Acute and Residual Soccer Match-Related Fatigue: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis (Silva et al, 2017)

match-related monitoring techniques may allow predicting the extent of residual fatigue (e.g. acute match activity in the game
vs. chronic match exposure). The extended recovery period for CMJ and hamstrings strength, CK and DOMS would suggest
that these parameters should be included in a monitoring test battery.

Characteristics impacting on session rating of perceived exertion training load in Australian footballers (Gallo et al., 2015)

The relationship between external training load and session rating of perceived exertion (s-RPE) training load and the impact
that playing experience, playing position and 2-km time-trial performance had on s-RPE training load were explored. From 39
Australian Football players, 6.9 ± 4.6 training sessions were analysed, resulting in 270 samples. Microtechnology devices
provided external training load (distance, average speed, high-speed running distance, player load (PL) and player loadslow
(PLslow)). The external training load measures had moderate to very large associations (r, 95% CI) with s-RPE training load,
average speed (0.45, 0.35-0.54), high-speed running distance (0.51, 0.42-0.59), PLslow (0.80, 0.75-0.84), PL (0.86, 0.83-0.89)
and distance (0.88, 0.85-0.90). Differences were described using effect sizes (d ±95% CL). When controlling for external
training load, the 4- to 5-year players had higher s-RPE training load than the 0- to 1- (0.44 ± 0.33) and 2- to 3-year players
(0.51 ± 0.30), ruckmen had moderately higher s-RPE training load than midfielders (0.82 ± 0.58), and there was a 0.2% increase
in s-RPE training load per 1 s increase in time-trial (95% CI: 0.07-0.34). Experience, position and time-trial performance
impacted the relationship between external training load and s-RPE training load. This suggests that a given external training
load may result in different internal responses between athletes, potentially leaving individuals at risk of overtraining or failing
to elicit positive adaptation. It is therefore vital that coaches and trainers give consideration to these mediators of s-RPE
training load.

Training periodization of professional Australian football players during an entire Australian Football League season
(Moreira et al, 2015)

PURPOSE: To examine the training periodization of an elite Australian Football team during different phases of the season.

METHODS: Training-load data were collected during 22 wk of preseason and 23 wk of in-season training. Training load was
measured using the session rating of perceived exertion (session-RPE) for all training sessions and matches from 44
professional Australian Football players from the same team. Training intensity was divided into 3 zones based on session-RPE
(low, <4; moderate, >4 AU and <7 AU; and high, >7 AU). Training load and intensity were analyzed according to the type of
training session completed.

RESULTS: Higher training load and session duration were undertaken for all types of training sessions during the preseason
than in-season (P<.05), with the exception of "other" training (ie, re/prehabilitation training, cross-training, and recovery
activities). Training load and intensity were higher during the preseason, with the exception of games, where greater load and
intensity were observed during the in-season. The overall distribution of training intensity was similar between phases with
the majority of training performed at moderate or high intensity.

CONCLUSIONS: The current findings may allow coaches and scientists to better understand the characteristics of Australian
Football periodization, which in turn may aid in developing optimal training programs. The results also indicate that a polarized
training-intensity distribution that has been reported in elite endurance athletes does not occur in professional Australian
Football.

A new tool to measure training load in soccer training and match play. (Rebelo et al, 2012)

An accurate evaluation of training load is paramount for the planning and periodization of training. The aim of the present
study was to evaluate the relationship between a new method to monitor training load in soccer (Visual Analogic Scale training
load; VAS-TL), and two established heart rate-based methods (TRIMP and Edwards' method). 51 soccer players (age 15.6±0.3
years) answered 2 questions to assess perceived exertion and fatigue (VAS1-TL, and VAS2-TL) after training sessions and
official matches. Performance in the Yo-Yo tests, VAS scores and heart rate of training sessions and matches, and match
activity were analysed. We found significant correlations (r=0.60-0.72; p<0.05) between VAS-TL, TRIMP, and the Edwards'
training load method, with the highest correlations achieved in the matches. Although the different methods to monitor
training load were correlated with the distance covered during the match (r=0.53-0.78; p<0.05), only VAS1-TL was associated
with high-intensity activities (r=0.43-0.54; p<0.05). The new VAS-based perceived exertion method to monitor training load is
easy to apply and is sensitive to differences in positional role and physical capacity. Thus, the applied method may be used in
addition to the usual training load methods, allowing for daily quantification of individual training load in soccer, perceived
exertion has been conceptualized as a psychophysiological phenomenon, since exercise-induced alteration in perception
covaries with affective changes [28]. This point needs to be investigated in future studies, since it would be expected
that training should

mimic the competition’s training load.

