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Chapter One

INTRODUCTION

The Electric Power System is divided into many different sections. One of

which is the transmission system, where power is transmitted from generating

stations and substations via transmission lines into consumers. Both methods could

encounter various types of malfunctions is usually referred to as a “Fault”.

Fault is simply defined as a number of undesirable but unavoidable incidents

can temporarily disturb the stable condition of the power system that occurs when

the insulation of the system fails at any point. Moreover, if a conducting object

comes in contact with a bare power conductor, a short circuit, or fault, is said to have

occurred. The causes of faults are many, they include lighting, wind damage, trees

falling across transmission lines, vehicles or aircraft colliding with the transmission

towers or poles, birds shorting lines or vandalism.

In this study, the causes and effects of faults in the overhead transmission

lines were the focus of the research. Some of the many causes of faults, and some

detection methods will be discussed in chapter two (2). Chapter three (3) will

illustrate the mathematical model, and chapter four (4) will demonstrate the

application of this model for some hypothetical situations.

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Chapter Two

THE LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1. Transmission lines

2.1.1 Introduction

The electric energy produced at generating stations is transported over high

voltage transmission lines to utilization points. In the early days (until 1917), electric

systems were operated as isolated systems with only point-to-point transmission at

voltages that are considered low by today’s standards.

2.1.2 Requirement of Transmission Lines

Transmission lines should transmit power over the required distance

economically and satisfy the electrical and mechanical requirements prescribed in

particular cases. It would be necessary to transmit a certain amount of power, as a

given power factor, over a given distance and be within the limit of given the

regulation, efficiency and losses. The lines should stand the weather conditions of

the locality in which they are laid. This would involve wind pressures and

temperature variation at the places and the lines should be designed for the

corresponding mechanical loading. The regulation would give the voltage drop

between the sending-end and the receiving-end. The possibility of a corona

formation and corresponding loss would be another consideration. The charging

current of the line depends on the capacity of the line and should not exceed the

limit. As far as the general requirements of transmission lines are concerned, the

lines should have enough capacity to transmit the required power, should maintain
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continuous supply without failure, and should be mechanically strong so that there

are no failures due to mechanical breakdowns also. [2]

2.1.3 Selection of Voltage for High-Voltage Transmission Lines

With increase in the power to be transmitted over long distances, use of high

voltages for power transmission has been developed. However, a choice could be

made out of the standard voltages that are used in the country. The voltage selected

has to be economical and depends on the cost of the lines, cost of apparatus such as

transformers, circuit breakers, insulators, etc. This cost increases rapidly for voltages

in the range of 230 kV and above. For higher power, it is worthwhile to check

whether the required power can be transmitted using lower power voltages, e.g.

transmission at 230 kV using capacitors installed on the line instead of higher

voltages. The voltages used as standards in many countries 11 kV, 22 kV, and 33 kV

for short lines, 66 kV and 110 kV for medium lines and 132 kV, 166 kV, 230 kV and

above for long lines.

In the selection of voltage of transmission lines, the existing and future

voltage of

the other lines in the vicinity should be considered. This is required for the possible

interconnection of the grid lines. In such cases, it may be necessary to choose

voltages higher than the most economical voltage. Possible developments in the

location should also be considered in justifying the choice of voltage. The choice of

voltage is also liked with the conductor size, when transmitting the required power.
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The power to be transmitted and the distance over which it is to be transmitted

together decide the voltage to a certain extent.

As regards to the distance of transmission, 11 kV and 33 kV lines are used

for short distances, while the other lines may be used for the appropriate distances.

This is just a very rough guide for preliminary work, to start detailed design of the

line required. The choice of conductors, etc. also affects the choice. In designing a

transmission line, It would, therefore, be worthwhile to consider two or three

possible voltages and two or three conductor sizes to obtain the required

characteristics of the line within the given limitations.

