Biology

Characteristics of living organism

Identification of a living organism

An organism is an individual living thing that can react to stimuli, reproduce, grow, and maintain
homeostasis. It can be a virus, bacterium, protist, fungus, plant or an animal. All living organisms do
the seven following:

1. Movement. All living organisms show movement of one kind or another. All living organisms
have internal movement, which means that they have the ability of moving substances from
one part of their body to another. Some living organisms show external movement as well -
they can move from place to place.
2. Respiration. All living things exchange gases with their environment.
3. Sensitivity. Ability to sense and respond to changes in its surrounding
4. Growth. An increase in size, mass, complexity of an organism
5. Reproduction. Producing offspring similar to the parent
6. Excretion. Excretion is the removal of waste from the body. If this waste was allowed to remain
in the body it could be poisonous.
7. Nutrition. All living organisms need to take substances from their environment to obtain
energy, to grow and to stay healthy.
An organism is considered “living” when it does all of these seven characteristics.

Cells
Definition: The basic structure of organisms. All cells are made by other cells.
a part of the cell containing DNA and RNA and responsible for growth and reproduction

All organisms are made up of units called cells joined together. Very small living things like bacteria
are made up of only one cell.

Types of cell
 Animal cells
 Plant cells
 Specialised cells
o Xylem cells
o Leaf palisade cells
o Root hair cells
o Red blood cells
o Nerve cells
o Muscle cells
o Bone cells
 Single cells
o Amoeba
  Many cells
o Spirogyra

Animal cells

Cell part Definition Function

Cell A thin semi-permeable  Gives shape the cell. Cell membrane anchors the
membrane membrane that sur- cytoskeleton (a cellular 'skeleton' made of protein
rounds the cytoplasm and contained in the cytoplasm).
of a cell, enclosing its Attaching cells together to form tissue. Cell
contents. membrane is responsible for attaching the cell to
the extracellular matrix (non-living material that is
found outside the cells).
 Transportation of materials. This is needed for
the functioning of the cell organelles. Cell
membrane is semi permeable and controls the in
and out movements of substances. Such movement
of substances may be either at the expense of
cellular energy or passive, without using cellular
energy.
 Receive signals from other cells or the outside
environment. They convert the signals to
messages that are passed to the organelles inside
the cell.
 Group together to form enzymes. These carry
out metabolic reactions near the inner surface of
the cell membrane.
 Proteins in the cell membrane. also help very
small molecules to get themselves transported
through the cell membrane, provided, the
molecules are traveling from a region with lots of
molecules to a region with less number of
molecules.
Cytoplasm The contents outside of  Fills the interior of the cell. The cytoplasm forms
 the nucleus and the ground substance of the cell.
enclosed within the cell  Hold cell organelles. Cell organelles control all of
membrane of a cell. the cell’s activities. These keep the cell alive.
Nucleus A part of the cell  Regulates all cell activity. It does this by
containing DNA and controlling the enzymes present.
RNA and responsible  Hold the DNA needed for reproduction.
for growth and
reproduction
Mitochondria An organelle found in  Provide energy for the cell through respiration.
large numbers in most  Location of ATP (adenosine tri-phosphate)
cells, in which the
biochemical processes
of respiration and
energy production
occur

Plant cell

Cell part Definition Function

Vacuole A space within a cell  Removing unwanted structural debris
that is empty of  Isolating materials that might be harmful to
cytoplasm, lined with a the cell
membrane, and filled  Containment of waste products
with fluid.  Maintaining internal hydrostatic pressure or
turgor within the cell
 Maintaining an acidic internal pH
 Containing small molecules
  Exporting unwanted substances from the cell.
 Enabling the cell to change shape.
Chloroplasts An organelle found in  Capture light energy.
plant cells that conduct  Store it in the energy storage molecules ATP
photosynthesis and NADPH
 Use it in photosynthesis. It makes organic
molecules and free oxygen from carbon dioxide
and water.
Cell wall The rigid outermost cell  Provides support.
layer found in plants  Bonds with other cell walls. This forms the
and certain algae, structure of the plant.
bacteria, and fungi but
characteristically
absent from animal
cells
Plant sap Watery fluid of plants.  Store important substances
Cell sap is a fluid found  Support the plant. The pressure of water filling
in the vacuoles (small the cell vacuole pushes out against the cell wall.
cavities) of the living This gives the wall enough strength to hold up
cell fairly large green plants.