Quantification of the typical weekly in-season training load in elite junior soccer players. (Wrigley et al, 2012)

weekly training load experienced by elite junior soccer players during the in-season competitive period. Altogether, eight
under-14 (U14), eight under-16 (U16) and eight under-18 (U18) players were monitored over a 2-week period during the first
month of the 2010-11 competitive season. This time period included one competitive match per week. Physiological loading
was monitored using heart rate (HR) and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE). Training and match loads were calculated by
multiplying the global session RPE and duration (session-RPE). Total weekly training load (training and match) increased with
age (U14, 2524 ± 128 arbitrary units [AU]; U16, 2919 ± 136 AU; U18, 3948 ± 222 AU; P < 0.05). Differences in the daily training
load across the training week were also evident in the older age group relative to both U14 and U16. The amount of time
engaged in low (<50% HRmax) and high (>90% HRmax) intensity activity during training and match-play was significantly lower
and higher respectively in the U18 compared to the U14 group (P < 0.05). When comparing activity, the intensity (% HRmax) of
field training (U18, 69 ± 2%; U16, 74 ± 1%; U14, 74 ± 2%) was significantly lower compared to match-play (U18, 81 ± 3%; U16,
84, ± 2%; U14, 83 ± 2) across all age groups (P < 0.05). Findings demonstrate that age related differences in the volume and
intensity of weekly in-season training load are evident amongst elite professional junior soccer players. These differences may
reflect a systematic approach to the long-term physical development of elite junior players.

Monitoring load, recovery, and performance in young elite soccer players. (Brink et al., 2010)

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relation between training load, recovery, and monthly field test performance
in young elite soccer players to develop training guidelines to enhance performance. In a prospective, nonexperimental cohort
design, 18 young elite soccer players registered training and match duration for a full competitive season by means of daily
training logs. Furthermore, session rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and total quality of recovery (TQR) scores were recorded.
Weekly duration (TL(d)), load (duration x session RPE = TL(rpe)), and TQR scores were calculated for 1 and 2 weeks before a
monthly submaximal interval shuttle run tests to determine interval endurance capacity. Participants spent on average 394.4
+/- 134.9 minutes per week on training and game play with an average session RPE of 14.4 +/- 1.2 (somewhat hard) and TQR
of 14.7 +/- 1.3 (good recovery). Random intercept models showed that every extra hour training or game play resulted in
enhanced field test performance (p < 0.05). Session RPE and TQR scores did not contribute to the prediction of performance.
The duration of training and game play in the week before field test performance is most strongly related to interval
endurance capacity. Therefore, coaches should focus on training duration to improve interval endurance capacity in elite
soccer players. To evaluate the group and individual training response, field tests should be frequently executed and be
incorporated in the training program.

Heart rate monitoring in soccer: interest and limits during competitive match play and training, practical application. –
Systematic Review (Alexandre et al., 2012)

The identification of physiological loads imposed by soccer training or match play reveals essential information, which may
help improve training and recovery strategies. Until today, the use of heart rate (HR) monitoring is not standardized in soccer.
Thus, the aim of this review was to analyze, determine and compare the exercise intensity (EI) monitored by HR in
professional, youth, and recreational soccer players during matches and training sessions using a meta-analysis. Heart rate is
one of the most common physiological variables used to determine exercise internal training load. The mean EI recorded
during competitive matches was described as 70-80% of VO2max or 80-90% of maximal heart rate (HRmax), independent of
the playing level. With respect to HR training zones, approximately 65% of the total match duration is spent at intensity of 70-
90% HRmax and rarely below 65% HRmax. However, although HRmax is mostly employed in the literature, monitoring EI
should be expressed in relation to reserve heart rate, as it was described as a more reliable indicator of HR, allowing
interindividual comparisons. The HR response according to the playing position indicates that midfielders are characterized by
the highest EI, followed by forwards and fullbacks. Moreover, in the second half of the match, the EI is lower than that
observed during the first half; this reduction could be correlated with the level of the player's physical conditioning.
Consequently, coaches may favor the use of interval training or small-sided training games because these are shown to
improve both aerobic capacity and the ability to repeat high-intensity actions. Small-sided games allow reaching similar HR
responses to those found during interval training and match play but with greater heterogeneity values. Future investigations
should include a larger sample of players with special reference to playing position and the expression of EI in percentage of
the reserve heart rate, analyzing the possible intergender differences in HR response.

Relationship Between External and Internal Loads of Professional Soccer Players During Full Matches in Official Games
Using Global Positioning Systems and Heart-Rate Technology. (Torreño et al., 2016)

PURPOSE: To analyze the match running profile, distance traveled over successive 15 min of match play, heart rates (HRs), and
index of performance efficiency (effindex) of professional soccer players with a global positioning system (GPS) and HR in
official competition.

METHODS: Twenty-six professional players were investigated during full matches in competitive club-level matches (N = 223).
Time-motion data and HR were collected using GPS and HR technology.

RESULTS: The relative total distance was 113 ± 11 m/min, with substantial differences between halves. For all playing
positions, a substantial decrease in total distance and distance covered at >13.0 km/h was observed in the second half in
comparison with the first. The decrease during the second half in distance covered at >13.0 km/h was substantially higher than
in total distance. The average HR recorded was 86.0% maximal HR, and the relationship between external and internal load
(effindex) was 1.3, with substantial differences between halves in all playing positions, except strikers for effindex. Wide
midfielders reflected substantially the lowest mean HR and highest effindex, whereas center backs showed substantially the
lowest effindex of all playing positions.

CONCLUSIONS: The current study confirmed the decrement in a player's performance toward the end of a match in all playing
positions. Wide midfielders displayed the highest and fittest levels of physical and physiological demands, respectively,
whereas center backs had the lowest and least-fit levels of physical and physiological demands, respectively. The position-
specific relationship between external and internal load confirms that players with more overall running performance during
the full match were the best in effindex.

