic structures
is a significant part of their engineering design. Without knowing the uplift pressure at
different points along the foundation, the stability analysis of the structure cannot be
carried out and the structure cannot be dimensioned properly to give the required safety
factor.
Failure of weirs on permeable foundations occurs as a result of one or more of the
following:
1. Subsurface flow actions

Piping or undermining soil under the foundation can cause collapse of the apron and
eventual overturning of the structure.
Uplift pressure. A weir can fail when the uplift pressure creates an overturning moment
in excess of the superstructure‟s balancing moment. To avoid this happening, the uplift
pressure must be estimated correctly and the structure dimensioned properly.
2. Surface flow actions

This is caused by scouring of the downstream floor of the structure. It is due to
unbalanced pressure in the hydraulic jump.
Analysis of uplift pressure under structures built on impervious foundations is simplified
by the fact that the head dissipates by friction when the water percolates through cracks
and fissures in the foundation. The uplift pressure is usually assumed to vary linearly
from the upstream head to the tail water.
Weirs constructed on impervious foundations are rare since most irrigation projects
locate at or near the alluvial stage of rivers. In the subsequent sections some approaches
for assessing the uplift pressure in pervious foundations and limitations on their
application are discussed.
Methods of the Seepage Analysis
1. Bligh’s creep theory
The theory assumes that the water upstream of the weir creeps to it‟s downstream along
the contact base of the structure with the soil. The residual uplift pressure at any point
along the base is proportional to the distance of the point from the upstream of the
foundation.
Fig. Treatment of vertical forces in the Bligh method
One of the shortcomings of Bligh‟s method is that it does not discriminate between the
horizontal and vertical creeps in estimating the exit hydraulic gradient the above figure
shows how a foundation with vertical seepage faces is dealt with according to the Bligh
method.
The uplift pressure according to the Bligh at point X is determined from the pressure
diagram as follows.

hx H

Leq  Lx Leq
Lx  2a  t1  L1  2b  d
Leq  t1  2a   L1  2b  L2  2c  t2 
H Leq  Lx 
hx 
Leq
H
Exit gradient ie = < is
Leq
Where Leq = equivalent creep length according to Bligh theory

H = actual headwater
hx = uplift pressure along the base.
Table 9.6 Recommended safe hydraulic gradient
Material Safe exit gradient is
Lane’s method Bligh’s method
Very fine sand or silt 1/8.5 1/18
Fine sand 1/7.0 1/15
Medium sand 1/6.0 -
Coarse sand 1/5.0 1/12
Fine gravel 1/4.0 -
Medium gravel 1/3.5 -
Gravel and sand 1/3.0 1/19
Coarse gravel including cobbles 1/3.0 -
Boulders with some cobbles and gravel 1/2.5 -
Boulders, gravel and sand - 1/4 - 1/6
Soft clay 1/3.0 -
Medium clay 1/2.0 -
Hard clay 1/1.8 -
Very hard clay or hard pan 1/1.6 -
2. Lane’s weighed creep theory

In Lane‟s method, the equivalent creep length is calculated as follows:
N
Leq  V
3
N = Sum of all the horizontal contacts and all the sloping contacts less than 45o
V = Sum of all the vertical contacts and all sloping contacts greater than 45o

