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Biomedical engineering Respiratory system Biomedical engineering Respiratory system Biomedical engineering Respiratory system

Contents Respiratory system


• respiratory system • function
• measurements – gas transport and exchange between blood and air
– pressure • oxygen
Measurement of – flow • carbon dioxide
– warming, cleaning and moisturizing of air
Respiratory System – volume
– ventilation capability
– diffusion capacity
– gas composition analysis
– blood gas analysis

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Biomedical engineering Respiratory system Biomedical engineering Respiratory system Biomedical engineering Respiratory system

Respiratory system Respiratory system Respiratory system


Physiology Anatomy Architecture
• regulation • airways
– upper airways Tree like structure
Input: – lower airways
• carotid (PaO2) and central (PaCO2, • lungs 1. trachea
[H+]) chemoreceptors; – bronchioles
2.5 cm2, n=1
proprioceptive receptors in muscles, – alveoli
tendons, and joints; • external 2. bronchi
impulses from the cerebral cortex – pulmonary circulation …
Controller: – respiratory muscles …
• respiratory center in the brain stem – lung sac (pleura)
23. alveoli:
⇒ 12000 cm2, n=3.000.000
Output
• via the spinal cord and peripheral pCO2,
nerves to the intercostal and H+
diaphragmatic muscles.
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Biomedical engineering Respiratory system Biomedical engineering Respiratory system Biomedical engineering Respiratory system

Respiratory system Respiratory system Respiratory system


Ventilation Ventilation Ventilation
• change of gases in lungs • change of gases in alveoli • change of gases in alveoli
– minute ventilation = frequency × tidal volume – diffusion – circulation
– alveolar ventilation = MV – anatomical dead space • Fick’s law • oxygen transport
• composed of – circulation • oxy-hemoglobin
– ventilation dissociation curve
– inspiration
• active phase
SaO2= Oxy-Hg/Total-Hg
• caused by extension of thoracic cavity due to muscle work
⇒ vacuum ⇒ gas inflow
• flow is restricted by
– flow resistance in air ways
– elastance of alveoli
– expiration
• passive
• caused by elastic forces during the relaxation
• forced expiration requires active muscle work

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Biomedical engineering Respiratory system Biomedical engineering Respiratory system Biomedical engineering Respiratory system

Respiratory system Pulmonary function tests 1. Static lung volumes and capacities
• assessment of respiratory function Forced, deep inspiration and expiration gives
– very common non-invasive methods of detecting • static lung volumes and capacities
total lung capacity (TLC) =
and quantifying abnormal lung function – spirometer
– two scales of applications – plethysmography forced vital capacity (FVC) +
• pulmonary function tests (= tidal volume (VT) +
– discrete quantitative observations
• dynamic lung capacities and flow rates inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) +
capacities volumes

» screening of diseases of normal population – flow meter expiratory reserve volume (ERV))
» periodic physical examinations of patients chronic
pulmonary conditions
• lung mechanics residual volume (RV)
» evaluate acute changes during disease – air way resistance (=functional residual c. (FRC) –
» follow up after treatment exp. RV )
• diffusion capacity
• patient monitoring
– long-term motoring of vital signs (during anaesthesia)
» ventilation
» gas analysis
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Biomedical engineering Respiratory system Biomedical engineering Respiratory system Biomedical engineering Respiratory system

1. Static lung volumes and capacities 1. Static lung volumes and capacities 1. Static lung volumes and capacities

• lung spirometers • lung spirometer test Residual volume measurement


– wet spirometers (slow)
• volume ⇒ vertical displacement
N2 washout
– dry spirometers
• closed system
• bellows
• flow • breath pure oxygen
– integral of flow rate • monitor N2 concentration in
expired gas

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Biomedical engineering Respiratory system Biomedical engineering Respiratory system Biomedical engineering Respiratory system