Factors influencing perception of effort (session rating of perceived exertion) during elite soccer training. (Gaudino et al., )

PURPOSE: The aim of the current study was to identify the external-training-load markers that are most influential on session
rating of perceived exertion (RPE) of training load (RPE-TL) during elite soccer training.

METHODS: Twenty-two elite players competing in the English Premier League were monitored. Training-load data (RPE and
10-Hz GPS integrated with a 100-Hz accelerometer) were collected during 1892 individual training sessions over an entire in-
season competitive period. Expert knowledge and a collinearity r < .5 were used initially to select the external training
variables for the final analysis. A multivariate-adjusted within-subjects model was employed to quantify the correlations of
RPE and RPE-TL (RPE × duration) with various measures of external training intensity and training load.

RESULTS: Total high-speed-running (HSR; >14.4 km/h) distance and number of impacts and accelerations >3 m/s2 remained in
the final multivariate model (P < .001). The adjusted correlations with RPE were r = .14, r = .09, and r = .25 for HSR, impacts,
and accelerations, respectively. For RPE-TL, the correlations were r = .11, r = .45, and r = .37, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS: The external-load measures that were found to be moderately predictive of RPE-TL in soccer training were HSR
distance and the number of impacts and accelerations. These findings provide new evidence to support the use of RPE-TL as a
global measure of training load in elite soccer. Furthermore, understanding the influence of characteristics affecting RPE-TL
may help coaches and practitioners enhance training prescription and athlete monitoring

Rating of Perceived Exertion for Quantification of Training and Combat Loads During Combat Sport-Specific Activities: A
Short Review. (Slimani et al., 2017)

The aim of this short review was to summarize data pertaining to the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) methods (RPE value
and session-RPE) during combat sport-specific activities (i.e., competition and training) based on many factors, including
contest type (i.e., official vs. simulated vs. training), combat rounds, age of participants and muscle groups, and their
correlation with physiological variables (i.e., blood lactate concentration [La] and heart rate [HR]). The current review shows
higher RPE in a match of mixed martial arts (MMAs) than Brazilian jiu-jitsu and kickboxing matches and during the competitive
period compared with the precompetitive period. This could be explained by the longer duration of bouts, the higher
percentage contribution of aerobic metabolism in MMA than other combat sports and contest type differences (simulated vs.
official matches). Thus, this review found significant correlations between RPE or session-RPE, [La] and HR. Particularly, there
was a stronger correlation between RPE and [La] during official striking (r = 0.81) than grappling combat sports matches (r =
0.53). In addition, a variation of correlation (moderate to large) between session-RPE and HR-based methods has been
reported (i.e., Edwards' training load [r ranged between 0.58 and 0.95] and Banister training impulse [r ranged between 0.52
and 0.86]). Specifically, stronger correlation was apparent in combat sport competition that required a much higher
percentage contribution of aerobic metabolism (e.g., karate) and in adult athletes than anaerobic-based combat sports (e.g.,
taekwondo) and young athletes, respectively. Indeed, the current review highlights that the correlations between session-RPE
and HR-based methods were higher during official competition than training sessions. Session-RPE was affected by
participants' competitive level, the intensity of session (high vs. low), the training modalities (tactical-technical vs. technical-
development vs. simulated competition), and the training volume in combat sports athletes. Rating of perceived exertion is a
valid tool for quantifying internal training and combat loads during short- and long-term training and simulated and official
competitions in novice and elite combat sport athletes. Furthermore, both RPE methods may be a more reliable measure of
intensity or effort when both anaerobic and aerobic systems are appreciably activated. Coaches, sports scientists, and athletes
can use session-RPE method to quantify short-term training and combat loads in adult athletes during precompetitive period
much more than long-term training and in young athletes during the competitive period. They can also use RPE to monitor
combat and short- and long-term training loads to better plan and assist training programs and competitions.

The Relationships Between Internal and External Measures of Training Load and Intensity in Team Sports: A Meta-Analysis.
(McLaren et al., 2018)

BACKGROUND: The associations between internal and external measures of training load and intensity are important in
understanding the training process and the validity of specific internal measures.

OBJECTIVES: We aimed to provide meta-analytic estimates of the relationships, as determined by a correlation coefficient,
between internal and external measures of load and intensity during team-sport training and competition. A further aim was
to examine the moderating effects of training mode on these relationships.

METHODS: We searched six electronic databases (Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, CINAHL) for
original research articles published up to September 2017. A Boolean search phrase was created to include search terms
relevant to team-sport athletes (population; 37 keywords), internal load (dependent variable; 35 keywords), and external load
(independent variable; 81 keywords). Articles were considered for meta-analysis when a correlation coefficient describing the
association between at least one internal and one external measure of session load or intensity, measured in the time or
frequency domain, was obtained from team-sport athletes during normal training or match-play (i.e., unstructured
observational study). The final data sample included 122 estimates from 13 independent studies describing 15 unique
relationships between three internal and nine external measures of load and intensity. This sample included 295 athletes and
10,418 individual session observations. Internal measures were session ratings of perceived exertion (sRPE), sRPE training load
(sRPE-TL), and heart-rate-derived training impulse (TRIMP). External measures were total distance (TD), the distance covered
at high and very high speeds (HSRD ≥ 13.1-15.0 km h-1 and VHSRD ≥ 16.9-19.8 km h-1, respectively), accelerometer load (AL),
and the number of sustained impacts (Impacts > 2-5 G). Distinct training modes were identified as either mixed (reference
condition), skills, metabolic, or neuromuscular. Separate random effects meta-analyses were conducted for each dataset (n =
15) to determine the pooled relationships between internal and external measures of load and intensity. The moderating
effects of training mode were examined using random-effects meta-regression for datasets with at least ten estimates (n = 4).
Magnitude-based inferences were used to interpret analyses outcomes.