Animal vs. Plant cells

Animal cell Plant cell
Plasma membrane Only cell membrane Cell wall and membrane
Nucleus Present Present
Shape Round (irregular shape) Rectangular (fixed shape)
Chloroplast Animal cells don't have Plant cells have chloroplasts
chloroplasts because they make their own
food (photosynthesis)
Cytoplasm* Present Present
Mitochondria Present Present
Vacuole One or more small vacuoles One, large central vacuole
(much smaller than plant taking up 90% of cell volume.
cells).
Storage Store energy as granules of Store energy as starch
glycogen

*Plant and animal cells have many smaller structures in the cytoplasm.

Diffusion

Diffusion: The spread of particles through random motion from regions of higher concentration to
regions of lower concentration.
Parts of solution
 Solute: A substance that is dissolved in a solvent to form a solution
 Solvent: A liquid, solid, or gas that dissolves another solid, liquid, or gaseous solute, resulting in
a solution
A solute is dissolved in a solvent.

Types of solutions
 Concentrated solution: Has a large amount of solute in the solvent.
 Diluted solution: Has a small amount of solute in the solvent.

Osmosis
Osmosis: A special kind of diffusion. It is the net movement of solvent molecules through a partially
permeable membrane (such as a cell membrane) into a region of higher solute
concentration from a low solute concentration down a concentration gradient.

How does it work?

 Partially permeable membrane – The cell membrane is selectively permeable because it
allows certain molecules to pass through and no others. Water can pass through but dissolved
substances cannot.
 Different concentration of solution on each side of the membrane – water will move from the
weak solution (high concentration of water) to the strong solution (low concentration of water).
 Water potential gradient – when the number of molecules of water in the solution becomes
less and the concentration of the solute becomes more, the water molecules move to the
place where there is low concentration of water molecules.

Enzymes

Enzyme: Biological catalysts that are produced in all living organisms and control all the chemical
reactions that occur. Enzymes are present in all cells not just in the digestive systems. They
are protein molecules that have particular shape which are held together by weak hydrogen
bonds.
Catalysts: Substance which increases the rate of reaction
Substrate: The chemical compound on which the enzyme works.
Active site: Part of an enzyme where substrates bind and undergo a chemical reaction.

Two types of enzymes

 Breakers – Break large molecules into smaller simpler ones for the cells to use. This is
especially important to digestion as some of the nutrients we get from foods are large
molecules. Some examples are amylase to break down starch to form glucose molecules,
protease to break down protein and lipase to lipids/fats.
  Builders – Combine smaller ones to make large molecules inside our cell. These are important
in plants to be used in photosynthesis, the opposite of respiration, because in photosynthesis,
oxygen and water are combined together to form carbon dioxide and sugars.
Specific enzymes
 Carbohydreases break down carbohydrates to form polysaccharides
 Proteases break down proteins to form amino acids
 Lipases break down fats/lipids to form fatty acids and glycerol
 Amylase break down starch to form glucose and maltose
Properties of enzyme
1. They are all proteins
2. Each enzyme controls one particular reaction
3. They can be used again.
4. They are affected by temperature
5. They are affected by PH
6. They are held together by weak hydrogen bonds.

How do enzymes work?

Enzymes work by lowering the activation energy (Ea or ΔG‡) for a reaction, thus dramatically
increasing the rate of the reaction.

