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Applying condensing-temperature control in air-cooled

reciprocating water chillers for energy efficiency

Article  in  Applied Energy · July 2002

DOI: 10.1016/S0306-2619(02)00053-3 · Source: RePEc

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 Applied Energy 72 (2002) 565–581
www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

Applying condensing-temperature control in

air-cooled reciprocating water chillers
for energy efficiency
K.T. Chan*, F.W. Yu
Department of Building Services Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China

Received 1 May 2002; received in revised form 17 June 2002; accepted 22 June 2002

Abstract
This paper reports on the modelling and findings of the energy performance of an air-
cooled reciprocating multiple-chiller plant under the conventional head pressure control and
the new condensing-temperature control in a subtropical climate. The simulation model was
validated using the operating data of an existing chiller plant. As noted from this existing air-
cooled reciprocating chiller plant, there was a substantial efficiency drop at part-load resulting
from the head pressure control. If operating at variable lower condensing-temperatures based
on the established operating mode of the condenser fans and compressors, it is shown that the
chiller consumption can be maintained below 2 kW/refrigeration ton throughout the entire
range of outdoor temperature and part-load conditions, giving an average efficiency of 1.08
kW/refrigeration ton. The energy imposition due to cycling on more condenser fans can be
compensated by the reduced compressor consumption. Potential energy savings of 18.2 and
29% in the annual chiller consumption are achievable by applying the condensing-tempera-
ture control to two existing chiller plants studied. This supports the need to develop the con-
densing-temperature control as an improvement to the conventional head pressure control.
# 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Air-cooled chillers; Condensing temperature control; Head pressure control; Energy efficiency

1. Introduction

Air-cooled reciprocating chillers have been widely installed in local commercial

buildings for providing space cooling and dehumidification. The operations of chil-
ler plants have a significant impact on electricity consumption and maximum power

* Corresponding author. Fax: +852-27746146.

E-mail address: bektc@polyu.edu.hk (K.T. Chan).

0306-2619/02/$ - see front matter # 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S0306-2619(02)00053-3
566 K.T. Chan, F.W. Yu / Applied Energy 72 (2002) 565–581

Nomenclature
Symbols
AU overall heat-transfer coefficient (kW K-1)
CR compression ratio
Cpa specific heat-capacity of air (kJ kg
1 K-1)
Cpw specific heat-capacity of water (kJ kg
1 K-1)
Ecc power input to operating compressors (kW)
Ecf power input to operating condenser fans (kW)
Ech overall power input to a chiller (kW)
Fcc derating factor for the compressor efficiency
hi specific enthalpy of refrigerant at state i
kW/refr. ton chiller operating efficiency in kW per refrigeration ton
mr refrigerant mass flow rate per compressor (kg s
1)
mw chilled water mass flow rate (kg s
1)
n index of reversible polytropic expansion process
Ncc number of operating compressors
P saturated pressure of refrigeration circuit (kPa)
PLR chiller part-load ratio (given by Qcl/Qcr)
Qcd total heat rejection (kW)
Qcl required chiller cooling output (kW or tons of refrigeration)
Qcr rated chiller cooling capacity (kW or tons of refrigeration)
qrf refrigeration effect (kJ kg
1)
T saturated temperature of refrigeration ( C)
Tcdae entering condenser air temperature or outdoor air temperature ( C)
Tcdal leaving condenser air temperature ( C)
Tchwr return chilled water temperature ( C)
Tchws supply chilled water temperature ( C)
Va airflow provided by operating condenser fans (m3 s
1)
Vp piston displacement of each compressor (m3 s
1)
vr refrigerant specific volume at compressor suction pressure (m3
kg
1)
win isentropic work input to the compressor (kJ kg
1)
" heat-exchange effectiveness
isen isentropic efficiency
cc compressor efficiency
v volumetric efficiency of a reciprocating compressor
a air density (kg m
3)