2.1.4 Choice of Conductors

The conductors available are hard-drawn copper or stranded conductors, or

ACSR conductors. For short lines with comparatively low voltages up to 33 kV,

copper conductors are used if available. For high-voltage lines, the increase in the

span and the weight of the conductors to be supported becomes an important

consideration. ACSR conductors are commonly used for high-voltage work. In most

countries where copper is not available in plenty and needs to be imported, it would

be worthwhile to use ACSR conductors wherever possible.

The size of the conductor selected depends on the length of the transmission

line, load on the line and the voltage of the line. For a given loss of energy,

expressed as percentage of the energy to be transmitted, the cross section of the

conductor as well as its weight varies inversely as the square of the voltage of the

line. The loss in the transmission line is 3I2r per unit length of the line, where r is the
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resistance per unit length of the line. The current in the line depends on the voltage

and the power factor of the load to be supplied. As the voltage increases, the cross

section of the conductors reduces, and up to a certain extent, use of higher voltages

reduces the loss. However, for high voltages (above 166 kV) other losses should be

considered, i.e. due to leakage over insulators and Corona loss. The value of the

charging current also increases for the high voltages and this affects the line current.

The cost of the conductors depends on their weight. The safe current carrying

capacity in amperes for bare copper stranded overhead.

2.2 The Nature and Causes of Faults

The nature of a fault is simply defined as any abnormal condition, which

causes a reduction in the basic insulation strength between phase conductors, or

between phase conductors and earth or any earthed screens surrounding the

conductors. In practice, a reduction is not regarded as a fault until is it is detectable,

that is until it results either in an excess current or in a reduction of the impedance

between conductors, or between conductors and earth, to a value below that of the

lowest load impedance normal to the circuit. Thus a higher degree of pollution on an

insulator string, although it reduces the insulation strength of the affected phase, does

not become a fault until it causes a flashover across the string, which in turn

produces excess current or other detectable ab normality, for example abnormal

current in an arc-suppression coil. Following are some of the main causes:

2.2.1 Lightning
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More than half of the electrical faults occurring on overhead power

transmission lines are caused by lightning (see Figure 2.1). The main conventional

approaches for reduction of the lightning flashover faults on power lines are

lowering of the footing resistance and employing of multiple shielding wires, and

differential insulation.
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However, these methods have not been sufficient to prevent flashover faults.

In the mean time application of arresters to lines has been a better solution in recent

years. This alternate approach is to install an arrester to prevent the flashover of

insulator assemblies. It is important that the arrester should be strong enough in order

to withstand excessive lightning strikes. A newly developed suspension-type line

arrester has been developed by incorporating ZnO elements into the shed of a

conventional suspension insulator (Figures 2.3 and 2.4). It has an arrester function

along with the normal electrical and mechanical functions of a line insulator. It is a

gapless type that has the advantage of reliable surge absorption with no delay in

discharge. The new arrester holds promise not only for the prevention of lightning

faults, but also as means of achieving economical insulation in the overall

transmission systems. [6]

2.2.2 Pollution

Pollution is commonly caused by deposited soot or cement dust in industrial

areas, and by salt deposited by wind-borne sea-spray in coastal areas. A high degree

of pollution on an insulator string, although it reduces the insulation strength of the

affected phase, does not become a fault until it causes a flashover across the string,

which in turn reduces excess current or other detectable abnormality, for example

abnormal current in an arc-suppression coil.

2.2.3 Fires

The occurrence of fire under transmission lines is responsible for a great

number of line outages in many countries. Faults are mainly due to conductor to
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ground short circuit at mid-span or phase-to-phase short circuit depending on line

configuration and voltage level. To reduce these outages to a minimum, the

clearance of existing lines must be increased in forests. Clearing and vegetation on

the line right of way in such areas is also a consideration. Another problem arising

from burning is the contamination of the insulators due to the accumulation of

particles (soot, dust) on its surfaces. In this case, the line insulation requirements

should be determined in such a way that the outages under fire could be reduced to a

minimum. [5]

Other causes of faults on overhead lines are trees, birds, aircraft, fog, ice,

snow loading, punctured or broken insulators, open-circuit conductors and abnormal

loading.