Residual volume measurement Total lung volume measurement

He dilution Whole body plethysmography


• known He concentration in spirometer • Boyle’s law: PV is constant if T is constant ⇒
• breath He in closed system P1V1 = P2V2=(P1+∆P)(V1+ ∆V)
• full expiration
• (Ve+RLV)Ce = ViCi • in a body box :
PiVi = (Pi+∆P)(Vi -∆V)

pressure sensor in the mouth peace ⇒ pressure in lungs Pm


– full expiration: Pm1
– forced inspiration: Pm2 and rise in body box pressure p
– valve is closed ⇒ flow stops but lung volume increases by V

Pm1 (RV) = Pm2 (RV+V) ⇒

Pm 2V
RV =
Pm1 − Pm 2
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Biomedical engineering Respiratory system Biomedical engineering Respiratory system Biomedical engineering Respiratory system

Pulmonary function tests 2. Dynamic lung capacities and flow rates


2. Dynamic lung capacities and flow rates Flow meters
• pneumotachometer
– air flow ⇒ differential pressure across a flow resistance (venturi)
• dynamic (time varying) properties • mesh
– FEV1, PEF • tubes
• relationship between flow and volume – flow resistance:
• measured with a flow meter
∆P 8η L
Rc = =
F π r4

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Biomedical engineering Respiratory system Biomedical engineering Respiratory system Biomedical engineering Respiratory system

2. Dynamic lung capacities and flow rates Pulmonary function tests


3. Diffusion capacity
Flow meters • A test to determine how well oxygen passes from the air sacs of the
• rotameter lungs into the blood
– a small-inertia turbine in air flow
• transfer of oxygen: blood ↔ alveoli
• ultrasound (in ventilators)
⇒ diffusion can not be determined from the O2
• peak flow meters
concentration difference between inspired and expired gas
⇒ CO is used instead of O2 (more readily absorbed by
haemoglobin)
• transfer factor analysis
. .
net rate of transfer of CO V CO V CO
DC(CO)= = =
alveolar-capillary CO gradient Palv (CO)-Pcap(CO Palv (CO)
• methods
– single breath method
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– balanced method 23 24

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3. Diffusion capacity – data: • transfer factor


• Inspired volume: Vi – ml of CO absorbed per minute for each mmHg of partial pressure of CO
• residual volume: VR,
– proportional to time constant k and the volume of the lungs during the
• inspired concentrations [CO]i and [He]i,
• single breath method • expired concentrations are [CO]e, [He]e.
absorption time.
– known amount of CO (1%) and He in a spirometer – Adding the units conversion (volumes in litres, t is seconds,
– patient exhales fully, then inhales mixture, and holds breath for 10 secs – Helium balance gives: Vi [He]i = ( VR + Vi ) [He]e concentration in %) and converting natural logs to base 10 gives :
– exhale, and measure [CO] and [He] – CO concentration C(t) in lungs immediately after inspiration will be

[CO]i Vi [CO]o [He]e


=
RV+Vi [He]i 1 [CO]i [He]e
– This initial concentration of CO will decay exponentially with time
Transfer factor = −(Vi + RV )160 log
t [CO]e [He]i
constant k because of diffusion ⇒ loss of CO in lungs:
typical value: 30 ml min-1 mmHg-1
− kt
dC(t) [CO]i [He]e e
(RV+Vi ) = (RV+Vi ) = − k (RV+Vi )C(t)
dt [He]i dt

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Biomedical engineering Respiratory system Biomedical engineering Respiratory system Biomedical engineering Respiratory system

4. Pulmonary mechanics 4. Pulmonary mechanics 4. Pulmonary mechanics


• mechanical behaviour = • pressure/flow relationship • measurement of pressures
• pressure: driving force • airway pressure: air-balloon catheter transducer
mechanics + pneunatics . P −P
V = mouth alv • pleura pressure
• pressure RAW • from esophagus
• pressure/volume, flow • flow resistance R
8η L • mouth pressure
• lung compliance C
RAW = • body plethysmography
• inertia of gas I π r4
• flow rate
• flow acceleration
dV 1 d 2V
P=R + V +I 2
• compliance dt C dt
∆V
• pulmonary work C=
∆P
W = ∆P × ∆V
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4. Pulmonary mechanics 5. Gas concentration measurements 5. Gas concentration measurements