Subscripts
cd condenser
ev evaporator
tot total
 K.T. Chan, F.W. Yu / Applied Energy 72 (2002) 565–581 567

demand. The chiller coefficient of performance (COP) of two existing chiller plants
was less than 2.5 most of the time [1], which did not meet with the minimum COP of
2.7 stipulated in the local energy code for energy efficiency of air-conditioning
installations [2]. This poor chiller efficiency was associated with oversized equipment
[3], inappropriate matching of operating chillers with the cooling-load demand, and
the chillers always worked at a high condensing-temperature based on the design
outdoor condition of 33  C (often referred to as head pressure control) [1]. The local
weather data [4] indicated that the outdoor temperatures are below 25  C half of the
time in a year. There is a considerable scope for lowering the condensing tempera-
ture and thereby improving the chiller efficiency [1,5].
An experimental study by Smith and King [5] on the reduction in condenser
pressure lift for a reciprocating chiller rated at 35 kW cooling capacity illustrated
that a 10% reduction in the overall chiller consumption was achieved by driving the
condenser fan harder at all outdoor temperatures below 25  C. Nevertheless, no
detailed algorithms have been reported for variable condensing-temperature. The
trade-off between increased condenser fan power and decreased compressor power,
and the long-term energy saving by lowering the condensing temperature based on
the weather and part load conditions has not been assessed.
Many simulation models for chiller systems were documented [6–12]. There were a
few models developed for air-cooled reciprocating chillers: among those was a reci-
procating chiller model by Leverenz and Bergan [10] for hourly energy analysis
using a ‘‘black box’’ concept. Such a concept directly relates the input and output
parameters of the chiller by a set of empirical equations without considering the
operating balance among the components of the evaporator, compressor and con-
denser. Moreover, an optimisation study cannot be carried out using the ‘‘black box’’
models, as both the controllable and controlled variables are absent. Other recipro-
cating chiller models deal with a set of energy-balance equations without considering
the capacity control of the reciprocating compressors influencing the power input [11].
A mechanistic model taking into account the thermodynamics and operating balance
within the components of an air-cooled reciprocating chiller is developed here for the
study of the chiller performance under the conventional head pressure control and the
condensing temperature control. Necessary calibration of the model is made according
to the manufacturer’s specification and the operating data from two existing chiller-
plants. This paper presents the validated chiller model, the chiller’s operating parameters
and the analysis of chiller efficiency. Energy saving potential by lowering the conden-
sing temperature at part load conditions for the two existing chiller plants is assessed.

2. Model description

2.1. Characteristics of the modelled chiller

An air-cooled reciprocating chiller, using refrigerant R-22 (chlorodifluoromethane)

with rated capacity of 199 tons of refrigeration (i.e. 700 kW, 1 refrigeration
ton=3.52 kW), was studied. The modelled chiller is commonly used in multiple-chiller
568 K.T. Chan, F.W. Yu / Applied Energy 72 (2002) 565–581

Fig. 1. Refrigeration cycle of the modelled chiller.

systems for small to medium sized buildings requiring cooling capacity in the range of
300–1000 tons of refrigeration (1056–3520 kW). In general, individual chillers with
different or identical sizes in a multiple-chiller plant operate in parallel to meet the
varying cooling load demand. The chiller has six steps of capacity control from full
load down to a minimum of 16.7% by staging the six compressors, and contains two
refrigerant circuits to enhance the reliability and standby capacity. In order to meet the
required heat rejection under the head pressure control, twelve steps of control on the
heat rejection airflow rate are achieved by cycling the twelve condenser fans.

2.2. Refrigeration cycle and assumptions for the model

Fig. 1 shows the refrigeration cycle for the modelled chiller. In the refrigeration
cycle, heat loss or gain from the surroundings is ignored. Pressure drops in the
refrigerant pipelines are neglected. It is assumed that the refrigerant throttling pro-
cess through the expansion valve is adiabatic. The compression process is polytropic
and the actual compression work is the isentropic compression work input, win
divided by the isentropic efficiency, isen. The degrees of sub-cooling and superheat
are maintained at 6.5 and 5  C respectively under all loading conditions.