RESULTS: During all training modes combined, the external load relationships for sRPE-TL were possibly very large with TD [r =
0.79; 90% confidence interval (CI) 0.74 to 0.83], possibly large with AL (r = 0.63; 90% CI 0.54 to 0.70) and Impacts (r = 0.57; 90%
CI 0.47 to 0.64), and likely moderate with HSRD (r = 0.47; 90% CI 0.32 to 0.59). The relationship between TRIMP and AL was
possibly large (r = 0.54; 90% CI 0.40 to 0.66). All other relationships were unclear or not possible to infer (r range 0.17-0.74, n =
10 datasets). Between-estimate heterogeneity [standard deviations (SDs) representing unexplained variation; τ] in the pooled
internal-external relationships were trivial to extremely large for sRPE (τ range = 0.00-0.47), small to large for sRPE-TL (τ range
= 0.07-0.31), and trivial to moderate for TRIMP (τ range= 0.00-0.17). The internal-external load relationships during mixed
training were possibly very large for sRPE-TL with TD (r = 0.82; 90% CI 0.75 to 0.87) and AL (r = 0.81; 90% CI 0.74 to 0.86), and
TRIMP with AL (r = 0.72; 90% CI 0.55 to 0.84), and possibly large for sRPE-TL with HSRD (r = 0.65; 90% CI 0.44 to 0.80). A
reduction in these correlation magnitudes was evident for all other training modes (range of the change in r when compared
with mixed training - 0.08 to - 0.58), with these differences being unclear to possibly large. Training mode explained 24-100%
of the between-estimate variance in the internal-external load relationships.

CONCLUSION: Measures of internal load derived from perceived exertion and heart rate show consistently positive
associations with running- and accelerometer-derived external loads and intensity during team-sport training and competition,
but the magnitude and uncertainty of these relationships are measure and training mode dependent.

Use of RPE-Based Training Load in Soccer (IMPELLIZZERI, 2004)

Purpose: The ability to accurately control and monitor internal training load is an important aspect of effective coaching. The
aim of this study was to apply in soccer the RPE-based method proposed by Foster et al. to quantify internal training load
(session-RPE) and to assess its correlations with various methods used to determine internal training load based on the HR
response to exercise.

Methods: Nineteen young soccer players (mean SD: age 17.6 ± 0.7 yr, weight 70.2 ± 4.7 kg, height 178.5 ± 4.8 cm, body fat 7.5
± 2.2%, VO2max, 57.1 ± 4.0 mL·kg1·min1) were involved in the study. All subjects performed an incremental treadmill test
before and after the training period during which lactate threshold (1.5mmol·L1 above baseline) and OBLA (4.0 mmol·L1) were
determined. The training loads completed during the seven training weeks were determined multiplying the session RPE
(CR10-scale) by session duration in minutes. These session-RPE values were correlated with training load measures obtained
from three different HR-based methods suggested by Edwards, Banister, and Lucia, respectively.

Results: Individual internal loads of 479 training sessions were collected. All individual correlations between various HR-based
training load and session-RPE were statistically significant (from r = 0.50 to r = 0.85, P < 0.01).

Conclusion: The results of this study show that the session-RPE can be considered a good indicator of global internal load of
soccer training. This method does not require particular expensive equipment and can be very useful and practical for coaches
and athletic trainer to monitor and control internal load, and to design periodization strategies

Monitoring Training Load to Understand Fatigue in Athletes – REVIEW ARTICLE (Hona, 2014)

Many athletes, coaches, and support staff are taking an increasingly scientific approach to both designing and monitoring
training programs. Appropriate load monitoring can aid in determining whether an athlete is adapting to a training program
and in minimizing the risk of developing non-functional overreaching, illness, and/or injury. In order to gain an understanding
of the training load and its effect on the athlete, a number of potential markers are available for use. However, very few of
these markers have strong scientific evidence supporting their use, and there is yet to be a single, definitive marker described
in the literature. Research has investigated a number of external load quantifying and monitoring tools, such as power output
measuring devices, time-motion analysis, as well as internal load unit measures, including perception of effort, heart rate,
blood lactate, and training impulse. Dissociation between external and internal load units may reveal the state of fatigue of an
athlete. Other monitoring tools used by high-performance programs include heart rate recovery, neuromuscular function,
biochemical/hormonal/immunological assessments, questionnaires and diaries, psychomotor speed, and sleep quality and
quantity. The monitoring approach taken with athletes may depend on whether the athlete is engaging in individual or team
sport activity; however, the importance of individualization of load monitoring cannot be over emphasized. Detecting
meaningful changes with scientific and statistical approaches can provide confidence and certainty when implementing
change. Appropriate monitoring of training load can provide important information to athletes and coaches; however,
monitoring systems should be intuitive, provide efficient data analysis and interpretation, and enable efficient reporting of
simple, yet scientifically valid, feedback.