To safeguard against piping, the exit gradient must be less than the safe gradient given in
Table 9.6. To demonstrate the method, the pressure at point X, the Fig above is
calculated.
To horizontal distances N = L1 + L2
Total vertical distances V = t1 + 2a + 2b + 2c + t2
1
Leq = (L1 + L2) + (t1 + 2a + 2b + 2c + t2)
3
Horizontal distances from left to (X) = L1 + d
Vertical distances from left to (X) = t1 + 2a + 2b
1
Lx = (L1 + d) + (t1 + 2a + 2b)
3
H ( Leq  Lx )
hx 
Leq
3. Flow nets
This method is similar to the previous two and assumes that the soil layer under the
foundation is homogenous. The method is the graphical solution of the Laplace equation
for the steady state flow. To illustrate the method, assume a weir retains water to the
height (H) above the ground surface at it is shown in Fig. a. Water will percolate from the
upstream side of the weir to its downstream through the soil along imaginary paths
known as flow lines. Due to the soil resistance, the waterhead decreases as the water
travels downstream. Lines connecting points of equal waterheads on the flow lines are
known as the equiponential lines. The flow and equipotential lines intersect at right
angles, as is demonstrated in Fig. a. By definition, if two piezometers are placed at two
different levels on the same equipotential lines, as shown in Fig. a, the water level in both
of them will be the same.
The flow nets are constructed by dividing the soil profile under the foundation into
arbitrary numbers of equipotential and flow lines. In drawing the lines, the following
criteria must be considered.
(i) the flow and equipotential lines intersect at right angles;
(ii) the flow and equipotential lines are parallel among themselves;
(iii) the side of the squares which will be formed by intersecting the equipotential
and flow lines are equal.
These conditions usually dictate the number of the flow equipotential lines. The larger the
number of the lines, the smaller the size of the square and hence there is a better chance
to fulfill the required criteria. The solution is achieved by trial and error. To draw a flow
net for a weir which has three or four sheet piles, the trial may take several hours until the
required criteria are fulfilled.
There are several boundary conditions which assist in drawing the flow net. The up and
downstream ground surface are equipotential lines. Flow lines are parallel along
impermeable surface and equipotential lines meet these surfaces at right angles.

Fig. a Flow net for a water storage structure
By understanding the characteristics of the flow nets, one can reach the following
equations:
b1
Q1  KH 1
l1
b2
Q2  KH 2
l2
Since b/l = 1 and H1 = H2, therefore Q1 = Q2

If the number of chosen equipotential drops is Nd, we have:
H
H 
Nd
and
H
Q  K
Nd
In the number of flow channels is Nf, the total flow or seepage per unit width of the weir
is:
Q  N f Q
Nf
Q  KH (9.8)
Nd

The hydraulic gradient across any field is
H H
i 
l lN d
and the average seepage per unit volume across any field parallel to the direction of flow
is:
H
Ps  i w  w
Ndl
If the side slope of the last square at the exit is le, the exit hydraulic gradient is:
H
ie   is
le N d
Theoretically when ie less than is is, the structure is safe against piping. As a safety factor
against unexpected increase in the head, the calculated exit gradient should not exceed
the safe hydraulic gradient given in Table 9.8
Table 9.8: Safe exit gradient for different types of soils

Type of material Safe gradient (is)
Shingle 1/4-1/5
Coarse sand 1/5-1/6
Fine sand 1/6-1/7
From the above description of the method one may note that flow lines are constructed by
trial and error until a satisfactory picture is obtained.
Determining the uplift pressure in a foundation with an irregular base and several lines of
cutoff walls by this graphical method can be very time consuming and the flow net
becomes complicated.
While the method is accurate, since it represents the solution of the flow equation, the use
of the method in designing small weirs is not common, because of the involvement of
lengthy trial and error methods in finding the acceptable shape of the flow net.
A question which arises often is: what is the appropriate size of the flow net squares? The
answer is, the smaller the size of the squares the more accurate the result is. The size of
the squares also depends on the shape of the foundation. A foundation which has many
corners, as is the case when several piles are attached to it requires very small squares in
order to fulfill the flow net criteria described above.
Fig. 6.3 is the flow net for the problem in Example 9.1, which was solved by the Bligh
and Lane methods.
The pressure at point X = H-n(H/Nd) = 6-13(6/23) = 2.61 m
n = number of squares from upstream to the point considered
N = Total number of the squares between two flow lines:

The exit gradient ie = H/le = (6/23)/1.8 =1/6.9.