2.3 Types of faults

Power system faults may be categorized as shunt faults and series faults. The

most occurring type of shunt faults is Single Line-to-ground faults (SLG), which one

of the four types of shunt faults, which occur along the power lines. This type of

fault occurs when one conductor falls to ground or contacts the neutral wire. It could

also be the result of falling trees in a winter storm. This type could be represented as

in Figure 2.5.

The second most occurring type of shunt faults is the Line-to-Line fault (LL).

It is the result of two conductors being short-circuited. As in the case of a large bird

standing on one transmission line and touching the other, or if a tree branch fall on

top of the two of the power lines. This type could be represented as in Figure 2.6.
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Third type of fault is the Double Line-to-Ground fault (DLG), Figure 2.7.

This can be a result of a tree falling on two of the power lines, or other causes. The

fourth and least occurring type of fault is the balanced three phase (Figure 2.8),

which can occur by a contact between the three power lines in many different forms.
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Series faults can occur along the power lines as the “result of an unbalanced

series impedance condition of the lines in the case of one or two broken lines for

example. In practice, a series fault is encountered, for example, when lines (or

circuits) are controlled by circuit breakers (or fuses) or any device that does not open

all three phases; one or two phases of the line (or the circuit) may be open while the

other phases or phase is closed.” [8]

2.4 Fault Detection

2.4.1 Fault Detection Using Composite Fiber-Optic

In electric power supply services, power transmission lines are very

important and very indispensable. For that, power transmission lines are equipped

with various protection systems that are checked varies times periodically because of

the unexpected troubles that may destroy the lines. For the purpose of protecting

these lines, a new system was invented to discover the Fault Location using

Composite Fiber Optic Overhead Ground Wire (OPGW). This system deals mainly

with most causes of fault situations such as lightning, dew, snow, fog, or gales. This

new fault location system was developed to find out where electrical fault happened

on overhead power transmission lines by detecting the current induced in the ground

wire. Any fault situation needs the fastest processing in fixing the fault. For that, the

fault location system helps engineers to detect the point or the section where an

electrical fault happened in very logic time.

Since the fault information is uncertain, the new fault location deals with the

fault information as a current distribution pattern throughout the power line, and
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applies Fuzzy Theory to realize the human-like manner of fault used by power

engineers. Mainly, the fault location method measures the current induced in the

OPGW at many points along the line, these points are various sensors mounted on

the tower and transmits the information to the central monitoring station through the

optical fiber within the OPGW. So the fault information system is mainly given by

sensing and data transmission. Electrical faults occurring on power transmission

lines can be classified into two types: grounding and short circuit fault.

The transmission that gets to the central monitor station deals with current

characteristic features. In order to locate the fault, engineers must use the features of

currents that deal with the phase angle and the amplitude and relate these features to

Fuzzy Theory. The idea arose of using Fuzzy Theory as a fault theory algorithm

similar to this kind of human thinking. There were some sets for Fuzzy theory: SdI

(large amplitude change) Sd(large phase angle change) SdIp (large angle change),

SIS2 (amplitude approximately half of saturation current Is) and finally SIn (amplitude

larger than normal). For that the possibility of grounding faults occurring can be

expressed by:

(2.1)

Maximum Fault grounding is expressed by

(2.2)

The possibility of short circuit fault is expressed

(2.3)
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The maximum short circuit fault is expressed

(2.4)

Also, we have to know that the FI sensors divide all faults occurring in a section. In

general his system already has been applied to several commercial power

transmission lines and successfully located the sections of the faults [9].

2.4.2 Fault Detection Using Neural Network

As indicated before, protecting transmission is very important task in

safeguard electric power systems. For that, faults on transmission lines need to be

detected, classified, and located accurately. All these actions must be taken in very

short time to clear the fault. The new approach of neural network to fault

classifications for high speed protective relaying is a good manner in solving any

fault classification for high speed protective relaying is a good manner in solving any

fault happened to the transmission lines. Mainly this scheme is based on the use of

neural architecture and implementation of digital signal processing concepts. Figure

2.9 shows functional parts of protective relay. The protective relay need sampled

values of currents and voltages of three lines build inputs of the system. In general, a

knowledge control module controls all other parts of the relay and is responsible for

sending trip signals. The fault detection module is signals that a fault location

classification module uses samples of normalized currents (i) and voltages (v).