Relationship Between Indicators of Training Load in Soccer Players (Casamichana et al., 2013)

This study examined the relationship between workload indicators used to quantify full training sessions in soccer.
Participants were 28 semi-professional male soccer players age 22.9±4.2 years, height 177±5 cm, body mass 73.6±4.4
kg. Players’ physical and physiological workload was monitored over 44 training sessions using GPS devices (10 Hz) and
Heart-Rate (HR), respectively. After each training session, players’ training perceived-exertion (RPE) was assessed using the
Borg CR-10 scale. Players’ Internal training load was assessed using the session-RPE and the Edwards methods. Total
distance, distances covered at arbitrary selected High-intensity speed zones (≥ 18 and 21 km·h-1), bout frequency at
speed higher than 18 and 21 km·h-1 and work:rest ratio during training drills were considered as signs of physical
work-load. Furthermore Player-load assumed as reflection of total center-of-mass acceleration was considered as
representative of players’ external-load. Very-large association of Player-load with Edwards and session-RPE methods were
found. Total distance covered was large-to-very-large associated with Player-Load, Session-RPE and Edwards methods.
This study findings provided evidence for the safe use of session-RPE, Edwards methods and Players-Load as valid
indicators of training responses in soccer.

Monitoring Training in Elite Soccer Players: Systematic Bias between Running Speed and Metabolic Power Data (Gaudino,
2013)

We compared measurements of high-intensity activity during field-based training sessions in elite soccer players of different
playing positions. Agreement was appraised between measurements of running speed alone and predicted metabolic power
derived from a combination of running speed and acceleration. Data was collected during a 10-week phase of the competitive
season from 26 English Premier League outfield players using global positioning system technology. High-intensity activity was
estimated using the total distance covered at speeds > 14.4 km · h −1 (TS) and the equivalent metabolic power threshold of >
20 W · kg −1 (TP), respectively. We selected 0.2 as the minimally important standardised difference between methods. Mean
training session TS was 478 ± 300 m vs. 727 ± 338 m for TP (p < 0.001). This difference was greater for central defenders (~ 85
%) vs. wide defenders and attackers (~ 60 %) (p < 0.05). The difference between methods also decreased as the proportion of
high-intensity distance within a training session increased (R2= 0.43; p < 0.001). We conclude that the high-intensity demands
of soccer training are underestimated by traditional measurements of running speed alone, especially in training sessions or
playing positions associated with less high-intensity activity. Estimations of metabolic power better inform the coach as to the
true demands of a training session.

Training is a process of adaptation where enhancements in performance are achieved through progressive
manipulation of the training load [ 23 , 26 ] . As a consequence, accurate assessment of an individual’s training load
represents an essential component of effective training prescription. Evaluating the physical demands of training
requires accurate assessment of both the internal and external load. This is particularly important in team sports such as
soccer since differences in individual responses to the same external work-load arise [ 23 ] . A number of approaches are
frequently used to quantify the internal training load [ 1 , 5 , 10 , 16 ]. However, the multi-directional basis of sports
such as soccer has previously made quantification of the external training load difficult to achieve. Consequently,
traditional approaches have often focused solely upon the duration and frequency of the training stimuli [ 7 ]. More
recently, the evolution of global positioning systems (GPS) have provided the opportunity to derive valid and reliable
estimates of the speed attained and distance covered during a range of activities [ 29 – 31 , 34 ] . Consequently
an increasing body of literature is beginning to emerge which serves to quantify the external load placed upon
athletes during multi-directional sports such as soccer [ 8 , 11 , 19 , 20 ] . To date, assessment of the external
load during soccer-related activities using GPS technology has frequently centred around evaluating the distance covered
or time spent at specific velocities with particularly attention focused upon the volume of high-speed activity
given its reported importance to match-play performance [ 4 , 14 , 21 , 32 ] . This representation of the external
load, however, does not account for the additional distance covered or energy demands associated with accelerations
and decelerations that can also be derived through GPS. As a consequence, since accelerations and decelerations
further increase the energy demands placed on the athlete even when running within low speed thresholds, the
traditional approach will underestimate the total energy cost associated with soccer related activity [ 9 , 12 , 27 ] .
However, limited attention to date has focused on acceleration and deceleration activity in elite soccer players [ 14 ] and thus
the contribution of these activities to estimates of the external load incurred by soccer players. In line with such observations,
di Prampero et al. [ 12 ] recently introduced a new approach to estimating the energy cost of accelerated and decelerated
running. When combined with traditional estimates of running speed, this method permits a more comprehensive assessment
of the overall energy cost of the activity in any given moment based on metabolic power values [ 12 ] . Using this approach,
Osgnach et al. [ 27 ] recently reported that the energy cost associated with high-intensity activity during match-play was 2–3
to three times larger than estimates based solely on running speed. Despite these observations, no study to date has
compared the energy costs of field-based training in soccer using the 2 different approaches to determine the extent to which
traditional approaches may underestimate the true demand. Such information is important since accurate determination of
the training load placed upon athletes is critical in attempting to maximise performance enhancement and injury prevention
strategies. Therefore, the aim of the current investigation was to compare the energy cost of training when derived from the
approach recently introduced by di Prampero et al. [ 12 ] as opposed to the traditional approach of distance covered at
specific running speeds. Furthermore, this investigation also served to evaluate whether the degree to which the 2 approaches
differ was dependent upon playing position and the type of training session undertaken.