Compare the above results to the ones obtained by the Bligh and Lane methods.
According to the result of the flow net method, the structure is safe on fine sand.
It should be noted that in the given example, the tail water depth is assumed to be zero.
The same principle can be used for other values of tail water. In that case the head (H) is
the difference between the upstream and the downstream water level.
When it is necessary to estimate the amount of water which percolates through the
subsoil from one side of the structure to another, for example, when a structure is built to
create a reservoir, the seepage rate is calculated by applying Eq. (9.8).
The approximate value of K is given in Table 9.8. For the given example, assume that the
soil is coarse sand, which has particle size D20 = 0.6 mm, where D20 is the size which
corresponds to 20% of the soil sample finer in the sieve analysis. For the soil

K = 1100 x 10-4 cm/s = 1.1 x 10-3 m/s

Q = 1.1 x 10-3 x 6 x 6/23 = 1.72 x 10 m3/s per meter width of the structure.
It can be shown by using the flow net that an efficient way to reduce the exit gradient is
to provide a cutoff wall at the end of the apron.
Energy Dissipater and its Effect on the Apron Length
It was explained earlier that construction of a solid apron is required to accommodate the
hydraulic jump. The relation between the exit gradient and length of the apron was also
established. Constructing ordinary horizontal flat aprons to match the required hydraulic
jump and existing gradient criteria usually results in a massive costly structure. The
length of apron can be reduced by introducing cutoff walls, but there is a limit however
for this reduction, since the hydraulic jump must not be allowed to occur outside the
apron. To control location of the jump and reduce the construction cost, energy
dissipaters should be introduced. Design of the energy dissipaters depends on values of
Froude number in pre- and post- jump and the water depths.
Fig. 6.10 presents the design criteria for various types of energy dissipating structures and
stilling basins.
The Design Procedure
1. Determine the pre- and post- hydraulic jump water depth.

2. Determine the pre-jump velocity V1 and Froude number, F1.
3. From Fig. 6.10 select a suitable basin to satisfy the flow condition, taking into
consideration the practicality in constructing it. The figure is self explanatory;
however, with the additional explanation given Table 9.10, the basin selection
should not be a problem.
4. The basin selected in step three is adequate to disperse the flow energy and
accommodate the jump, but it does not necessarily give an adequate creep length
to guarantee a safe exit hydraulic gradient. Therefore, the exit gradient should be
calculated for the given basin length. If it is greater than the safe gradient for
particular soil, the basin length must be increased at its end, or intermediate cutoff
walls introduced. However, the distance between the basin blocks and the sill
must not be changed.
Table 9.10 Selection of the Stilling Basin Criteria
Type of Froude no. F1

basin
- Not economic
I All ranges - The jump entirely depends on the tail water and it may
sweep away from the basin if D2 > D3.
- The basin length is smaller than basin I by 33% and
II > 4.5 disperse the energy within the basin.
- Its construction is a little complicated because of the form
work of the dentated sill and chute blocks.
- Suitable for cases where V < 15 m/s
III < 2.5 - The basin length is smaller than basin I by 60%, but it is
more difficult to construct because of the form works of the
end sill.
- The basin length is the same as the length of basin I, but it
IV 2.5 < F1 < 4.5 guarantees the occurrence of the jump within the basin and
reduces waves result from imperfect jumps.
Protection Work for the Structure
The structure must be well protected from the river overflow and water creep along the
walls must be prevented. Construction of wing walls at both ends of the structure is
essential to anchor it into the embankment. The upstream wings are usually constructed at
an angle of 30 – 40o with the river bank, and it should be extended beyond the top line of
the embankment by at least 1.00 m. Type of required protection and height of
embankment, depend on the frequency of the river overflow and the investment cost of
both the structure and the protection work. Fig. 6.11 presents a typical layout of a
structure.
To protect the channel bed from being eroded by the current leaving the solid apron,
usually riprap, is placed. The length, size of stones used, and thickness of the layer must
be carefully chosen according to certain criteria.
Length of the Protection Work

On the basis of Lacy‟s work on the channel scouring the following two formulas obtained
for the scouring depth up and downstream of the solid apron:
Upstream scour Ru = 1.7q2/3 (9.11a)

Downstream scour Du = 2q2/3 (9.11b)
Where q is the discharge per metre width of the channel.