A1KHz sample rate is use to ensure that the fault type classification can be done in a

timely fashion. This module classifies weather a 1-phase-to-ground, 2-phase-to-

ground, phase-to-phase or a 3-phase fault has occurred. In the classification process,

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arcing and non-arcing must be known in order to obtain a successful automatic

reclosing. Generally speaking, neural network classifies the fault into types. The first

type (1-phase, 2-phase, 3-phase faults) is fast 5-7 ms and reliable. The second type,

arcing and non-arcing faults support a successful automatic reclosing. [1]

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Chapter Three

MATHEMATICAL DESIGN

3.1 Introduction

Fault or short-circuit studies are obviously an essential tool for the electric

energy systems engineer. The task here is to be able to calculate the fault conditions

and to provide protective equipment designed to isolate the faulted zone from the

remainder of the system in the appropriate time. The least complex category

computationally is the balanced fault. This tempts the engineer to base his decision

on its results. The balanced fault could (in some locations) result in currents smaller

than that due to any other type of fault. However, the interrupting capacity of

breakers should be chosen to accommodate the largest of fault currents.

A fault occurs when two or more conductors that normally operate with a

potential difference come in contact with each other. The contact may be a physical

4metallic one, or it may occur through an arc. In the metal-to-metal contact case, the

voltage between the two parts is reduced to zero. On the other hand, the voltage

through an arc will be of a very small value.

3.2 Types of Faults

3.2.1 Shunt Faults

1. Single line-to-ground faults

2. Line-to-line faults

3. Double line-to-ground faults

4. Balanced or symmetrical three phase faults

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Overhead lines are constructed of bare conductors. Wind, sleet, trees, cranes, kites,

airplanes, birds, or damage to supporting structure are causes for accidental faults on

overhead lines. Contamination of insulators and lightning over voltages will in

general result in faults. Deterioration of insulation in underground cables results in

short circuits. This is mainly attributed to aging combined with over loading. About

75 percent of the energy system’s faults are due to the shunt fault type and result

from insulator flashover during electrical storms. Only one in twenty faults are due

to the balanced fault.

3.2.2 Series Faults

1. One line open

2. Two line open

The series types of faults occur due to an unbalanced series impedance

condition of the lines. This could occur when fuses or any device, which does not

open all three phases, one or two phases, controls circuits. It is also the result of one

or two broken lines, or impedance inserted in one or two lines. Such faults could

occur as a result of one or two phases of the line open while the other phase or

phases are closed.

When the system impedances and admittances are constants the method of

symmetrical components can be used to determine fundamental frequency currents

and voltages in the system with one or two open conductors. The existing impedance

of a transformer is an example of impedance, which is not constant, but varies with

the applied voltage.

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As a result of a fault, currents of high value will flow through the network to

the faulted point. The amount of current will be much greater than the desired

thermal ability of the conductors in the power lines or machines feeding the fault.

Which causes temperature to rise which in turn may cause damage by annealing of

conductors and insulation charring. In addition to this, the low voltage in the

neighborhood of the vault will render the equipment inoperative.

3.3 Shunt Fault Computation

3.3.1 Single Line –to- Ground Faults

Assume that the phase a is shorted to ground at the fault point F as shown in

figure 3.1. Phase b and c currents are assumed to be negligible, and we can thus write

The sequence currents are obtained as follows:

To find the positive sequence value we use

(3.1)

This gives

(3.2)

For the negative sequence current, we have

(3.3)

This gives
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(3.4)

Likewise for the zero sequence current, we get

(3.5)

We can then conclude then that in the case of a single line-to-ground fault, the

sequence currents are equal, and we write

(3.6)

With the generators normally producing balanced three phase voltages, which are

positive sequence only, we can write

Let us assume that the sequence impedances to the fault are given by Z1, Z2, Z0. We

can write the following expressions for sequence voltages at the fault:

(3.7)

(3.8)

(3.9)

The fact that phase a is shortened to the ground is used. Thus

We also recall that

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(3.10)

We conclude

(3.11)

Or
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The resulting equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 3.2

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We can now state the solution in terms of phase currents:

(3.13)

For phase voltages we have

(3.14)

(3.15)
The last two expressions can be derived easily from the basic relations.