2.3. Evaporator model

The chiller modelled contains a shell and tube evaporator. Energy balance for the
heat flow between the refrigerant and water at the evaporator can be expressed as:
Qcl ¼ mw Cpw ðTchwr
Tchws Þ ð1Þ

¼ Ncc mr qrf ð2Þ

¼ mw Cpw "ev ðTchwr
Tev Þ ð3Þ

 K.T. Chan, F.W. Yu / Applied Energy 72 (2002) 565–581 569

The mass flow rate of chilled water, mw and the supply chilled-water temperature,
Tchws are maintained at 27.4 kg s
1 and 7  C respectively based on the manufacturer’s
recommendation. The return chilled-water temperature, Tchwr will vary with the
cooling capacity, Qcl in the range of 7.9–12.5  C.
Referring to Fig. 1, the refrigeration effect, qrf in Eq. (2) is given by:

qrf ¼ h1
h4 ð4Þ

In determining the evaporating temperature, Tev, the classical heat-exchange

effectiveness method is applied using Eq. (3). The heat-exchange effectiveness at the

Fig. 2. Flow chart for parameter evaluation.

570 K.T. Chan, F.W. Yu / Applied Energy 72 (2002) 565–581

waterside, "ev is determined by Eq. (5). The overall heat-transfer coefficient, AUev is
described by the empirical relation in Eq. (6) [12], where c1, c2 and c3 are constants
evaluated using the chiller’s performance data.
 
AUev
"ev ¼ 1
exp
ð5Þ
mw Cpw

1
AUev ¼ ð6Þ
c1 m
0:8
w þ c2 Q
0:745
cl þ c3

For a constant supply chilled-water temperature, Tchws, the evaporating tempera-

ture, Tev varies from 5.3 to 5.8  C as calculated by Eq. (6) based on the anticipated
range of return chilled-water temperature. The evaporating pressure, Pev and hence
the specific enthalpy of refrigerant at compressor suction state, h1 can be determined
using the state equations of the refrigerant R-22 [13]. The variation of the refrig-
eration effect, qrf, is small under the head pressure control but is substantial under
the condensing temperature control with varying condensing temperatures. The
refrigeration effect increases with the reduction in the condensing temperature at a
constant evaporating temperature.
For a certain cooling capacity, the number of operating compressors, Ncc, can be
determined by Eq. (2). The refrigerant mass flow rate is calculated by Eq. (8) and the
refrigeration effect is evaluated from the refrigerant’s state equations.

2.4. Compressor model

The compressor power input, refrigerant mass flow rate per compressor at the
compression process and the volumetric efficiency [14] are given by Eqs. (7)–(9):
win
Ecc ¼ Ncc mr ð7Þ
isen cc

Vp v
mr ¼ ð8Þ
vr

v ¼ 0:94
0:015 CR ð9Þ

where CR is the compression ratio:

Pcd
CR ¼ ð10Þ
Pev

The piston displacement of a compressor, Vp, in Eq. (8) relating to the cylinder
diameter, stroke of the piston and number of cylinder per compressor, is regarded as
a constant for a constant-speed compressor. It can be evaluated using the manu-
facturer’s data at the full-load condition. The specific volume of refrigerant at the
 K.T. Chan, F.W. Yu / Applied Energy 72 (2002) 565–581 571

suction of the compressor, vr was determined from the evaporating pressure and the
degree of superheat using the refrigerant state equations. The compression ratio
varies with the condensing pressure lift to a small extent under the head pressure
control, but it becomes a dependent variable changing with the condensing pressure
under the condensing-temperature control.
Based on the refrigeration cycle in Fig. 1, the isentropic work input by the com-
pressor, win in Eq. (7), is given by:
n  n- 1

win ¼ Pev vr CR n
1 ð11Þ
n
1

The isentropic compression index, n, is taken to be 1.2 for the semi-hermetic

compressor motors by refrigerant cooling. The specific enthalpy of the refrigerant
at state 2 can be evaluated using Eq. (12):
win
h2 ¼ h1 þ ð12Þ
isen

where the isentropic efficiency, isen, can be calculated using the empirical equation
in relation to the compression ratio, CR, [15]:

isen ¼ 0:73 þ 0:1 CR
0:026 CR 2 þ 0:0017 CR 3 ð13Þ

Since there is no mathematical relation governing the compressor’s efficiency, cc,

in the first trial, it is approximated by the volumetric efficiency with an additional
10% to offset the power loss due to the mechanical friction in the compressor [16]:

cc ¼ 1:1 v ð14Þ

Verification of the approximation is carried out subsequently by comparing the

simulation result with the operating data.