Methods of monitoring the training and match load and their relationship to changes in fitness in professional youth soccer
players (Akubat, 2012)

Previous studies examining methods of monitoring the training and match load in soccer players have simply compared those
methods to each other, not to changes in fitness. Training and match load measures from nine professional youth soccer
players were collected for a period of six weeks. A lactate threshold test was conducted before and after this period. Mean
weekly training and match load as determined by session-RPE, Banister's TRIMP, Team TRIMP and individualised TRIMP
(iTRIMP) were correlated with each other, percentage changes in the velocity at 2 mmol · L−1 (vLT) and 4 mmol · L−1 (vOBLA)
blood lactate concentration, and heart rate at 2 mmol · L−1 (LTHR) and 4 mmol · L−1 (OBLAHR). There were no significant
changes in fitness across the six weeks: vLT (p = 0.54), vOBLA (p = 0.16), LTHR (p = 0.51) and OBLAHR (p = 0.63). Banister's
TRIMP was significantly correlated with session-RPE (r = 0.75; p = 0.02) and Team TRIMP (r = 0.92; p < 0.001). The percentage
change in vLT was significantly correlated to mean weekly iTRIMP (r = 0.67; p = 0.04). The results suggest that an individualised
measure of internal load (iTRIMP) related better than other methods to changes in vLT in professional youth soccer players.

A Comparison of Methods to Quantify the In-Season Training Load of Professional Soccer Players (Scott et al., 2013)

Purpose: To compare various measures of training load (TL) derived from physiological (heart rate [HR]), perceptual (rating of
perceived exertion [RPE]), and physical (global positioning system [GPS] and accelerometer) data during in-season field-based
training for professional soccer.

Methods: Fifteen professional male soccer players (age 24.9 ± 5.4 y, body mass 77.6 ± 7.5 kg, height 181.1 ± 6.9 cm) were
assessed in-season across 97 individual training sessions. Measures of external TL (total distance [TD], the volume of low-
speed activity [LSA; <14.4 km/h], high-speed running [HSR; >14.4 km/h], very high-speed running [VHSR; >19.8 km/h], and
player load), HR and session-RPE (sRPE) scores were recorded. Internal TL scores (HR-based and sRPE-based) were calculated,
and their relationships with measures of external TL were quantified using Pearson product–moment correlations.

Results: Physical measures of TD, LSA volume, and player load provided large, significant (r = .71−.84; P < .01) correlations with
the HR-based and sRPE-based methods. Volume of HSR and VHSR provided moderate to large, significant (r = .40−.67; P < .01)
correlations with measures of internal TL.

Conclusions: While the volume of HSR and VHSR provided significant relationships with internal TL, physical-performance
measures of TD, LSA volume, and player load appear to be more acceptable indicators of external TL, due to the greater
magnitude of their correlations with measures of internal TL.

External TL can be derived from measures of a player’s movement during exercise. Recent developments in global
positioning system (GPS) and accelerometer technology have resulted in portable methods of per-forming such
analyses. These technologies are becoming increasingly popular for team-sport monitoring.13,14 GPS-based measures of total
distance (TD), average running speed, and distance covered at speeds greater than 14.4 km/h and 20 km/h have been used to
quantify physical performance in intermittent team sports such as Australian football.2,4 However, research suggests that the
reliability of GPS-measured distance is decreased at high speeds.2 Triaxial accelerometers have also been used to quantify the
external TL of professional soccer players, using the total-body-load equation.15 However, due to a poor relationship with the
sRPE method, this measure was suggested to be an invalid indicator of external TL in soccer.15 In contrast, the accelerometer-
based external TL of Australian football players has been quantified via the player-load equation, which showed a large
correlation (r = .83) with the sRPE method.4 The accelerometers used to calculate player load have exhibited acceptable
interdevice reliability during high-intensity Australian football activity1and validity when quantifying collisions in rugby
league.16 However, the use of GPS data and the player-load equation to quantify external TL during professional soccer
is yet to be comprehensively examined
The Relationship Between Workloads, Physical Performance, Injury and Illness in Adolescent Male Football Players –
REVIEW (Gabbett et al., 2014)

Conclusion: The combined capacity for adolescent males to grow, train and improve physical performance highlights and
underscores an exciting responsiveness to training in the football environment. However, the capacity to train has some
established barriers for adolescents experiencing high workloads, which could also result in negative consequences. Additional
research on stage-appropriate training for adolescent male footballers is required in order to address the knowledge gaps and
enhance safe and efficient training practices.

The training–performance relationship is of particular importance to coaches in determining the optimum amount of training
required to attain peak performance [1, 2]. Bannister and colleagues [3, 4, 5] proposed a statistical model to describe an
athlete’s response to a given training stimulus. According to this model, the performance of an athlete in response to training
can be estimated from the difference between a negative (fatigue) and a positive function (fitness). Studies have described the
training–performance relationship as analogous with the dose–response relationship reported in pharmacological studies,
with the primary goal of providing a training stimulus that maximizes performance potential and minimizes the negative
consequences of training (i.e., injury, illness, fatigue, overtraining) [6]. Obtaining the ideal balance is a highly individual process
that is heavily influenced by external and internal stressors independent of the workload itself. One such example is
adolescence, during which young athletes undergo both rapid puberty-related physical and psychological growth. Despite this
period being a critical time, not only for an individual’s athletic career but also in shaping their future participation in sport and
exercise, very little research has been conducted on the influence of athletic loads on performance and injury during
adolescence.