Denaturation
Enzymes are proteins that are bonded with weak hydrogen bonds. When heat or acidity is applied to
the enzyme, the hydrogen bonds break and the active site no longer fits the particular substrate. The
enzyme is said to be denatured.

Sample questions

1. An enzyme has an ‘active site’ on its surface on which the reaction takes place. Use the idea of
an active site to explain:
a. Why an enzyme is specific for a particular substrate. An enzyme is described to be
‘specific’ when it only catalyzes on particular substrate. The hydrogen bonds in the
enzyme create the shape that is specific to the substrate. An enzyme is specific for
that particular substrate because each enzyme’s active site has a certain shape to fit a
particular substrate.

b. Why an enzyme denature at a high temperature. An enzyme ‘denatures’ when its

shape does not fit its substrate because the hydrogen bonds are broken. Hydrogen
bonds are weak bonds and connot stand the movement and energy created by the
heat. Enzymes are denatured at high temperature due to the heat breaking the
hydrogen bonds and the active site no longer is in its original shape to fit the substrate.
 c. Why an enzyme can be used again and again. The enzyme isn’t broken down in the
reaction but it is involved in the reaction.

2. How does amylase enzyme work? Amylase enzymes have an active site designed to break
down the complex molecule of starch into the smaller globules of glucose to be absorbed
into the body

Food and Digestion

Purpose of food
 For energy
 For growth
 For repair

Nutrition: Obtaining organic substances and mineral ions from which organisms obtain their energy
and their raw materials for growth and tissue repair.

Nutritional Requirements
 For plants – need carbon dioxide, carbon diozide, water, sunlight, and chlorophyll to make
their own food. Also known as photosynthesis
 For animals – need seven essential nutrients: carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals, vitamins,
water and roughage.

Balanced Diet
Definition: The intake of correct amounts of food substances

Food Function in body Examples Composition Deficiency

substance Disease/Symptoms
Protein Growth/repair Meat, fish, Amino acids Kwashiorkor: loss of
Making enzymes soyabean hair, swollen abdomen
Fats Store of energy Dairy, nuts, 3 fatty acids Lack of certain fatty
meat, fish acids may cause
various diseases
Vitamin A To make light Cod liver oil Retinyl Poor night vision
sensitive chemical palmitate
Vitamin C To make Citrus fruit Ascorbic acid Scurvy: poor healing of
connective tissue wounds and bleeding
gums
Vitamin D To absorb enough Dairy Cholecalciferol Rickets: weak bones
calcium from the produce/sunlight or ergocalciferol
intestines
Iron To produce Liver, egg yolk N/A Anaemia: lack of red
haemoglobin for blood cells
red blood cells
Calcium Strengthening Bread, dairy N/A Rickets and poorly
bones and teeth produce developed teeth
Fibre To allow correct Wholemeal Arabinoxylans, Constipation,
rate of peristalsis bread, fruit cellulose, appendicitis, bowel
dextrins, inulin, cancer.
lignin, waxes,
chitins, pectins,
beta-glucans,
and
oligosaccharides
Carbohydrate Supply of energy Bread, rice, Glycogen Lack of carbohydrates
potatoes is linked to lack of
food (e.g. starvation)

Plant Nutrition

Photosynthesis – The fundamental process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates from raw
materials using energy from light.

Formula for photosynthesis]

Formula for respiration in plants

Process of photosynthesis
1. Green plants take in CO2 through the stomata in the leaves by diffusion
2. Water is obtained through the root hair by osmosis from the soil and this is transported
through the xylem to leaves.
3. Chloroplasts present in the leaf, trap light energy which is used to break down water molecules
into hydrogen and oxygen ions
4. Hydrogen and CO2 combine to form glucose
5. Glucose usually changes into sucrose for transport and is stored as starch
6. Oxygen is released as a waste product or is used for respiration.
 Respiration
Definition
Respiration: Chemical reactions that break down nutrient molecules in living cells to release energy.