2.5. Condenser model

The chiller is installed with an air-cooled condenser of finned coils integrated with
sub-cooling coils. The total heat rejection, Qcd, is the sum of refrigeration load, Qcl,
and compressor power input, Ecc. It can be calculated by the following energy
balance equations:
Qcd ¼ Qcl þ Ecc ð15Þ

¼ Ncc mr ðh2
h3 Þ ð16Þ

¼ Va a Cpa ðTcdal
Tcdae Þ ð17Þ

¼ Va a Cpa "cd ðTcd
Tcdae Þ ð18Þ

572 K.T. Chan, F.W. Yu / Applied Energy 72 (2002) 565–581

The evaluation of the condenser’s effectiveness, "cd, together with AUcd is ana-
logous to that of the evaporator. Modifications to the two variable terms with
empirical coefficients c4 and c5 of AUcd are made to account for the effects of the
airflow on the airside heat-transfer coefficient and the refrigerant mass flow on the
condensing refrigerant heat-transfer coefficient [17].
 
AUcd
"cd ¼ 1
exp
ð19Þ
Va a Cpa

1
AUcd ¼ ð20Þ
c4 V
0:5
a þ c
0:8 þ c
5 mr 6

The power input to the operating condenser fans, Ecf, is calculated by:

Va Ecf;tot
Ecf ¼ ð21Þ
Va;tot

The required heat rejection, Qcd, for a certain cooling capacity is readily calculated
upon the compressor power input is evaluated from the compressor model. The
calculated Qcd can then be used to find out the required condenser airflow, Va,
leaving condenser air temperature, Tcdal from Eqs. (17) and (18), the number of
operating condenser fans and hence the fan power, Ecf, in Eq. (21).

3. Method of study

3.1. Parameter evaluation

Having established the equations for the chiller components, Fig. 2 shows the flow
chart for parameter evaluation. The cooling capacity, Qcl, the entering condenser’s
air temperature, Tcdae, and the condensing temperature, Tcd, constitute the indepen-
dent input parameters to the model components. The input parameters of Tchws and
mw are regarded as constant for simplifying the chiller dynamics. Since the energy-
balance equations in the condenser model are implicit functions, the parameters Tcd,
Pcd and Va have to be solved by an iterative approach. The main output parameters
are the operating status of compressors, Ncc, condenser fans, Ncf, and their corre-
sponding power consumption’s, Ecc and Ecf, for calculating the chiller operating
efficiency in terms of kW/refrigeration ton, as given in the following section.

3.2. Operating efficiency

Electricity consumption of an air-cooled chiller, Ech, is given by:

Ech ¼ Ecc þ Ecf ð22Þ

 K.T. Chan, F.W. Yu / Applied Energy 72 (2002) 565–581 573

The chiller operating efficiency can be expressed as:

Ech
kW=refr:ton ¼ ð23Þ
Qcl

It is desirable to maintain the chiller efficiency at a low value under the entire
weather-load conditions. The chiller efficiency curve, defined as a plot between the
kW/refrigeration ton and the chiller part load ratio at a particular outdoor tem-
perature, can be used for realizing the model and assessing the cooling energy.

3.3. Head pressure (H-P) control

Under the head pressure control, the condensing pressure is principally set at 1943
kPa corresponding to the condensing temperature of 50  C based on the design
condition of 33  C outdoor temperature. However, some variation of the condensing
pressure and temperature states will occur while equating the energy equations at the
condenser side due to the step change in the condenser airflow and the interdependence
of the condensing temperatures with the leaving and entering condenser air tempera-
tures. Readjustment to the condensing refrigerant states is then made throughout the
capacity control range in the parameter evaluation. The required condenser airflow is
first obtained by predicting the number of operating condenser fans, so as to meet the
required heat rejection and to maintain the condensing refrigerant settings. The con-
densing pressure and temperature are then rebalanced by the associated energy equa-
tions using an iterative procedure. It is expected that more condenser fans will be
cycled off at decreasing outdoor temperatures during the mild weather.