Numerous studies have investigated the influence of training volume, intensity, and frequency on athletic performance in
adult competitors, with performance generally improving as workload increases [2, 7]. Studies of the training–performance
relationship in individual sports (e.g., swimming and running) have found a positive relationship between both greater training
volume and performance [8], and higher training intensity and performance [9]. However, negative adaptations to exercise
training are also reported to be dose-related, with the highest incidence of illness and injury occurring when workloads are
highest [10, 11, 12, 13, 14]. While varying results have been observed among studies, psychological [15, 16, 17], biochemical
[16, 17], physiological [18], neuromuscular [16, 19], and physical performance [16, 20] markers appear to be sensitive to
changes in training and competition loads and for detecting over-reaching in athletes.

Subsequently, negative adaptations to training have been demonstrated in team sport athletes. Specifically, relationships
between training load and training injury rates have been reported in a variety of team sports [11, 21, 22, 23], suggesting that
the harder these athletes train, the more injuries they will sustain. However, rugby league players who perform less than 18
weeks of pre-season training prior to sustaining an initial injury are at increased risk of sustaining a subsequent injury, while
players with a low off-season maximal aerobic power (VO2max) are at increased risk of sustaining an injury [24]. Clearly, as
with individual sports, training for team sports reflects a balance between the minimum workload required to elicit an
improvement in fitness and the maximum workload tolerable before sustaining marked increases in injury rates.

The effects of football match-play on fatigue responses have also been investigated. Although the majority of research has
focussed on the transient fatigue that occurs during football match-play [25, 26, 27, 28] or match simulations [29, 30],
relatively few studies have investigated the longer-term fatigue associated with competition [31, 32, 33]. Studies from senior
rugby league competition have shown that players may experience neuromuscular and perceptual fatigue in the 24–48 hours
after competition, with significant muscle damage lasting up to several days [33]. Similar findings have been shown in
professional soccer [31]. Interestingly, in both soccer and rugby league, the magnitude of the fatigue response has been
significantly associated with the number of game-specific actions completed by players [31, 33]. Despite the importance of
fatigue and recovery on both playing performance and athlete well-being, the vast majority of studies investigating the effects
of competition workloads on fatigue have been limited to senior professional competitors. Very few studies have assessed the
effect of competition workloads on fatigue in adolescent football players, and studies of the effects of intensified competition
(that commonly occur in adolescent competitors) are almost non-existent. Johnston et al. [34] measured countermovement
jump performance (as an estimate of neuromuscular performance), creatine kinase (as an index of muscle damage), and
perceptual fatigue in junior rugby league players (mean ± SE age 16.6 ± 0.2 years) competing in an intensified rugby league
tournament (five games in 5 days). Over the first 3 days, there were progressive and large increases in neuromuscular fatigue
and muscle damage, as well as reductions in perceived well-being. Match intensity, high-speed running, and frequency of
repeated high-intensity effort bouts (all measured via global positioning system devices) decreased in the latter stages of the
competition. The authors concluded that fatigue and muscle damage accumulate over an intensified competition, which is
likely to contribute to reductions in high-intensity activity and work rates during match-play [34].

While the above studies advance our understanding of the association between workloads and injury in team sports, the
majority of these studies were conducted on adult competitors. Although training may elicit positive training adaptations in
adolescent athletes, it is also likely that due to variations in biological or psychological development, adolescent athletes may
respond differently than adults to a given training stimulus, resulting in different fatigue, stress, injury, or illness responses. In
adolescent athletes, undesirable training responses may impact on normal growth and maturation as well as development in
sport [35]. Therefore, a major challenge for those working with young athletes is to determine the magnitude and nature of
stressors necessary to induce positive responses and balance these stressors with adequate recovery to avoid maladaptations
[36, 37, 38]. A variety of methods exist for determining load that include subjective and/or objective measures of volume and
intensity. An understanding of the objective demands of competitive games have been recently described in adolescent rugby
union [39, 40, 41], Australian rules football [42, 43] and soccer [44]; however, few studies have linked workload with on-field
performance and negative outcomes in adolescents.

given that the relationship between workloads, physical performance, injury, and illness is not linear, and that the individual
response to a given workload is highly variable, the use of linear modeling to determine relationships between workloads, and
positive and negative outcomes may be inappropriate (22).

there are some indications that highly specific regimens such as small-sided games can be just as effective at increasing
external workload in players while simultaneously reducing the internal load as reported by lower ratings of perceived
exertion (22).

Estimated daily energy expenditures of professional association footballers (Reilly & Thomas, 1979)

The daily energy demands of 23 professional English League footballers were estimated. Indirect measurement was made of
energy expended in training, match-play and nonoccupational activity. Mean duration of training was 75min day−1, mean
heart rate 132beatsminMatch-play constituted the dominant source of occupational strain, mean heart rate being 157 beats
min−1 in outfielders. Temporal commitment to work was 18·5 h week−1 during which mean work intensity could be described
as moderate. Time spent inactive was 19·5 h day−1 and daily energy expenditure was estimated to be 14·442 MJ. It was
concluded that physiological strain in this occupation was not excessive and no peculiar dietary requirements obtained.