The formulae include a safety factor of 1.25 and 1.50 for the up and downstream scouring
depth respectively. In the two formulae the soil is assumed to be silt and the silt factor is
one.
The scouring depth below the channel bed, Ds is:
Ds = R – D (9.12)
Where D = the water depth just off the apron.
An apron length of 1.5Ds is adequate to protect the structures ends from scouring. By
substituting Eq. (9.11) into Eq. (9.12) and applying the factor 1.5 to the scouring depth,
the resulting apron length would be:
Lu  2.55q 2 / 3  1.5Du (9.13a)
Ld  3.00q 2 / 3  1.5Dd (9.13b)
Where Lu and Ld = length of the protection work up and downstream of the solid
apron respectively.
Du and Dd = the water depth corresponding to the design discharge just of
the solid apron at up and downstream of the weir respectively.
The greater of the following also applies:
L > 4D, (9.14a)
Where D is the tail water.
L = length of earth transition (in canal structures)
L > 1.50 m (9.14b)
Obviously since Eq. (13) is based on the scouring depth, they must always be fulfilled.
Therefore, the designer should use the greatest value results from the two Eq. (9.13) and
(9.14).

Size of riprap stones

The minimum size of stones used in the riprap is related by different investigators to the
bottom velocity. The relation presented in Fig. 6.12 is the result of experimental work
carried out by the USBR. To use the figure the bottom velocity is needed. In natural
rivers, it is not possible to calculate the bottom velocity by a formula. To use the graph it
is recommended to use the average velocity at the basin‟s sill. For a structure without the
stilling basin, the following equation is recommended:
Vb  2 gz
where Vb = velocity in m/s

z = the drop (height of the crest above the d/s floor in meters).
Thickness of the layers

Riprap is usually placed on layers of gravel and sand. The minimum thickness of each
layer should not be less than 0.10 m. The riprap on the top of the filter should have a
minimum thickness of 1.5 to 2 of the largest stone diameter.
Grain size distribution of the filter materials

To determine the grain size distribution of the filter layers, the following steps need to be
taken:

1. Determine the minimum size of the riprap stones as was described above and
select a range of stone sizes between the calculated minimum diameter and the
maximum size. The maximum size is the size of stones that can be carried by an
average man without difficulty, if it is placed manually.
2. Soil samples at about 0.50 m below the river bed are to be taken for the sieve
analysis and the result is drawn from the usual sieve analysis curve, Fig. 6.13.
3. Apply the following criteria, to determine the limits of the grain sizes in each
layer.
a. To secure adequate soil permeability
d15upperlayer
L1   L2 (9.16)
d15lowerlayer
where d15 is the particle size which corresponds to 15% passing on the
sieve curve, and where L1 and L2 are the upper and lower limits of the ratio. The limit
values are as follows.
Type of soil L1 L2
Homogeneous grains (gravel) 5 10
Homogeneous angular grains 6 20
(broken gravel rubble)
Well graded grains 12 40
(b) To prevent the filter from clogging by soil particles in each layer should
satisfy
d5 > 0.75 mm
d5 is the particle size which corresponds to 5% passing on the sieve curve.
(c) To prevent fine bed materials from being washed away
d15upperlayer
5
d 85lowerlayer
and
d 50upperlayer
L1   L2 (9.19)
d 50lowerlayer
d85 and d50 are particle sizes corresponding to 85% and 50% passing on the sieve curve
respectively.
The lower and upper limits of Eq. (9.19) are as follows:
Type of soil L1 L2
Homogeneous grains (gravel) 5 10
Homogeneous angular grains 10 30

(broken gravel rubble)

Well graded grains 12 60
The boundaries of the filter layers are calculated by applying the above criteria to the
riprap stones and the subgrade (river bed) material and poting the results on the same
sheet of the sieve analysis curves of the soil sample.