3.4. Condensing temperature (C-T) control

The condensing temperature and the condensing pressure are controlled para-
meters instead of controllable parameters as under the head pressure control. The
maximum value of the input parameters Ncf and Va are determined, subject to the
lowest condensing temperature limit of 27  C for proper compressor lubrication [18],
for the evaluation of the output parameters Tcd and Pcd. The output parameters are
solved iteratively by substituting back to the energy equations in the condenser
model. Under the local weather conditions, the condensing temperatures can be
varied from 28 to 50  C and the condensing pressures are controlled from 1131 to
1943 kPa accordingly.

4. Discussion of results

4.1. Model validation

Model validation can be accomplished by calibrating the empirical model equations

based on a comparison of simulation results with the manufacturer specification and
574 K.T. Chan, F.W. Yu / Applied Energy 72 (2002) 565–581

the operating data of existing chiller plants. The manufacturers usually specify the
chiller efficiency in terms of Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) or COP according to the
specific weather-load condition stipulated in the ARI Standard 550/590 [19]. The
insitu chiller efficiency was evaluated from the operating data taken from two chiller
plants in two local hotels, namely Hotel A and Hotel B. The two chiller plants con-
sist of four chiller-pump pairs, with each chiller having the capacity of 185 and 199
tons of refrigeration (650 and 700 kW) for the Hotels A and B respectively. The size
and steps of capacity control of individual chillers in both chiller plants are com-
parable to the modelled chiller.
Fig. 3(a) shows the efficiency curves of the modelled chiller without adjustment to
the modelling equations, and of the existing chiller plants at outdoor temperature of
33  C together with the manufacturer efficiency curve rated at the ARI Standard.
Different characteristics of chiller efficiency were observed from the three scenarios.
The manufacturer’s curve demonstrates an improved efficiency when the chiller part
load decreases, which obviously cannot represent the actual chiller operation under
the head pressure control. Using the manufacturer curve to determine the chiller
combinations for the multiple-chiller systems would give rise to overstated chiller
efficiency at part-load conditions and oversized equipment. Basically, the manu-
facturers state the chiller part-load efficiency for the integrated part-load value
(IPLV) based on the weather-load conditions for a single chiller under the ARI
Standard [19]. Such weather-load conditions may not reflect the actual load condi-
tions by individual chillers in the multiple-chiller plant under the local weather.
The efficiency curves by the simulation and the in-situ data exhibit a similar
characteristic that the chiller efficiency is depressing at decreasing part loads, but the
degree of depression is larger in the existing chillers. This probably associates with
energy losses imposed on the compressors leading to extra compressor consumption
at small part-load ratios. Apart from the deviation in the chiller efficiency at part-
load ratios below 0.8, the model can replicate the chiller efficiency of the in-situ
chillers. This finding supports the need to readjust the model equation for the com-
pressor efficiency to account for the extra energy loss at small part-load ratios.

Fig. 3. Chiller efficiency curves at part load.

 K.T. Chan, F.W. Yu / Applied Energy 72 (2002) 565–581 575

A derating factor, Fcc relating the chiller part-load ratio, PLR in the form of
Eq. (24) is therefore introduced to the Eq. (14) to calibrate the compressor efficiency.
Eq. (14) then becomes:

cc ¼ 1:1v Fcc ð14aÞ

Fcc ¼ a2 PLR 2 þ a1 PLR þ a0 ð24Þ

where the constants a0, a1 and a2 are determined to be 0.32, 0.14 and 0.55 respec-
tively characterizing the energy losses by the compressor of the existing chillers.
Fig. 3(b) shows that the efficiency curve of the calibrated model is adequate to
represent the in-situ chillers. An analysis of the chiller efficiency and the operating
parameters influencing the energy consumption within the chiller components under
the condensing temperature control can then be carried out with the calibrated
model.