Physiological assessment of aerobic training in soccer – REVIEW (IMPELLIZZERI et al, 2005)

Physiological assessment of soccer training usually refers to the measurement of anatomical, physiological, biochemical and
functional changes specific to the sport discipline (training outcome). The quality, quantity and organization of physical
exercises (training process) are, on the other hand, usually described by the external work imposed by the coach on his or her
athletes. In this review, we demonstrate that this approach is not appropriate in soccer, as training is often based on group
exercises. The physiological stress (internal load) induced by such training often differs between individuals.

The assessment of internal training load requires quantification of the intensity of the physiological stress imposed on the
athlete and its duration. While the duration of a training session is easily measurable as time in minutes, intensity can be
determined with different methods, such as heart rate and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE). Methods of assessment using
these two different variables are presented in the following subsections.

Despite the external load being the main determinant of the internal load, other factors such as genetic background and ‘‘pre-
training level of phenotype’’ (starting fitness level) could influence the internal training load imposed on the individual and,
consequently, the training outcome

Monitoring training load and fatigue in soccer players with physiological markers (Djaoui, 2017)
Further studies are needed regarding urinary samples, hormones and catecholamines to reveal the potential interest of using
them in soccer players. Moreover, further studies should analyse the specific area relating markers of TL to injury occurrence
or the specific decrease in performance during competition, especially regarding congested periods that are part of the elite
soccer season. Therefore, the focus of future studies should include the analysis of which physiological marker is affected by
the congested areas of the schedule, and which day is of particular value to the medical and technical staff of the elite soccer
team.

Relationships Between Training Load Indicators and Training Outcomes in Professional Soccer. (Jaspers, 2017)

Future research should implement continuous monitoring of training load, combined with the individual characteristics, to
further examine their relationship with physical fitness, injury, and illness.

Training Load and Player Monitoring in High-Level Football: Current Practice and Perceptions (Akenhead & George, 2016)

Future strategies should focus on establishing the validity, reliability, and usefulness of monitoring tools and variables and
examining ways to enhance coach buy-in and the effective integration of sport-science support. Practitioners should be
encouraged to conduct and publish in-house research where possible to aid in the objectives of identifying the usefulness of
assessments and load variables.

the aim of this study was to provide information on the practices and practitioners’ perceptions of monitoring in professional
clubs. Eighty-two high-level football clubs from Europe, the United States, and Australia were invited to answer questions
relating to how TL is quantified, how players’ responses are monitored, and their perceptions of the effectiveness of
monitoring. Forty-one responses were received. All teams used GPS and heart-rate monitors during all training sessions, and
28 used rating of perceived exertion. The top-5-ranking TL variables were acceleration (various thresholds), total distance,
distance covered above 5.5 m/s, estimated metabolic power, and heart-rate exertion.

Exploring communication strategies to enhance integration with coaches may increase buy-in and understanding of
the support provided.

GPS and Injury Prevention in Professional Soccer (Ehrmann et al, 2016)

This study has found 2 variables that deserve particular attention when monitoring soccer players with GPS units for the
purpose of injury prevention. These are average meters per minute, when significantly increased compared with the Season
Average (9.6 and 7.4% for 1- and 4-week blocks, respectively), and average new body load, when significantly decreased
compared with the season average (15.4 and 9.0% for 1- and 4-week blocks, respectively). Both variables have been found to
be predictors of the noncontact soft tissue injuries investigated in this study and should therefore be considered modifiable
risk factors to soccer players' soft tissue injuries.

Meters per minute and new body load warrant extra consideration when training sessions are retrospectively analyzed and
future training sessions are planned.

Planning Training Workload in Football Using Small-Sided Games' Density. (Sangnier et al, 2018)

To develop the physical qualities, the small-sided games' (SSGs) density may be essential in soccer. Small-sided games are
games in which the pitch size, players' number, and rules are different to those for traditional soccer matches. The purpose
was to assess the relation between training workload and SSGs' density. The 33 densities data (41 practice games and 3 full
games) were analyzed through global positioning system (GPS) data collected from 25 professional soccer players (80.7 ± 7.0
kg; 1.83 ± 0.05 m; 26.4 ± 4.9 years). From total distance, distance metabolic power, sprint distance, and acceleration distance,
the data GPS were divided into 4 categories: endurance, power, speed, and strength. Statistical analysis compared the relation
between GPS values and SSGs' densities, and 3 methods were applied to assess models (R-squared, root-mean-square error,
and Akaike information criterion).

The results suggest that all the GPS data match the player's essential athletic skills. They were all correlated with the game's
density.

Acceleration distance, deceleration distance, metabolic power, and total distance followed a logarithmic regression model,
whereas distance and number of sprints follow a linear regression model. The research reveals options to monitor the training
workload. Coaches could anticipate the load resulting from the SSGs and adjust the field size to the players' number. Taking
into account the field size during SSGs enables coaches to target the most favorable density for developing expected physical
qualities. Calibrating intensity during SSGs would allow coaches to assess each athletic skill in the same conditions of intensity
as in the competition.