For phase b, we have

(3.16)

Using equations 3.7, 3.8, and 3.9, we find that

Which reduces to

(3.19)

And since

(3.20)
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We obtain

(3.21)

Similarly we get the result for phase c.

3.3.2 Double Line-to-Ground Faults

In this case, we will consider a general fault condition. We assume that phase

b has fault impedance of Zf ; phase c has a fault impedance of Zf ; and the common

line-to-ground fault impedance is Zg as shown in Figure 3.3.

The boundary conditions are as follows:

(3.22)

(3.23)

The potential difference between phase b and c is thus

(3.24)

Substituting in terms of sequence currents and voltages, we have

(3.25)

As a result, we get

(3.26)

The sum of the phase voltages is

(3.27)
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In terms of sequence quantities this gives

(3.28)

Recall that since Ia = 0, we have

(3.29)

We can thus assert that

(3.30)

Substituting for Va0 from equation 3.26, we get

(3.31)

The above reduces to

(3.32)

Now we have

(3.33)

(3.34)

(3.35)

Consequently,

(3.36)

It is clear from equation (3.36) that the sequence networks are connected in

parallel, which could be seen in Figure 3.4. From the equivalent circuit we obtain the

positive sequence current

(3.37)
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The negative sequence current in

(3.38)

Finally,

(3.39)
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3.3.3 Line-to-Line Faults

In the case of line-to-line fault a short circuit occurs between two phases.

Assuming that phase a is the un-faulted phase, Figure 3.5 shows a three-phase

system with a line-to-line short circuit between phases b and c. The boundary

conditions in this case are

(3.40)

(3.42)
The first two conditions yield

(3.43)

Or

(3.44)

The voltage conditions give

(3.45)

which gives

(3.46)
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Or

(3.47)

(3.48)

The equivalent circuit will take on the form shown in figure 3.6. Note that the zero

sequence network is not included since .

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3.3.4 Balanced Three-Phase Vault

Let us now consider the situation with a balanced three-phase fault on phases

a, b, and c, all through the same fault impedance Zf. This fault condition is shown in

Figure 3.7. It is clear from inspection of this figure that the phase voltages at the fault

are represented by

(3.49)

(3.50)

(3.51)

The positive sequence voltages are obtained using the following

(3.52)

Using equations (3.49; 3.50 and 3.51), it was concluded that

(3.53)

However, for currents we get

(3.54)

The negative sequence voltage is similarly given by

(3.55)

The zero sequence voltage is also

(3.56)
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For a balanced source we have

(3.57)

(3.58)

(3.59)

Combining equations (3.54 and 3.57), it was to conclude

(3.60)

As a result,

(3.61)

Combining equations (3.55 and 3.58) gives

Finally equations (3.56 and 3.59) give

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3.4 Series Fault Computations

3.4.1 One Line Open (OLO)

From Figure 3.8, it can be observed that the line for one the open line

conductor in phase a is infinity, whereas the line impedances for the other two phases

have some finite values [8]. Therefore, the positive, negative, and zero sequence

currents can be expressed as

(3.62)

And by current division,

(3.64)
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Or simply

(3.65)

Where

(3.66)
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3.4.2 Two Line Open (TLO)

If two lines are open as shown in Figure 3.9, then the lime impedances for the

OLO in phases b and c are infinity, whereas the line impedance of phase a has some

finite [8]. Therefore,

And

(3.67)

By inspection of Figure 3.9, the positive, negative, and zero currents can be

expressed as

(3.68)
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