9.4- STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF DIVERSION WEIRS
Diversion weirs are constructed from a variety of materials. The most commonly used
materials are reinforced concrete, masonry, and gabions. However, whatever materials
are used, the structural analysis remains almost the same.
Acting Forces on Weirs
All external forces acting on a weir are the result of flowing water in the canal or river on
which the structure is constructed. A typical force system of a weir consists of the
following components:
1. static water pressure of the surface water

2. uplift water pressure
3. soil reaction at the weir base
4. friction forces at the base which develop to balance the horizontal forces
5. Weight of the weir and water wedges.
Usually in structural analysis of weirs the dynamic force is neglected, since water behind
the weir is built up gradually, and the uplift pressure which results from the arrival of a
new wave does not develop instantly. In seasonal rivers there is a little or no uplift
pressure when the first wave hits the weir, thus the force system which occurs at this
moment, is not the most critical one, especially in weirs which are constructed
monolithically with the apron.
Fig. 8.1 presents typical sloped face weir, showing all the forces acting on them. The
components of the force system are discussed in the following:
1. Weight of the weir
This is calculated simply by multiplying unit weight of the weir by its volume.
2. Weight of the water wedges
The water wedges present the weight of water that is on the weir body and act, either
against or in favor of the weir stability, it depends on the slope of the weir and the water
surface downstream.
3. Upstream water pressure
Its value can be easily calculated if the effect of changing the static pressure, upstream, to
the dynamic one downstream is neglected. In high dams this effect can be substantial and
it causes an over estimate of the design if it is ignored, i.e. the structure will have a higher
factor of safety against overturning.
4. Downstream water pressure
If a weir is designed to match the lower profile of a free water overflow, theoretically, the
water pressure on the face of the weir should be nil, as it is the case in WES ogee-shaped
weir. However, in practice this is hardly the case since the structured weir may not match
the designed shape 100%. Therefore the water curve downstream of the weir cannot be
determined theoretically since the combined effects of the weir geometry and the
condition of the tail water are unpredictable. Theoretical determination of the water
pressure on the face of the weir and weight of the water wedges downstream is not a
straightforward process. The designers, therefore have two choices:
(i) Either to ignore pressure on the d/s face of the weir, in this case increase
slightly the toppling safety factor, or

(ii) Approximately draw the water surface and calculate the water weight. Fig. 8.1
shows a typical weir with the rapidly variable flow at their d/s side.
General Stability Conditions
For a structure to remain stable the following conditions must be fulfilled.
1. Summation of all moments about a point must be equal to zero:
M a 0
2. Summation of all horizontal forces must be equal to zero:
H f 0
3. Summation of all vertical forces must be equal to zero:
V f 0
The above conditions need to be explained in relation to diversion weirs.

For a structure to remain stable, the moments which tend to topple it must be equal to the
moments which balance it. In practice, this condition does not satisfy design engineers,
since unpredictable situations are likely to occur and cause the toppling moment to
exceed the balancing one and hence the structure fails. Usually a safety factor of about
1.5 to 2 is applied.
M balance
 1.5
M topple
in order to avoid lifting up the structure‟s heel and tension occurrence at the base, the
forces must pass through the middle third of the structures base, i.e.
B
eccentricity e < or
6
B B
e X 
2 6
where
X 
M
V f

 M = Summation of all moments about the structure toe (Fig. 8.3)

V =Summation of vertical forces excluding the base reaction.
f
X = Distance of the resultant of the forces from the toe

B = Width of the weir base


The structure may slide in the flow direction if there is not enough grip between the base
and the foundation. To prevent this happening, the following condition should be
satisfied.
Horizontal external forces

 f
Vertical external forces
where f is the friction factor between the base and the foundation.
It should be noted that, when the net vertical force is calculated, the foundation reaction
should not be included (Fig. 8.1). The foundation reaction occurs as a result of the
unbalanced moment and the vertical forces, i.e. weight of the structure and the water
uplift pressure. If the soil reaction is included, sum of the vertical forces will be zero.
The friction coefficient (f) depends on the materials used in the construction and nature of
the foundation. The USBR suggest 0.35 for concrete structures on common soils and 0.65
is recommended for the friction between masonry and concrete
Critical Cases to be considered
1. weirs built non-monolithically with the foundation, and