Aerobic Respiration: The release of a relatively large amount of energy in cells by the breakdown of
food substances in the presence of oxygen. It mainly occurs when there is
sufficient oxygen

Anaerobic respiration: The release of a relatively small amount of energy by the breakdown of food
substances in the absence of oxygen.

Equation of aerobic and anaerobic exercise

Aerobic respiration

Anaerobic respiration

Difference between aerobic and aneaerobic respiration

Aerobic Anaerobic
Takes place in the presence of oxygen Oxygen not required
Glucose is broken down into CO2 and H2O CO2 and C2H5OH
38 ATPs are produced 2 ATPs are produced
Takes place in the cytoplasm and mitochondria Only in the cytoplasm

Oxygen Debt
What is it?
When your cells don't receive enough oxygen during exercise they start respiring without it, creating
lactic acid as a result. Debt is simply breathing in the required amount of oxygen needed to get rid of
the lactic acid that built up.
 Gas exchange
The respiratory system

Alveoli and gas exchange

Function of the alveoli

The basic function of the alveoli is gas exchange. The alveoli structure is the site where the gaseous
exchange during respiration takes place. These structures are surrounded by capillaries carrying blood.
The exchange of carbon dioxide in the blood from these capillaries occurs through the walls of
alveolus.

The alveoli begins to function when we breathe in air through our nostrils. The air passes through a
long route consisting of various organs of the respiratory system. These organs include the nasal
passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea, main bronchi, small bronchial tubes, bronchioles and finally
reaching the alveolus through tiny air sacs. The air contains oxygen that is absorbed by the blood
flowing through the capillaries. This oxygen is then passed on to the circulatory system, thus
completing the gaseous exchange cycle.

How gas exchanges take place in the alveoli?

The pulmonary gaseous exchange takes place by passive diffusion. During this gas exchange, no
energy is required to be burned by the cells. The gases move through a concentration gradient that is
high concentration to low concentration. This means that oxygen in the alveolus is in the high oxygen
concentration gradient. It diffuses into the blood that is in the low oxygen concentration gradient.
This is because of the continuous oxygen consumption in the body. The same thing happens in case of
carbon dioxide. Blood contains high carbon dioxide concentration and alveoli contains low carbon
dioxide concentration. Thus, the gaseous exchange takes place through passive diffusion as a part of
respiratory system function.

The circulatory system

Heart Chambers
The internal cavity of the heart is divided into four chambers:
 Right atrium
 Right ventricle
 Left atrium
 Left ventricle
The two atria are thin-walled chambers that receive blood from the
veins. The two ventricles are thick-walled chambers that forcefully
pump blood out of the heart. Differences in thickness of the heart
chamber walls are due to variations in the amount of myocardium
present, which reflects the amount of force each chamber is
required to generate.

The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from systemic veins;

the left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary
veins.

Valves of the Heart

The right atrioventricular valve is the tricuspid valve. The left atrioventricular valve is the bicuspid
valve. The valve between the right ventricle and pulmonary trunk is the pulmonary semilunar valve.
The valve between the left ventricle and the aorta is the aortic semilunar valve.

When the ventricles contract, atrioventricular valves close to prevent blood from flowing back into
the atria. When the ventricles relax, semilunar valves close to prevent blood from flowing back into
the ventricles.
Flow of Blood
It is important to realize that both atria and ventricles contract at the same time. Blood flows from
the right atrium to the right ventricle, and then is pumped to the lungs to receive oxygen. From the
lungs, the blood flows to the left atrium, then to the left ventricle. From there it is pumped to the
systemic circulation.

How does the heart circulate blood around the body?

Coronary circulation
1. Waste-rich blood fills the right atrium

2. It then contracts and pushes the blood into the right ventricle.
3. From the right ventricle, the blood is pumped into the lungs via the pulmonary artery.
Pulmonary circulation
1. Waste-rich blood enters the lung
2. It fills the lung capillaries. It is within these capillaries that the carbon dioxide in the blood is
exchanged for oxygen.
3. The new, oxygen-enriched blood continues its journey through the pulmonary veins in the
lungs and returns to the heart through the left atrium.
4. From the left atrium, the blood is pumped to the left ventricle and then leaves the heart by
way of the aorta.
5. Valves keep the blood flowing in the proper direction, preventing any blood from flowing
backward and causing problems.