4.2. Chiller efficiency and parametric analysis

A set of chiller-efficiency curves for the head pressure and condensing temperature
controls at outdoor temperatures corresponding to ARI standard rating is shown in
Fig. 4. The maximum chiller efficiency occurs at full load condition irrespective of
the outdoor temperature under both control methods. This suggests that the lead
chillers in the multiple-chiller plants should be fully loaded before putting the lag
chiller into operation for maximum efficiency. In assessing the chiller efficiency, a
typical efficiency curve can be used under the head pressure control, whereas under
the condensing temperature control, a family of efficiency curves at different out-
door temperatures should be employed. Under the condensing temperature control,
the chiller efficiency can be improved by reducing the condensing temperatures at

Fig. 4. Chiller efficiency curves under head pressure (H-P) control and condensing temperature (C-T)
controls. (Tcdae: entering condenser air temperature).
576 K.T. Chan, F.W. Yu / Applied Energy 72 (2002) 565–581

Fig. 5. Number of operating compressors under head pressure and condensing temperature controls.

low outdoor temperatures as indicated by the downward shift of the efficiency

curves, and the improvement is more significant at low-load conditions.
Based on the local outdoor conditions, giving the entering condenser air-tem-
perature from 33 to 12.8  C, the efficiency of the modelled chiller varies widely from
1.08 to 3.37 kW/refrigeration ton under the head pressure control. When using the
condensing temperature control, the efficiency is significantly improved and varies in
the range from 0.68 to 2.95 kW/refrigeration ton. It is possible, in a plant with
multiple chillers, to obtain the chiller efficiency at above the minimum COP
requirement of 2.7 (i.e., less than 1.3 kW/refrigeration ton) for most of the operating
conditions. However, the minimum COP requirement cannot be complied with
when the chillers operate under the head pressure control. This is also observed in
the recorded data of the existing chillers in hotels A and B, where the COP is below
2.7 most of the time.
In Fig. 5, the number of operating compressors is compared between the head
pressure control and the condensing temperature control at various part-load ratios.
There are six compressors in the modelled chiller. The number of operating com-
pressors can be reduced by one under the condensing temperature control when
producing the same cooling load as under the head pressure control. Hence, by
adopting condensing-temperature control, the compressor power will be reduced.
Fig. 6 shows the operating modes of the condenser fans at different weather-load
conditions. The number of operating condenser fans increases with the outdoor
temperature, irrespective of the part-load ratios. Under the head pressure control,
all the condenser fans are running only at the design load and outdoor condition,
whereas fewer fans will be energized at other conditions because smaller airflows can
satisfy the heat-rejection load. For the condensing-temperature control, more con-
denser fans will be operated to induce larger airflow for suppressing the condensing
pressure. Maximum number of fans may be switched on at both full-load and part-
load conditions. More fan power is consumed under this circumstance. Never-
theless, such power imposition can be compensated by the energy saving from the
 K.T. Chan, F.W. Yu / Applied Energy 72 (2002) 565–581 577

Fig. 6. Required number of condenser fans at different outdoor temperatures and part-load ratios.

Fig. 7. Energy consumption components by compressors, Ecc and condenser fans, Ecf under head pressure
(H-P) and condensing-temperature (C-T) controls.

reduction in the number of operating compressors and the smaller compressor work
input at lower condensing temperatures.
A significant reduction in the compressor power is observed under the condensing-
temperature control compared to the conventional head pressure control, as indi-
cated by the trend lines in Fig. 7. The energy saving from the compressors outweighs
the additional energy for running more condenser fans throughout the loading
range. Substantial net energy saving is expected as the rated total condenser fan
consumption accounts for only about one-tenth of the rated chiller consumption.
Having identified the operating modes of condenser fans for both control meth-
ods, it is necessary to investigate the effect of such modes on the condensing tem-
peratures under the varying outdoor temperature conditions. The results are shown
in Fig. 8. At the peak outdoor temperature of 33  C, when using condensing tem-
perature control, the condensing temperature can drop to 40  C at part-load ratio of
578 K.T. Chan, F.W. Yu / Applied Energy 72 (2002) 565–581

Fig. 8. Changes of the condensing temperature with varying outdoor temperature and part-load ratio.