2. Weirs constructed monolithically with apron.
Design of the Apron
There are two approaches for determination of the apron thickness. The first one assumed
that the apron consists of individual unit volumes which are structurally not linked, and
the weight of each individual unit balances the uplift pressure. While this assumption
leads to an increase in the structure‟s cost, the computations involved are very easy and
result in a structure with a high safety factor. Thickness of the apron is calculated as
follows.
The uplift pressure under the apron must first be calculated, assume here it is linearly
distributed. From Fig. 8.7 it can be established that the required thickness of the apron (t)
= uplift pressure divided by  fb , where  fb = submerged density of the apron material.
In the equilibrium condition, the weight of the floor must balance the uplift pressure, i.e.
 w (hx  t )  t f
hx  w h
t  x w
( f   w )  fb
hx
t
( f  1)
hx = uplift pressure at point x, (m)
t = thickness of the floor (m)
 f  density of the floor materials, kg/m3
w  densityofw ater (kg / m3)
 fb  submergeddensityofth efloormatearils   f   w

Hydraulic Structure Module FINAL Final

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Wolkite university, College of Engineering and Technology, HWRE February 2017

DEPARTIMENT OF HYDRAULIC AND WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

Module for Holistic, Hydraulic structures 1

Module for Holistic, Hydraulic structures 2

Module for Holistic, Hydraulic structures 3

Embankment Dams Concrete Dams

Dams with facing Dams with Core Arch Dam

Concrete facing Silt or clay core Gravity Dam

Asphaltic Asphaltic concrete Buttress Dam

Module for Holistic, Hydraulic structures 4

Buttress dam: A dam consisting of a watertight upstream face supported at intervals on

Module for Holistic, Hydraulic structures 5

Selection of different types of Dams

Phases of engineering activities

Module for Holistic, Hydraulic structures 6

Collection and Evaluation of Basic Data

The general objectives of these and allied objectives are:

Module for Holistic, Hydraulic structures 7

- The determination of seepage patterns and parameters enabling assessment of the

Exploration and investigation methods (both for foundation and construction

Module for Holistic, Hydraulic structures 8

- marking and tracing groundwater seepage paths

E) Hydrological aspects and related Hydraulic aspects

i) River discharge serious

Important factors to be taken in to account

 Antecedent conditions- moisture of ground. Pervious precipitations. Base flow

2.1 FORCES ACTING & LOAD COMBINATION ON DAMS

Loads can be classified in terms of applicability or relative importance as primary loads,

i) Primary loads: are identified as those of major importance to all dams

Gravity dam Loads

i. Water Load (Refer fig. 1.8)

Where w unit weight of water =9.81 KN/m3

Pressure of any permanent tail water above the plane considered is :

ii. Self weight load: (Refer fig. 1.8, 3.1)

Determined w.r.t an appropriate unit weight of the material

Module for Holistic, Hydraulic structures 10

iii. Seepage & uplift load: (Refer fig. 1.8, 3)

Kd is function of drain geometry (i.e. diameter, special & relative

i. Sediment load: (Refer fig. 1.8, 3.1)

Module for Holistic, Hydraulic structures 11

For representative values of s 18-20KN/m3

ii. Hydrodynamic wave Load (Refer fig. 1.8, 3.1)

Pwave =2w Hs2

H  0.32 UF  0.76  0.24 4 F

Module for Holistic, Hydraulic structures 12

v) Thermal & dam /foundation interaction effect: Cooling of large pours of

C. Exceptional Loads (Refer fig. 1.8, 3.2)

1) Horizontal foundation acceleration operating u/s, and

Seismic coefficient analysis

Seismic acceleration coefficient: h for horizontal

Inertia forces: Mass of dam

Hydrodynamic forces: water action

pewh = Ceh.w Z1. KN/m

Z1= Max. Water depth

Total hydrodynamic load is given by.

Pewh = 0.66 Ce h Z1 w Z1 Z max . & acts @ 0.4 Z above section

pressure factor Ce.

Module for Holistic, Hydraulic structures 13

Ratio z/z1 u =00 u = 1500

The vertical hydrodynamic load, Pewv, is

Uplift load is assumed unaltered.

Module for Holistic, Hydraulic structures 14

2.2 GRAVITY DAM DESIGN AND ANALYSIS

Criteria & Principles