• measurement of compliance: dP and dV • O2 sensors O2 sensors: paramagnetic sensors
• paramagnetic sensors
• electrochemical sensors • oxygen: paramagnetic material
• solid state sensors • due to an exceptional electron spin configuration of oxygen atom
• fiber optic sensors • susceptibility: relationship between magnetization and magnetic
• CO2, CO, N2O, H2O, and anaesthetic agents sensors field
• infrared sensors • paramagnetism: large positive
• diamagnetism: negative
• spectroscopic methods • macroscopic effect of magnetic field on oxygen molecule:
• force on O2 molecule ∝ magnetization and dH/dx
dH
F = KH
• types of sensors dx
• static and dynamic
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Biomedical engineering Respiratory system Biomedical engineering Respiratory system Biomedical engineering Respiratory system

5. Gas concentration measurements 5. Gas concentration measurements 5. Gas concentration measurements


O2 sensors: paramagnetic sensors O2 sensors: paramagnetic sensors O2 sensors: electrochemical sensors

• static, balance-typed sensor • dynamic, magnetoacustic sensor • similar to those used in the measurement of partial gas pressures in
• Paulig cell (dumbbell) • sample and reference gas mixed in a blood
• two thin-walled glass spheres homogeneous magnetic field
• current to the coil is cyclically switched • polarographic cell (Clark cell)
suspended between two wedge • thin Teflon membrane permeable to oxygen on the tip of the cell
shaped poles of a permanent magnet on and off ⇒
• spheres are nitrogen filled • pressure signal ∝ ∆[O2] between the gases • polarization voltage 0.7 V ⇒ current ∝ oxygen concentration
• force on oxygen molecules ⇒ • pressure signal is measured with a • galvanic cell
torsion and rotation of dumbbell differential pressure transducer • no external voltage source
• oxygen concentration
• detecting torsion by light reflection • short response time (150 ms)
• non-linear
• detecting torque to maintain balance
by feedback
• linear, accurate, slow(10 s)

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Biomedical engineering Respiratory system Biomedical engineering Respiratory system Biomedical engineering Respiratory system

5. Gas concentration measurements 5. Gas concentration measurements 5. Gas concentration measurements


Infrared gas sensors Infrared gas sensors Infrared gas sensors
Photoacustic sensor
• IR light is absorbed only by gas molecules made up of dissimilar transmission: Colay cell:
atoms • principle:
• have an electric dipole moment with which the EM wave • principle • energy absorbed by molecules leads to the change in pressure in a
• IR source measurement chamber
interacts • pressure changes are detected by microphones
• gases: CO2, CO, N2O, H2O, and anesthetic agents • light modulators
• sample cell
• having different absorption spectra ⇒ • detector • different gas molecules can be distinguished by means of
can be distinguished (spectrometry) • signal processing • different chopping frequency
• absorption: Beer’s law: • different wave lengths
−α LC
Pt = Pe
i

• methods are based on detection of


• transmitted power
• absorbed power 37 38 39

Biomedical engineering Respiratory system Biomedical engineering Respiratory system Biomedical engineering Respiratory system

5. Gas concentration measurements 5. Gas concentration measurements 5. Gas concentration measurements


Infrared gas sensors Infrared gas sensors Mass spectroscopy
Photoacustic sensor Photoacustic sensor
• apparatus that
• produces a stream of charged particles
from the substance being analysed
• separates the ions into a spectrum
according to their mass-to-charge ratios
• determines relative abundance of
each type of ion present

• range of molecular weight


normal operation: He-4 ⎯ CO2-44
extended: → sulfur hexafluoride-146,
halothane-196

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