0.33 by cycling on all condensing fans. At below-design outdoor conditions, the

condensing temperature can be as low as 26  C, which indeed is limited by the
required temperature for proper lubrication of the compressors. Under the conven-
tional head pressure control, there are also some changes in the condensing tem-
perature due to heat and refrigerant flow balance among the evaporator, compressor
and condenser. It fluctuates between 50 and 44  C throughout the entire loading range
at outdoor temperature above 20  C. Comparing the two control methods, it is readily
noticed that for most of the time the chiller plant under condensing temperature
control operates at much lower condensing-temperatures and with fewer compressors.

4.3. Energy saving by applying condensing-temperature control

For a multiple-chiller plant with equally sized chillers, the cooling load will be
evenly handled by the operating chillers. To determine the number of operating
chillers, it is necessary to establish the weather-load profile that correlates the chiller
part load ratio to the outdoor temperatures based on the anticipated building cool-
ing load and the local weather conditions. The profile can be used to establish the
optimum combination of chillers and pumps at part load operation for maximizing
the chiller efficiency and minimizing the overall plant consumption.
The operating mode of the condenser fans shown in Fig. 8(b) is converted into a
control algorithm to simulate the annual chiller consumption using the condensing
temperature control. This is then applied to the two existing chiller plants in hotel A
and B. The potential annual energy savings by the two chiller plants under the con-
densing-temperature control can be predicted by inputting their actual weather-load
data to the simulation model. Fig. 9 shows the chiller efficiency against the part-load
ratio from the recorded operating data and under the condensing temperature control
for the chiller plant in hotel A. Comparing to the high and increasing kW/refrigeration
ton at decreasing part-load ratio in the historical operations, the new condensing tem-
perature control is able to maintain the chiller consumption below 2 kW/refrigeration
 K.T. Chan, F.W. Yu / Applied Energy 72 (2002) 565–581 579

Fig. 9. Efficiency of the chiller plant in Hotel A from historical data and under the new condensing
temperature (C-T) control.

ton throughout the whole range of operating conditions, giving an average efficiency
of 1.08 kW/refrigeration ton. Accordingly, 18.2% of the overall annual chiller con-
sumption can be saved in hotel A. For the chiller plant in hotel B, there is a similar
improvement in the chiller efficiency and the potential saving of annual chiller con-
sumption is 29%.

5. Conclusions

The simulation model of an air-cooled reciprocating chiller with a conventional

head pressure control and the new condensing-temperature control for energy effi-
ciency, is presented. The model equations for the compressor efficiency are cali-
brated by the actual chiller data to reflect the in-situ chiller efficiency at part load
conditions.
Under the condensing temperature control, a significant reduction in the com-
pressor power can be achieved compared with the conventional head pressure con-
trol. The energy saving is due to the drop of the condensing temperature at below-
design conditions leading to a smaller compression work input, reduced number of
operating compressors and better chiller efficiency. This saving outweighs the energy
imposition due to the cycling on of more condenser fans. The condensing tempera-
ture can be as low as 26  C, but any further drop is restricted by the requirement for
compressor lubrication.
Potential energy savings of 18.2 and 29% in the annual total chiller consumption
have been identified for two existing chiller plants in hotels by applying the con-
densing temperature control. Based on the established operating modes of the con-
denser fans and compressors, the chiller consumption can be maintained at below 2
kW/refrigeration ton throughout the entire range of weather-load conditions, and
the average efficiency is 1.08 kW/refrigeration ton.
580 K.T. Chan, F.W. Yu / Applied Energy 72 (2002) 565–581

These results support the need to develop the condensing-temperature control as

an alternative to the conventional head pressure control for improving the efficiency
of air-cooled reciprocating chillers. Having investigated the operating mode of con-
denser fans in relation to the outdoor temperature and the part-load ratio, it is
possible to establish the control algorithm for a multiple-chiller plant with micro-
processor control as the cooling load can be determined by measuring the differ-
ential enthalpy of the supply and return chilled-water. Further experimental and
simulation studies have to be carried out to realize the condensing-temperature set-
ting based on the local weather, taking into account the chiller dynamics and the
constraints of the chiller components balance together with the controllability of the
operating parameters. Then the long-term energy saving by applying the condensing-
temperature control, coupled with the optimum chiller and pump combinations, can
be quantified.

Acknowledgements

This study is supported by the Research Grant Council of the Hong Kong SAR
and the central research grant of the Hong Kong Polytechnic University.

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