Systemic circulation
1. Oxygenated blood is pumped through the aorta
2. Blood is forced through the arteries, which forces the blood through smaller arteries called
arterioles.
3. The arterioles carry the blood and nutrients to the even smaller capillaries, where the blood
makes contact with the cells in the body.
4. Oxygen is delivered and waste cells are picked up to make the journey back to the heart.
5. The waste-rich blood is pumped through the veins.
6. The veins reach the heart, where the waste-filled blood flows into the right atrium

Veins, Arteries, Capillaries

Structure Adaptation
Veins  Wide lumen  takes blood back to the heart so a
 Thin endothelium (single layer of cells) high pressure is not required.
 Has valves  It also allows ease of flow.
 Smooth muscles  reduces friction of the flowing
 Elastic tissue blood
 keeps blood flowing towards the

Arteries  Receive blood under high pressure from the ventricles
of the heart.
 The walls of arteries consist of three layers, namely an
outer layer, a thick middle layer and an inner layer.
 Outer layer consist of white fibrous connective tissue
which merges to the outside with the loose connective
tissue in which artery is found.
 thick middle layer consist of elastic connective tissue
and involuntary muscle tissue.
 this layer is supplied with two sets of nerves, one
stimulating the muscles to relax so that the artery is
allowed to widen, and the other one causing the
circular muscles to contract, making the artery
become narrower.
 The inner layer of endothelium consists of flat
epithelial cells which are packed closely together and
which is continuous with the endocardium of the
heart.
 The flat cells make the inside lining of the arteries
smooth.
Capillaries  Very small
 Thin walls (one-two cells thick)
 Microscopic holes (in kidney/liver capillaries)
heart and prevents backflow.
 can constrict to improve exchange
of gas at the alveoli
 works as the smooth muscles
relaxes to return the vessel to its
orignal size and shape
 Outer layer helps to anchor the
arteries because the heart pumps
the blood through the arteries at a
great pressure.
 Flat cells limit friction between the
blood and the lining to a minimum.
 Must be able to stretch each time
the heart beats, without collapsing
under the increased pressure.
 Allows diffusion to occur
 Microscopic holes allow proteins
and nutrients to be excreted.

Blood

Structure Function
Red blood cell  To carry oxygen/carbon dioxide to cells
(Erythrocytes) o Concave shape allows large surface
area in order for large amounts of
oxygen per cell
 Contains hemoglobin which stick onto
oxygen gas
Lymphocytes  Responsible for immune responses
 Two main: B cells and T cells
o B cells: make antibodies that attack
bacteria and toxins
o T cells: attack body cells themselves
when they have been taken over by
viruses or have become cancerous
 Secrete lymphokines that modulate the
functional activities of many other types of
cells
 Present at sites of chronic inflammation
Neutrophils  First immune cells to arrive at a site of
granulocytes infection
o Arrived through a process called
chemotaxis
 Ingest pathogens
 Protect the body against pathogens
Platelets  Prevent excessive internal/external
bleeding by clotting after an injury
 Maintenance of homeostasis (process
which causes bleeding to stop)

Makeup of Blood
 Nervous System
Definition

Central Nervous System: Often abbreviated as CNS. It comprises of the brain and spinal cord. The CNS
receives sensory information from the nervous system and controls the
body's responses.

Peripheral Nervous System: Often abbreviated as PNS. It is the division of the nervous system
containing all the nerves that lie outside of the CNS

Receptors: A sensory nerve ending that responds to a stimulus in the internal or external
environment of an organism.

Sense organ: A group of receptor cells responding to a specific stimulus, such as light, sound, touch,
temperature, chemicals